SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS NOTES 2022-EDITION

(Cambridge Assessment International Education, CAIE)

TOPIC 14: TEMPERATURE
Key areas for understanding and specific learning objectives.
1. Thermal equilibrium
Candidates should be able to:
understand that (thermal) energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of
lower temperature.
 understand that regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium.
2. Temperature scales
Candidates should be able to:
 understand that a physical property that varies with temperature may be used for the
measurement of temperature and state examples of such properties, including the density of a
liquid, volume of a gas at constant pressure, resistance of a metal, e.m.f. of a thermocouple.
 understand that the scale of thermodynamic temperature does not depend on the property of any
particular substance.
 convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius and recall that T /K = θ/°C + 273.15.
 understand that the lowest possible temperature is zero kelvin on the thermodynamic temperature
scale and that this is known as absolute zero.
3. Specific heat capacity and specific latent heat
Candidates should be able to:
 define and use specific heat capacity
 define and use specific latent heat and distinguish between specific latent heat of fusion and
specific latent heat of vaporization.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Question: Differentiate between heat and temperature
 Heat is a form of energy which is transferred from one body at a higher temperature to another at a
lower temperature. It is the movement of thermal energy caused by a temperature difference.
 Temperature is the measures of the degree of hotness of an object, not the amount of thermal energy
in it.
 The kinetic theory regards temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy (k.e.) of the
molecules of the body. This means that the greater the average kinetic energy of molecules, the
faster the molecules move and the higher the temperature of the body.
 If one body (A) at a higher temperature is in thermal contact with another body (B) at a lower
temperature, then heat energy will flow from A to B.
Illustration.
 If heat𝑇1 > 𝑇2 heat (thermal) energy flows from A to B
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 The extra energy that B gains can either increase the average energy of the molecules of B or cause
B to do physical work for example If B is a gas, the extra energy can cause the gas to expand (doing
external work) or the internal energy of the gas to increase or both.

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Question: What is thermal equilibrium?
 Thermal equilibrium is defined as a state where two bodies in thermal contact at the same
temperature no longer exchange heat (no net heat flow occurs).
Explanation:
If A and B are at the same temperature, they will no longer exchange heat (no net heat flow occurs). The
two bodies are then said to be in thermal equilibrium.
Illustration
 When 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 no net heat energy flows from A to B.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE
 Measurement of temperature is done using a thermometer thus a thermometer is an instrument for
measuring temperature.
 The physical property on which a particular thermometer is based is called the thermometric
property.
 The working material of the thermometer, the property of which varies with temperature, is called
the thermometric substance for example in a mercury-in-glass thermometer, the thermometric
substance is mercury and the thermometric property is the length of the mercury thread in the
capillary tube of the thermometer.
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THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY
Question: What is a thermometric property?
 It is a physical property that changes in a known way with temperature and can therefore be used to
measure temperature e.g. electrical resistance of a platinum wire.
A wide range of thermometric properties can be used to measure temperature. They include;
1. Expansion of a liquid/ increase in length of a liquid in a capillary tube (e.g. mercury and alcohol).
2. Change in electrical resistance of a metal wire (e.g. platinum).
3. Change in electrical resistance of a thermistor.
4. Change in the output p.d or e.m.f of a thermocouple.
5. Change in pressure of a fixed volume of gas. (a constant volume gas thermometer)

Characteristics of a good thermometric substances/property

1. The property should remain constant, if temperature is constant.
2. The property should change uniformly with change in temperature.
3. The property should change uniformly for every 1ºC change in temperature.
4. The property should acquire thermal equilibrium as quickly as possible, when temperature
measurements are needed.
5. The property should cover a wide range of temperatures (should not freeze or boil at normal
temperatures).
6. The property should be able to register the rapid changing temperature.
7. The property should have a large change even if the change in temperature is small.
8. The property should be such that the temperature can be taken easily without waiting for a long time.
LIQUID IN-GLASS-THERMOMETER
 Liquids such as mercury and alcohol expand as their temperatures rises. The volume of the liquid is
small, allowing the thermometer to respond quickly to changes in temperature and is contained in a
thin walled glass bulb to aid the conduction of heat energy.
Diagram of a liquid in-glass-thermometer

 Mercury freezes at −39ºC and boils at 357ºC. Alcohol freezes at −115ºC and boils at 78ºC and is
therefore more suitable for low temperatures
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Clinical thermometer
 A clinical thermometer is a special type of mercury in-glass thermometer used by doctors and nurses
for measuring body temperatures of patients in hospitals. Its scale only extends over a few degrees on
either side of the normal body temperature of 37ºC i.e. it has a small range.
Structure of a clinical thermometer

Why a Clinical thermometer is mostly preferred for measuring body temperature

 Because it has a very narrow capillary tube, which allows for accurate measurement of temperature,
in other words, the thermometer has a high sensitivity.
 The tube has a constriction (a narrower part) just beyond the bulb which prevents the back flow of
mercury allowing the doctor to read accurate temperature even after removing the thermometer from
the patient.
How to increase the sensitivity of the liquid in glass thermometer.
 Using a smaller mercury bulb: A smaller bulb contains less mercury and hence absorbs heat in
shorter time. As a result it can response faster to temperature change
 By making the capillary tube finer (thinner wall) and a smaller bore.
Advantages of liquid in glass thermometer
 Liquid in glass thermometers are relatively cheap and portable
 They are handy and convenient to use
 Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or batteries for charging
Disadvantages of a liquid in glass thermometer
 They cannot be used to read temperatures remotely or electronically.
 They have restricted/ limited temperature range, limited by freezing and boiling points of the liquid
 They are fragile (easily broken).
 Mercury used in these thermometers is a poisonous substance.
 It cannot be used for surface temperature measurements.
Construction and Calibration of a liquid in glass thermometer.

 In the construction of a thermometer, a thermometric property/ substance is first chosen and then, a
temperature scale is defined by means of two fixed points; (lower and upper) fixed point. When the
fixed points have been marked on the thermometer, the distance between them is divided into 100
equal degrees.
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 In this case, the thermometer now has a linear scale so we say it has been calibrated or graduated or
marked.
 Note that the scale and unit of temperature are obtained by choosing two temperatures, called the fixed
points i.e. (Lower fixed point and Upper fixed point) and dividing the range between them into a
number of equal divisions or degrees.

THE FIXED POINTS

 A fixed point is defined as a reproducible invariant temperature; the boiling point, freezing point, or
triple point of a substance, such as water, that is used to calibrate a thermometer or define a temperature
scale. There are two fixed points namely;
a. The Lower fixed point (L.F.P) –Melting point of pure ice
b. The upper fixed point (U.F.P) –Boiling point of pure water (triple point of water)
 Fundamental interval (F.I): This is the difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed
point.
Determining the lower and upper fixed points
 The lower fixed point is determined by dipping the thermometer is pure melting ice (ice point- 0oC)
 The upper fixed point is determined by placing the thermometer in boiling water connected to a U-
tube manometer. (steam point -100oC)
 After determining the lower fixed point and the upper fixed point, the thermometer is then marked
into 100 equal divisions and is now ready for use (It is now said to be calibrated).

Illustration
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THE PLATINUM (METAL) -RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
 The metal resistance thermometers (sometimes called RTDs –resistance temperature detectors)
consists of a length of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic (or glass) strip or rod
Diagram of a metal (platinum) resistance thermometer

The wire is usually platinum, nickel or copper. Platinum is particularly good as the relationship between
resistance and temperature is extremely linear.
Advantages of a PRT
 It has a wide range of operating temperatures (typically -200oC to 1200oC).
 They are very accurate
Disadvantages of a PRT.
 They are less sensitive than liquid in glass thermometer.
 They are unsuitable for rapidly changing temperatures because of the relatively high specific heat
capacity of the wire.
THERMISTORS
 Theristors are semiconductors consisting of a mixture of metals and metal oxides.
Different types of thermisters and the circuit Symbol of a thermistor
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 The electrical resistance of most thermistors decreases as the temperature increases (NTC-Negative
temperature coefficient thermistor) though the resistance of some thremistors increases with
increasing temperatures (PTC-Positive temperature coefficien thermistor).
 In both cases the relationship between temperature and resistance is non-linear so a calibration curve
is also needed.

THERMOCOUPLES
 A thermocouple consists of wires of two different material wires, such as copper and iron, or platinum
and constantan (an alloy of copper and nickel) joined together to form two junctions.
Diagram of a thermocouple

 When one junction is at a higher temperature than the other, an electric current flows and produces a
reading on a sensitive meter which depends on the temperature difference.
 The larger the difference in temperature, the greater the e.m.f, but the relationship is not linear and so
the calibration curve for e.m.f against T is needed.
Calibration curve for a thermocouple

 The relationship between the physical property measured and temperature is not always
proportional, so a calibration curve must be obtained before the thermometer can be used to measure
temperature.
Advantages of using a thermocouple
1. It can measure a wide range of temperatures (Temperatures up to 2000oC can be measured).
2. They can be made quite small so that the temperature at precise locations can be found.
3. Enables remote reading of temperatures when long wires are used.
4. Comparatively cheaper in cost
5. High speed of response. The thermocouple junctions require little energy to warm up so they respond
quickly to changes in temperature.
6. Calibration can easily be checked.
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Uses of a thermocouple
 Thermocouples are used in industry to measure a wide range of temperatures from −250ºC up to
about 2000ºC, especially rapidly changing temperatures and those of small objects.
 As the output from a thermocouple is electrical, it can be recorded and used as part of a control system
to monitor temperature and give warnings if a temperature becomes too high or too low.
THE CONSTANT-VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER
 If the volume of a fixed mass of gas is kept constant when heated, the change in pressure is
proportional to the change in temperature.
 The constant-volume gas thermometer can measure a very wide range of temperatures, but are bulky
and slow to respond.
Diagram of a constant-volume gas thermometer

How it operates
 As the gas is heated by the surrounding liquid, the increased pressure pushes the mercury column
down on one side of the tube and up the other.
 The difference in the height h is proportional to the change in temperature.
 They are mainly used as a standard to help calibrate other more practical thermometers
Graph of P against temperature (θ) for constant-volume gas thermometer
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 The extrapolated temperature will be found to be close to –273 degrees on the empirical centigrade
constant-volume gas thermometer scale.
 If the experiment is repeated with lower and lower pressures of gas in the thermometer, the
extrapolated temperature tends to a value of –273.15 degrees.
 This temperature is the lowest theoretically possible temperature and is known as absolute zero. It
does not depend on the properties of any particular substance.
 At absolute zero, molecules would have zero kinetic energy.
COMPARING DIFFERENT TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
Advantages and disadvantages of thermometers

EMPIRICAL SCALE OF TEMPERATURE

 By taking the value of the thermometric property at two fixed points, and dividing the range of
values into a number of equal steps (or degrees), we can set up what is called an empirical scale of
temperature for that thermometer
 (‘Empirical’ means ‘derived by experiment’.) If the fixed points are the melting point of ice (the ice
point) and the temperature of steam above water boiling at normal atmospheric pressure (the steam
point), and if we choose to have one hundred equal degrees between the temperatures corresponding
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to these fixed points, taken as 0 degrees and 100 degrees respectively, we arrive at the empirical
centigrade scale of temperature for that thermometer.
 If the values of the thermometric property 𝑃 are 𝑃𝑖 and 𝑃𝑠 at the ice- and steam-points respectively,
and if the property has the value 𝑃𝜃 at an unknown temperature θ, the unknown temperature is given
by the equation;

Graphical representation of this equation (empirical centigrade scale)

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TEMPERATURE SCALES
Question: What is meant by the term a temperature scale?
 A temperature scale is a range of values from which temperature can be measured.
 It should be noted that the scale of thermodynamic temperature does not depend on the property of
any particular substance.
There are four temperature scales.
1. The Celsius scale: It was named after the Swedish scientist Celsius who suggested it. The unit for
temperature on the Celsius scale is a degrees Celsius denoted by the symbol (0C)
 Note: On the Celsius scale the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice and is taken
as 0ºC. The upper fixed point is the temperature of the steam above water boiling at normal
atmospheric pressure, 105Pa (or N/m2), and is taken as 100ºC.
2. The kelvins scale: This scale uses kelvin (K) as the unit of measuring temperature. The scale uses
the absolute zero (-273°C) as its reference point. Thus, 0 K on Kelvin scale is equivalent to –273ºC
on the Celsius scale. It is worth noting that a temperature change of 1 K is equal in size to a change
of 1ºC.
3. Fahrenheit Scale: This scale uses degree Fahrenheit (°F) as the unit of measuring temperature. Two
values in this scale are fixed such that the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as
32°F and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212°F. The two have a 180°F separation (under
standard atmospheric process)
4. Reaumur Scale: This scale uses the degree Rankine (0°Re). In this scale, lower fixed point is the
freezing of water (0°Re) and upper fixed point in the boiling of water 80°Re.

Lower and upper fixed points of different temperature scales

 The absolute (thermodynamic scale of temperature does not depend on the physical properties but
instead the scale relies on the two fixed points
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Absolute zero
Question: What is meant by the term absolute zero?
 Absolute zero is defined as the lowest possible temperature (taken as zero kelvin/0K) on the
thermodynamic temperature scale that can be achieved.
 It is the temperature at which a substance has minimum internal energy (the atoms or molecules of
the substance have no random kinetic energy but may still have some potential energy).
Triple point of water
 This is the temperature and pressure at which the three states of water (solid water /ice, liquid water
and water vapour) sexists in equilibrium. The triple point occurs at 0.01oC and 611.2Pa.
 The size of the unit of temperature on the thermodynamic scale of temperature is chosen to be the
same as the size of the degree on the Celsius scale – a 1oC change in temperature is the same as a
change of 1 kelvin (1K)
Conversion of temperature
The unit of temperature on the Celsius scale is the degree Celsius (°C), which is exactly equal to the
kelvin
The equation linking temperature θ on the Celsius scale and thermodynamic temperature T is

𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 = 𝑇/𝐾 − 273.15

𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 + 273.15
In this equation, θ is measured in °C and T in K. Note that the degree sign ° always appears with the
Celsius symbol, but it is never used with the kelvin symbol K.
Worked example
1. The temperature of the liquid is measured as 35°C. What is the temperature, to 3 significant figures,
on the thermodynamic (kelvin) scale of temperature?
Answer
 We use the equation 𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 + 273.15
 But to 3 significant figures, this equation becomes
𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 + 273
𝑇/𝐾 = (35 + 273)𝐾 = 308𝐾
PROGRESS CHECK & PRACTICE QUESTION
1. A block of metal is heated so that its temperature rises from 27°C to 150°C. Determine, to 3
significant figures on the thermodynamic (kelvin) scale of temperature:
a) the temperature of 150°C
b) the temperature rise of the block
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SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
Heating and cooling
Sun bathers on hot sandy beaches dive into the sea to cool off. Sand heats up much more rapidly during
day than water does, even when the sand is almost too hot to walk barefoot across, the sea water is
refreshingly cool.
When a solid, a liquid or a gas is heated, its temperature rises. Plotting a graph of thermal energy
supplied against temperature rise, it is seen that the temperature rise Δθ is proportional to the thermal
energy ΔQ supplied, for a particular mass of a particular substance.
ΔQ ∝ Δθ…………..eqn (i)
Illustration

Similarly, the thermal energy required to produce a particular temperature rise is proportional to the
mass m of the substance being heated
ΔQ ∝ m…………..eqn (i)
Illustration

 Combining these two relations gives

ΔQ ∝ mΔθ
 It follows that

∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 Or ∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Where c is the constant of proportionality known as the specific heat capacity of the substance. In this
case, specific means per unit mass.
From the equation ΔQ = mcΔθ, it therefore follows that, the temperature rise of an object when it is
heated depends on
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 the mass of the object.
 the amount of energy supplied to it.
 the substance or substances from which the object is made.
 To rise the temperature of mass m of a substance from 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 , the thermal energy needed is given
by
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 → Note that ∆𝑇 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Worked Example
1. Calculate the heat that must be supplied to raise the temperature of 5.0kg of water from 20oC to
100oC.
Answer
{𝑚 = 5.0kg , 𝑐 = 4200Jkg −1 K −1 , 𝑇2 = 100℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 = 20℃ , 𝑄 =? J}
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄 = 5.0 𝑥 4200 𝑥 (100 − 20)J

𝑄 = 1.7 𝑥 106 J
2. Calculate the quantity of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a mass of 590g of
copper from 25°C to 90°C. The specific heat capacity of copper is 390Jkg–1K–1.
Answer
{𝑚 = 590g = 0.59kg , 𝑐 = 390Jkg −1 K −1 , 𝑇2 = 90℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 = 25℃ , 𝑄 =? J}
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄 = 0.59 𝑥 390 𝑥 (90 − 25)J = 1.49 𝑥 104 J

𝑄 = 1.5 𝑥 104 J
HEAT /THERMAL CAPACITY (C)
 The heat (thermal) capacity C of an object / substance is defined as the heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance or an object by 1K.
 It is the product of the mass of a substance and its specific heat capacity.
 For an object of mass m made of a single substance of specific heat capacity c. its thermal capacity C
is given by

𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐
 For example the thermal capacity of 5.0kg of water is 21000JK-1. i.e
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐 = (5.0kg 𝑥 4200Jkg −1 K −1 ) = 2100JK −1
 The SI unit of heat capacity/ thermal capacity is a joule per kelvin (JK-1)
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SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (C)
Question: Define specific heat capacity [2]
Answer
 The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity of thermal energy needed to raise
the temperature of a unit mass (1kg) of a substance by one kelvin (1K) without change of state.
 The SI unit for specific heat capacity is a joule per kilogram per kelvin. (Jkg-1K-1).

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