Heat and Mass Transfer

Laboratory

Hafiz Muhammad Abdullah Bhatti

2020-ME-101
Department of Mechanical Engineering
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 6 2020-ME-101

Coefficient of Convective Heat Transfer for a Pinned Plate in Free and

Forced Convection
1. Objective
i. To study the convective heat transfer mode of heat.
ii. To determine the coefficient of convective heat transfer for a pinned plate in free and forced
convection.
iii. To compare the results of free and forced convection and plot temperature variation with
velocity change.

2. Introduction
In convective heat transfer mode of heat, the coefficient of convective heat transfer is an important
parameter. It characterizes the rate at which heat is being exchanged between a surface and its
surrounding fluids. The general equation of a convective heat transfer is given below.
q = hc A(Tw − T )
The above equation is known as Newton’s Law of Cooling. In this equation, q denotes the heat transfer
rate due to convection, hc denotes the coefficient of convective heat transfer and is the property of the
material, A denotes the effective area where heat transfer is happening, Tw and T∞ denotes the
temperature of the wall/surface and ambient/environment temperature, respectively.
In free convection, the heat transfer occurs due to the natural flow of the fluid mainly caused by the
temperature difference. In forced convection, the heat transfer occurs due to the external forced flow
of fluid, by means of a fan or pump. The convective heat transfer heat coefficient is high in forced
convection due to the increased fluid velocity. The coefficient of convective heat transfer depends on
various factors such as plate orientation, surface roughness, fluid properties, etc. Fig. 1 shows velocity
variation and temperature variation of the fluid moving above the hot surface, thus depicting the
convective heat transfer.

Figure 1: Velocity and Temperature Distribution in Convective Heat Transfer

From the figure, it is clear that as the air moves away from the plate surface, its velocity increases, but
its temperature decreases. In other words, convective heat transfer decreases as it is moved away from
the surface.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 6 2020-ME-101
A pinned surface is the one in which various pins are present on the surface of the plate. It is one of
the types of the plates which is used to calculate heat transfer rate. It is an important component in the
industries. A typical pinned plate is shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Different Types of Pinned Plates

3. Methodology
The experiment involves two parts. In the first part, the coefficient of convective heat transfer is to be
calculated for free convection. The second part involves the calculation of coefficient of convective
heat transfer for forced convection. The experimental setup involves the apparatus used to calculate
coefficient of convective heat transfer. The apparatus has a long vertical rectangular cylinder inside
which a pinned plate is placed. Temperature sensors are connected with the plate in order to calculate
temperature of the plate. A fan is also present to study forced convection of the plate. The experiment
starts with the turning on the apparatus and the value is set for heating. The temperature is measured
for free or natural convection and is noted down after waiting for some time so that the system becomes
steady. For the second part, the fan is turned on. The velocity of the air is measured from the meter.
The temperature of the plate is calculated again. Further, the speed of the fan is varied to change the
air speed. The temperature is again noted down. Calculations are done using analytical techniques. Fig.
3 shows the experimental setup used in the experiment.

Figure 3: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 6 2020-ME-101

4. Results
The following values are constant throughout the experiment,
A = 0.011m2
T = 27C
For first set of readings, the calculations are given below:
Tw = 30C
dT = Tw − T = 3C
The formula for convective heat transfer is,
q = hc A(Tw − T )
Rearranging for hc,
q
hc =
A( dT )
5
hc =
( 0.011 )( 3 )
hc = 151.5122Wm −2 K −1
Table 1: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 5 Watt
Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat
Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 30 3 151.5122
0.5 29 2 227.2727
0.011 27
1.0 28 1 454.5455
1.3 28 1 454.5455
Table 2: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 10 Watt
Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat
Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 31 4 227.2727
0.5 30 3 303.0303
0.011 27
1.0 29 2 454.5455
1.3 28 1 909.0909
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 6 2020-ME-101
Table 3: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 15 Watt
Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat
Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 32 5 272.7273
0.5 30 3 454.5455
0.011 27
1.0 29 2 681.8182
1.3 28 1 1363.636
Table 4: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 20 Watt
Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat
Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 35 8 227.2727
0.5 33 6 303.0303
0.011 27
1.0 31 4 454.5455
1.3 29 2 909.0909
From the above data, it is clear that as the velocity is increasing, convective heat transfer coefficient is
also increasing since the temperature difference is decreasing.

5. Discussion

Figure 4: Air Velocity vs Coefficient of Convection for Q̇ = 5, 10, 15, 20 Watt

H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 6 2020-ME-101
The above figure, Fig. 4 shows the trend of change in coefficient of convection according to change in
the velocity of the air. In all the graphs, the trend is almost same i.e., increasing, which is also verifying
Newton’s Law of Cooling. There is a fluctuation in the values of the data. The reason is that the
experiment is performed only for few values. So, the error is prominent. If the data is sufficiently large,
then the statistical analysis like linear regression can be done in order to find the best fitting line. Also,
the results could be similar for different Q̇ since changing the load will change the net temperature
difference, but the ratio will remain same. So, there will be no effect on the coefficient of convection.
The following figure shows comparison of results obtained from the analysis.

Figure 5: Comparison of Coefficient of Convection for Q̇ = 5, 10, 15, 20 Watt

H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 7 2020-ME-101

Coefficient of Convective Heat Transfer for a Finned Plate in Free and

Forced Convection
1. Objective
i. To determine the coefficient of convective heat transfer for a finned plate in free and forced
convection.
ii. To compare the results with convective heat transfer for a pinned/flat plate.
iii. To compare the results of free and forced convection and plot temperature variation with
velocity change.

2. Introduction
In convective heat transfer mode of heat, the coefficient of convective heat transfer is an important
parameter. It characterizes the rate at which heat is being exchanged between a surface and its
surrounding fluids. The general equation of a convective heat transfer is given below.
q = hc A(Tw − T )
The above equation is known as Newton’s Law of Cooling [1]. In this equation, q denotes the heat
transfer rate due to convection, hc denotes the coefficient of convective heat transfer and is the property
of the material, A denotes the effective area where heat transfer is happening, Tw and T∞ denotes the
temperature of the wall/surface and ambient/environment temperature, respectively.
A finned surface is the one in which various fins are present on the surface along the length of the
plate. It is one of the types of the plates which is used to calculate heat transfer rate. It is an important
component in the industries [2]. A typical finned plate is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Schematic of Finned Plate

3. Methodology
The experiment involves two parts. In the first part, the coefficient of convective heat transfer is to be
calculated for free convection. The second part involves the calculation of coefficient of convective
heat transfer for forced convection. The experimental setup involves the apparatus used to calculate
coefficient of convective heat transfer. The apparatus has a long vertical rectangular cylinder inside
which a finned plate is placed. Temperature sensors are connected with the plate in order to calculate
temperature of the plate. A fan is also present to study forced convection of the plate. The experiment
starts with the turning on the apparatus and the value is set for heating. The temperature is measured
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 7 2020-ME-101
for free or natural convection and is noted down after waiting for some time so that the system becomes
steady. For the second part, the fan is turned on. The velocity of the air is measured from the meter.
The temperature of the plate is calculated again. Further, the speed of the fan is varied to change the
air speed. The temperature is again noted down. Calculations are done using analytical techniques. Fig.
2 shows the experimental setup used in the experiment.

Figure 2: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

4. Results
The following values are constant throughout the experiment,
A = 0.011m2
T = 27C
For first set of readings, the calculations are given below:
Tw = 32C
dT = Tw − T = 5C
The formula for convective heat transfer is,
q = hc A(Tw − T )
Rearranging for hc,
q
hc =
A( dT )
5
hc =
( 0.011 )( 5 )
hc = 90.9091Wm −2 K −1
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 7 2020-ME-101
Table 1: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 5 Watt

Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat

Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 32 5 90.9091
0.5 30 3 151.5152
0.011 27
1.0 29 2 227.2727
1.3 29 2 227.2727

Table 2: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 10 Watt

Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat

Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 33 6 151.5152
0.5 31 4 227.2727
0.011 27
1.0 29 2 454.5455
1.3 29 2 454.5455

Table 3: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 15 Watt

Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat

Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 34 7 194.8052
0.5 32 5 272.7273
0.011 27
1.0 31 4 340.9091
1.3 29 2 681.8182

Table 4: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for Q̇ = 20 Watt

Air Area of Ambient Measured Change in Convective Heat

Speed the Plate Temperature Temperature Temperature Transfer
(v) (A) (T∞) (Tw) (dT) Coefficient (h)
ms-1 m2 oC oC oC Wm-2K-1
0.0 36 9 202.0202
0.5 33 6 303.0303
0.011 27
1.0 31 4 454.5455
1.3 30 3 606.0606
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 7 2020-ME-101
From the above data, it is clear that as the velocity is increasing, convective heat transfer coefficient is
also increasing since the temperature difference is decreasing.

5. Discussion

Figure 3: Air Velocity vs Coefficient of Convection for Q̇ = 5, 10, 15 and 20 Watt

The above figure, Fig. 3 shows the trend of change in coefficient of convection according to change in
the velocity of the air. In all the figures, the trend is almost same i.e., increasing, which is also verifying
Newton’s Law of Cooling. There is a fluctuation in the values of the data. The reason is that the
experiment is performed only for few values. So, the error is prominent. If the data is sufficiently large,
then the statistical analysis like linear regression can be done in order to find the best fitting line. Also,
the results could be similar for different Q̇ since changing the load will change the net temperature
difference, but the ratio will remain same. So, there will be no effect on the coefficient of convection.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 7 2020-ME-101

Figure 4: Comparison of Pinned Plate vs Finned Plate for Q̇ = 5, 10, 15 and 20 Watt

The above figure shows comparison of pinned plate vs finned plate. It is clear that the coefficient of
convection is large for pinned plate. The reason is that pinned plate has small surface area and allows
more air to pass through it. On the other hand, flat plate has the lowest convective heat transfer
coefficient. However, all the plates have their own usage in the industries and the selection should be
made carefully. Following figure shows the comparison of results obtained from experiments.

Figure 5: Comparison of Results for Q̇ = 5, 10, 15 and 20 Watt

H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 8 2020-ME-101

Energy Balance and Overall Efficiency of a Concentric Tube Heat

Exchanger (Parallel Flow Conditions)
1. Objective
i. To understand the working principle of concentric tube heat exchanger in parallel flow
conditions.
ii. To analyze the effect of flow rate of hot and cold water on the efficiency of heat exchanger.

2. Introduction
A heat exchanger is an important component in thermal systems. It is used for efficient heat transfer
between two or more fluid streams, without their direct contact. Its main function is to optimize energy
usage in processes requiring heating or cooling. The heat exchange process occurs through a physical
barrier, ensuring that the fluids do not make contact while allowing the transfer of thermal energy. A
typical heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Schematic of Heat Exchanger (Shell and Tube)

During its working, hot and cold fluids flow through the heat exchanger, and heat is transferred from
the hot fluid to the cold fluid. This energy exchange minimizes heat wastage, reduces operational costs,
and contributes to environmental sustainability. Heat exchangers are crucial for optimizing thermal
processes, improving energy efficiency, and enhancing the overall performance of various engineering
systems. They have significance in modern industrial and HVAC applications, where efficient heat
transfer is essential for operational success and resource conservation.
The efficiency of a heat exchanger depends on factors such as design, materials, and the effectiveness
of the thermal interface. The overall efficiency η of a heat exchanger is a measure of its effectiveness
in transferring thermal energy between two fluid streams. The formula is given as:
Qactual
=
Qmax
Here, Qactual is the actual heat transfer achieved by the heat exchanger and Qmax is the maximum
possible heat transfer, often defined by the temperature difference between the two fluids.
Efficiency values range from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating ideal performance where the heat exchanger
achieves the maximum possible heat transfer. Achieving high overall efficiency is crucial for
optimizing energy use and operational effectiveness in various industrial and HVAC applications.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 8 2020-ME-101
A parallel flow heat exchanger enables the simultaneous flow of hot and cold fluids in the same
direction, allowing continuous heat exchange. In this configuration, both the hot and cold fluids enter
one end of the exchanger and travel alongside each other through separate channels. This arrangement
allows for a continuous exchange of heat between the fluids as they move in the same direction. They
are widely used in HVAC and industrial processes to optimize thermal transfer, although careful
consideration is required to balance effectiveness and temperature differentials throughout the
exchanger's operation.

Figure 2: Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

3. Methodology
The experiment involves the turning on the apparatus. Firstly, flow rates of cold and hot fluids are
turned on. The apparatus is turned on for some time before further calculations so that it becomes
steady. Through the flow-meter, the flow rated of hot and cold fluid is measured. In the next step, the
flow rate of one of the fluids is kept constant and the other one is varied by an increment. To do this,
the flow rate of hot fluid is kept constant at 1.5 Lmin-1 while for cold one, the flow rate is varied from
1 Lmin-1 to 2 Lmin-1 by an increment of 0.5. The temperature of the fluid is measured at different
points using the thermometer mounted on the apparatus. The data is tabulated and further calculations
are done using the formulae available from literature. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 3 below.

Figure 3: Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Apparatus

H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 8 2020-ME-101

4. Results
The data obtained from the experiment is tabulated below.
Table 1: Data for Flow Rates, Inlet and Outlet Temperatures Measured from Experiment

Fluid Flow
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid
Rate Intermediate Temp. Intermediate Temp.
Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. (T5) (T6)
Hot Cold
(T1) (T2) (T3) (T4)
Lmin-1 Lmin-1 o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C
1.0 56 48 26 38 50 33
1.5 1.5 53 45 25 35 48 30
2.0 56 48 25 34 50 30

The calculations for Qactual and Qmax are given below:

At flow rate of 1.5 Lmin-1 for hot water,
T1 + T2
Tavg = = 44C
2
At this temperature, the other parameters are,
 = 992.2kgm −3
C p = 4.18kJkg −1 K −1

Qmax =  C p ( T1 − T2 )

Qmax = 0.991kW
At flow rate of 1.0 Lmin-1 for cold water,
T1 + T2
Tavg = = 44C
2
At this temperature, the other parameters are,
 = 994.7kgm −3
C p = 4.18kJkg −1 K −1

Qactual =  C p ( T1 − T2 )

Qactual = 0.998kW
Table 2: Data for Actual Heat Transfer, Maximum Heat Transfer and Overall Efficiency

Fluid Flow Rate Heat Transfer

Hot Cold Actual (Qactual) Maximum (Qmax) Efficiency (η)
Lmin-1 Lmin-1 kW kW
1.0 0.998 0.991 1.01
1.5 1.5 1.249 0.993 1.26
2.0 1.236 0.991 1.25
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 8 2020-ME-101

5. Discussion
The data clearly shows that there is an error in the values, since the efficiency cannot be greater than
1 or 100%. Table. 2 shows that for increasing flow rate of cold fluid, the efficiency of the heat
exchanger is decreasing. This is due to the fact that for increased flow rate, there is not enough time to
exchange heat within the tubes. So, most of the heat could not exchange. Although increasing the flow
rate results in more heat transfer but the ratio of these results in less efficiency. However, the
calculations are done for both actual and maximum heat transfer takin place inside the heat exchanger.

Figure 4: Comparison of Actual vs Maximum Heat Transfer

The above figure shows that increasing the flow rate as almost ne effect in maximum heat transfer. But
the actual heat transfer has changed significantly. As stated earlier, the values obtained from the
experiment are not accurate, so is the graph. At first, the actual heat transfer shoots to 1.25 kW then
drops to 1.24 kW, which is negligible.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 9 2020-ME-101

Working Principle of Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger (Counter Flow

Conditions) and Evaluation of Performance Characteristics
1. Objective
i. To understand the working principle of concentric tube heat exchanger in counter flow
conditions.
ii. To analyze the effect of flow rate of hot and cold water on the efficiency of heat exchanger.

2. Introduction
A heat exchanger is an important component in thermal systems. It is used for efficient heat transfer
between two or more fluid streams, without their direct contact. Its main function is to optimize energy
usage in processes requiring heating or cooling. The heat exchange process occurs through a physical
barrier, ensuring that the fluids do not make contact while allowing the transfer of thermal energy. A
typical heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Schematic of Heat Exchanger (Shell and Tube)

During its working, hot and cold fluids flow through the heat exchanger, and heat is transferred from
the hot fluid to the cold fluid. This energy exchange minimizes heat wastage, reduces operational costs,
and contributes to environmental sustainability. Heat exchangers are crucial for optimizing thermal
processes, improving energy efficiency, and enhancing the overall performance of various engineering
systems. They have significance in modern industrial and HVAC applications, where efficient heat
transfer is essential for operational success and resource conservation.
The efficiency of a heat exchanger depends on factors such as design, materials, and the effectiveness
of the thermal interface. The overall efficiency η of a heat exchanger is a measure of its effectiveness
in transferring thermal energy between two fluid streams. The formula is given as:
Qactual
=
Qmax
Here, Qactual is the actual heat transfer achieved by the heat exchanger and Qmax is the maximum
possible heat transfer, often defined by the temperature difference between the two fluids.
Efficiency values range from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating ideal performance where the heat exchanger
achieves the maximum possible heat transfer. Achieving high overall efficiency is crucial for
optimizing energy use and operational effectiveness in various industrial and HVAC applications.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 9 2020-ME-101
A counter flow heat exchanger enables the simultaneous flow of hot and cold fluids in opposite
direction, allowing continuous heat exchange. In this configuration, the hot fluid enters one end and
the cold fluid enter from another end of the exchanger. This arrangement allows for a continuous
exchange of heat between the fluids as they move in opposite direction. They are widely used in HVAC
and industrial processes to optimize thermal transfer, although careful consideration is required to
balance effectiveness and temperature differentials throughout the exchanger's operation.

Figure 2: Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

3. Methodology
The experiment involves the turning on the apparatus. Firstly, flow rates of cold and hot fluids are
turned on. The apparatus is turned on for some time before further calculations so that it becomes
steady. Through the flow-meter, the flow rated of hot and cold fluid is measured. In the next step, the
flow rate of one of the fluids is kept constant and the other one is varied by an increment. To do this,
the flow rate of hot fluid is kept constant at 1.5 Lmin-1 while for cold one, the flow rate is varied from
1 Lmin-1 to 2.5 Lmin-1 by an increment of 0.5. The temperature of the fluid is measured at different
points using the thermometer mounted on the apparatus. The data is tabulated and further calculations
are done using the formulae available from literature. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 3 below.

Figure 3: Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Apparatus

H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 9 2020-ME-101

4. Results
The data obtained from the experiment is tabulated below.
Table 1: Data for Flow Rates, Inlet and Outlet Temperatures Measured from Experiment

Fluid Flow
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid
Rate Intermediate Temp. Intermediate Temp.
Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. Inlet Temp. Outlet Temp. (T5) (T6)
Hot Cold
(T1) (T2) (T3) (T4)
Lmin-1 Lmin-1 o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C o
C
1.0 40 36 24 28 37 25
1.5 45 39 24 29 40 25
1.5
2.0 47 40 26 30 41 27
2.5 49 40 27 31 43 28

The calculations for Qactual and Qmax are given below:

At flow rate of 1.5 Lmin-1 for hot water,
T1 + T2
Tavg = = 38C
2
At this temperature, the other parameters are,
 = 992.9kgm −3
C p = 4.18kJkg −1 K −1

Qmax =  C p ( T1 − T2 )

Qmax = 0.498kW
At flow rate of 1.0 Lmin-1 for cold water,
T1 + T2
Tavg = = 26C
2
At this temperature, the other parameters are,
 = 997.0kgm −3
C p = 4.18kJkg −1 K −1

Qactual =  C p ( T1 − T2 )

Qactual = 0.334kW
Table 2: Data for Actual Heat Transfer, Maximum Heat Transfer and Overall Efficiency

Fluid Flow Rate Heat Transfer

Hot Cold Actual (Qactual) Maximum (Qmax) Efficiency (η)
-1 -1
Lmin Lmin kW kW
1.0 0.334 0.498 0.671
1.5 0.521 0.746 0.699
1.5
2.0 0.550 0.871 0.632
2.5 0.700 1.119 0.626
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 9 2020-ME-101

5. Discussion
Table. 2 shows that for increasing flow rate of cold fluid, the efficiency of the heat exchanger is
decreasing. This is due to the fact that for increased flow rate, there is not enough time to exchange
heat within the tubes. So, most of the heat could not exchange. Although increasing the flow rate results
in more heat transfer but the ratio of these results in less efficiency.

Figure 4: Comparison of Actual vs Maximum Heat Transfer

The above graph shows that as the fluid flow is increasing, the heat transfer is also increasing.
However, heat transfer for actual setup is less than that of calculated for ideal or maximum case. If the
experiment is performed for more values of flow rate, then more accurate results can be obtained and
the trend of flow rate and heat transfer can be studied precisely.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 10 2020-ME-101

Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate, and Film Boiling

1. Objective
i. To understand the difference between convective, nucleate and film boiling.
ii. To visually observe the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling.

2. Introduction
In heat transfer systems, the visual demonstration of convective, nucleate, and film boiling serves as a
fundamental phenomenon associated with phase changes. These boiling points represent different
stages of heat transfer processes that occur when a liquid transforms into a vapor as it absorbs thermal
energy. These boiling points are shown in the following graph.

Figure 1: Different Phases of Boiling Points

Convective boiling is characterized by the formation of vapor bubbles at the heated surface, followed
by their detachment and ascent within the liquid. The heat transfer mechanism in convective boiling is
primarily associated with the bulk movement of the liquid, where cooler liquid replaces the departing
vapor bubbles at the heated surface.

Figure 2: Convective Boiling

Nucleate boiling, on the other hand, involves the formation of discrete vapor bubbles at nucleation
sites on the heated surface. These nucleation sites typically arise from imperfections or irregularities
on the solid surface. As the surface temperature surpasses the liquid's saturation temperature, localized
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 10 2020-ME-101
boiling initiates. The detachment of these vapor bubbles, once they reach a critical size, contributes to
effective heat transfer.

Figure 3: Nucleate Boiling

Film boiling, the third phase, is characterized by a vapor film forming at the solid-liquid interface. This
film inhibits direct contact between the liquid and the solid surface. Vaporization occurs at the liquid-
vapor interface, and the vapor film persists until the liquid is depleted. The visual representation of
film boiling elucidates the significance of the Leidenfrost effect, where the vapor film insulates the
solid surface, reducing heat transfer efficiency compared to nucleate boiling.

Figure 4: Film Boiling

3. Methodology
The experiment involves the turning on the apparatus. Firstly, the main supply is turned on and a low
value of power is selected using the knob. After waiting for few minutes, the value of power is slightly
increased. The value is increased till boiling phases are observable. The demonstration of the physical
response of the fluid is noted. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 5 below.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 10 2020-ME-101

Figure 5: Boiling Apparatus

4. Results
Different phases of the boiling are observed from the apparatus. They are distinguished on the basis of
their distinct properties.

5. Discussion
Different locations of boiling curve can be distinguished on the basis of their physical response.
Initially, when no bubbles are formed but convection currents are rising in the liquid, the boiling stage
is convection boiling. In nucleate boiling, bubbles appear around the heating surface as well as move
to the free surface but not completely cover it. In the film boiling phase, a complete layer of vapors is
formed around the heating surface which also results in the decrease of heat flux. Heat flux is maximum
at the end of nucleate boiling region and is minimum in the film boiling region.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 11 2020-ME-101

Heat Flux and Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient up to and beyond the
Critical Condition at Constant Pressure
1. Objective
i. To understand the difference between convective, nucleate and film boiling.
ii. To visually observe the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling.

2. Introduction
In heat transfer systems, the visual demonstration of convective, nucleate, and film boiling serves as a
fundamental phenomenon associated with phase changes. These boiling points represent different
stages of heat transfer processes that occur when a liquid transforms into a vapor as it absorbs thermal
energy. These boiling points are shown in the following graph.

Figure 1: Different Phases of Boiling Points

Convective boiling is characterized by the formation of vapor bubbles at the heated surface, followed
by their detachment and ascent within the liquid. The heat transfer mechanism in convective boiling is
primarily associated with the bulk movement of the liquid, where cooler liquid replaces the departing
vapor bubbles at the heated surface.

Figure 2: Convective Boiling

Nucleate boiling, on the other hand, involves the formation of discrete vapor bubbles at nucleation
sites on the heated surface. These nucleation sites typically arise from imperfections or irregularities
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 11 2020-ME-101
on the solid surface. As the surface temperature surpasses the liquid's saturation temperature, localized
boiling initiates. The detachment of these vapor bubbles, once they reach a critical size, contributes to
effective heat transfer.

Figure 3: Nucleate Boiling

Film boiling, the third phase, is characterized by a vapor film forming at the solid-liquid interface. This
film inhibits direct contact between the liquid and the solid surface. Vaporization occurs at the liquid-
vapor interface, and the vapor film persists until the liquid is depleted. The visual representation of
film boiling elucidates the significance of the Leidenfrost effect, where the vapor film insulates the
solid surface, reducing heat transfer efficiency compared to nucleate boiling.

Figure 4: Film Boiling

3. Methodology
The experiment involves the turning on the apparatus. Firstly, the main supply is turned on and a low
value of power is selected using the knob. After waiting for few minutes, the value of power is slightly
increased. The value is increased till boiling phases are observable. The demonstration of the physical
response of the fluid is noted. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 5 below.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 11 2020-ME-101

Figure 5: Boiling Apparatus

4. Results
Table 1: Collected Data for P = 20 atm

Heat Flow Area Source Liquid

Supplied (Q) Rate (v) (A) Temp. (T1) Temp. (T2)
W Lmin-1 m2 o
C o
C
146 2.0 53 34
205 10.5 55 33
0.0019
266 7.0 56 32
282 7.5 58 34
Table 2: Collected Data for P = 40 atm

Heat Flow Area Source Liquid

Supplied (Q) Rate (v) (A) Temp. (T1) Temp. (T2)
W Lmin-1 m2 o
C o
C
115 1 56 39
155 1 57 38
0.0019
200 4 61.5 40
255 2 61 38
The formula to calculate heat transfer coefficient is,
q
hc =
A( dT )
q Q
= Q − −−  hc =
A dT
For first set of readings, the calculations are given below:
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 11 2020-ME-101

T1 = 53C

T2 = 34C
dT = T1 − T2 = 19C
q 146
= = 76.842kW
A 0.0019
Q
hc =
dT
76842
hc =
19
hc = 4044.321Wm −2 K −1
Table 3: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for P = 20 atm

Convective
Heat Flow Area Excess Heat Flux
Coefficient
Supplied (Q) Rate (v) (A) Temp. (dT) (Q`)
(h)
W Lmin-1 m2 o
C kW Wm-2K-1
146 2.0 19 76.842 4044.321
205 10.5 22 107.895 4904.306
0.0019
266 7.0 24 140.000 5833.333
282 7.5 24 148.421 6184.211
Table 4: Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for P = 40 atm

Convective
Heat Flow Area Excess Heat Flux
Coefficient
Supplied (Q) Rate (v) (A) Temp. (dT) (Q`)
(h)
W Lmin-1 m2 o
C kW Wm-2K-1
115 1 17 60.526 3560.372
155 1 19 81.579 4293.629
0.0019
200 4 21.5 105.263 4895.961
255 2 23 134.210 5835.240
The data shows that as the value of heat flux is increasing, convective heat transfer coefficient is also
increasing.

5. Discussion
From the analysis, it is clear that increase in heat flux results in increase of convective heat transfer
coefficient. As heat flux depends on heat supplied and area, the area is constant throughout the
experiment, only change is in heat supplied. At constant pressure, the increase in heat supplied results
in increase in convective heat transfer coefficient. The comparison is shown below.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 11 2020-ME-101

Figure 6: Comparison of Data for P = 20 atm and P = 40 atm

In case when the pressure of the container doesn’t remain same, liquid temperature does not rise
quickly, hence increase in heat flux is more as compared to excess temperature and it results in an
increase in heat transfer coefficient with the increase in input heat rate.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 12 2020-ME-101

Effect of Distance on Heat Transfer through Radiation

1. Objective
i. To analyze the effect of distance on heat transfer through radiation.
ii. To verify inverse square law for the heat transfer.

2. Introduction
In thermal sciences, the effect of distance on heat transfer through radiation is a crucial aspect that
explains how thermal energy moves between surfaces. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law quantifies the total
radiation heat transfer from a surface. It states that the total heat flux (Q) is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature (T) of the emitting surface. The formula is expressed as:
Q =  T 4
Here ε is the emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and A is the surface area.
The concept is also linked with Inverse Square Law, a fundamental principle in radiation heat transfer.
This law states that the intensity of radiation, or heat flux, is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the radiating and receiving surfaces. In simpler terms, as the distance between two
surfaces increases, the amount of heat transferred reduces, and this reduction follows a squared
relationship.

Figure 1: Demonstration of Inverse Squared Law

In a laboratory setting, the experimental verification of the Inverse Square Law involves changing the
distance between a heat-emitting surface and a heat-receiving surface. By measuring the resulting heat
flux at each distance, it can be validated whether the observed reduction follows the expected squared
relationship. This empirical verification not only confirms the theoretical understanding but also
provides data important for engineering applications.
A crucial factor in radiation heat transfer is the concept of emissivity. Emissivity is a measure of how
efficiently a surface emits and absorbs radiation. A surface with high emissivity (close to 1) is an
efficient emitter and absorber, while a surface with low emissivity (close to 0) is a poor emitter and
absorber. Different materials exhibit different emissivity values, influencing their effectiveness in
radiative heat transfer.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 12 2020-ME-101

3. Methodology
The experiment is quite simple. The apparatus is turned on and is allowed to attain steady state. After
that, the initial step is marked zero and the heat transfer is measured. The step is repeated again for an
increment of 5 cm and the heat transfer is measured. The data is tabulated and the inverse squared law
is verified. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 3 below.

Figure 2: Boiling Apparatus

4. Results
Table 1: Collected Data from Experiment, Set 1 and 2

Heat Flux (Q)

Distance (d)
No. of Obs. Set 1 Set 2
cm W W
1 5 1850 1873
2 10 1387 1406
3 15 1102 1081
4 20 791 862
5 25 680 702
6 30 555 565
The data shows that as the distance is increasing by an increment of 5 cm, the value of heat flux is
decreasing. However, the inverse square law is yet to be verified in the next section.

5. Discussion
From the experiment, it is clear that as the distance is increasing by an increment of 5 cm, the value of
heat flux is decreasing. Also, from the graph below, it is also validating inverse squared law. Although
the graph is not accurate and the reason is that the values are taken after large increment. If the
increment size is kept small, then the graph will be more accurate and precise.
H.M. Abdullah Bhatti HMT Lab Report 12 2020-ME-101

Figure 3: Comparison of Data for Set 1 and 2

Also, both sets of values coinciding with each other. It means the data collected from the experiment
is accurate. However, there is only a small difference but it can be neglected.