What is a relative clause?

A relative clause is a clause that usually modifies a noun or noun phrase. It is introduced by
a relative pronoun such as which, that, who, whom, whose, a relative adverb such as where,
when, why, or a zero relative.
A relative clause is one kind of dependent clause. It has a subject and verb, but can’t stand alone
as a sentence.
Relative clauses are traditionally divided into two types: restrictive and nonrestrictive.
It is sometimes called an “adjective clause” because it functions like an adjective-it gives more
information about a noun. A relative clause always begins with a “relative pronoun” which
substitutes for a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun when sentences are combined.
The relative pronouns are:

Pronoun Stands For Uses

who people substitutes for subject nouns/pronouns (he, she, we, they)

whom people substitutes for object nouns/pronouns (him, her, us, them)

whose people or things substitutes for possessive nouns/pronouns (his, hers, ours,
theirs)

that people or things can be used for either subject or object

can only be used in restrictive relative clauses

which things can be used for either subject or object

can be used in non-restrictive relative clauses

can also be used in restrictive relative clauses

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Relative pronoun as subject:
I like the person. The person was nice to me.
 I like the person who was nice to me.
I hate the dog. The dog bit me.
 I hate the dog that bit me.
I am moving to Louisville, KY. It is home to the Muhammad Ali Museum.
 I am moving to Louisville, KY, which is home to the Muhammad Ali Museum.
Relative pronoun as object:
I like the bike. My father gave me the bike.
 I like the bike that my father gave me.

Restrictive Relative Clauses

Restrictive relative clauses give information that defines the noun—information that’s
necessary for complete identification of the noun. Use “that” or “which” for non-human nouns;
use “that” or “who” for human nouns.
N.B: Do not use commas.
I like the paintings. (Which paintings?) We can’t clearly identify them without the relative
clause.)
So we add the clause:
The paintings hang in the SASB North lobby.
I like the paintings that hang in the SASB North lobby.
OR
I like the paintings which hang in the SASB North lobby. (Again, this is acceptable, but
some people object to using “which” in a restrictive relative clause. “That” is preferred.)
Students who study hard will do well in my class. (Only this group of students will do
well.)
Students whose grades are low can drop one test score. (Only this group can drop a test
score.)
When the noun is the object of the preposition, both the noun and the preposition move together
to the front of the relative clause.
In less formal English, it’s common to move only the pronoun to the front of the clause.
I spent hours talking with a person last night. I hope to hear from her.

I hope I hear from the person with whom I spent hours talking last night. (more
formal)
OR
I hope to hear from the person whom I spent hours talking with last night. (less
formal)

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Non-restrictive relative clauses

This type of relative clause merely provides extra information. The information may be quite
interesting and important to the larger conversation, but it is not essential for precise
identification of the noun. “That” cannot be used as a relative pronoun in a non-restrictive
relative clause. Commas are always used at the beginning and end of this type of relative clause.

A non-restrictive relative clause can modify a single noun, a noun phrase, or an entire
proposition.

My mother is thinking of opening a restaurant. My mother is an excellent cook.

“My mother” is already a clearly defined noun, so the second sentence becomes a non-restrictive
relative clause set off by commas on both sides.
My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant.
I’m planning to grow roses. I find roses quite beautiful.
I’m planning to grow roses, which I find quite beautiful.
(not okay) I’m planning to grow roses, that I find quite beautiful.
I’m driving across the country with three small children.
Driving across the country with three small children is going to be stressful.
I’m driving across the country with three small children, which is going to be stressful.

Reducing relative clauses

Some types of relative clauses can be “reduced”— the relative pronoun and maybe other words
can be removed. You might reduce the clause to make your writing more concise or to add
sentence variety. We’ll use the examples above to demonstrate how to reduce both restrictive
and non-restrictive clauses.
Restrictive relative clauses can be reduced in two ways.
Subject pronouns can be deleted if -ing is added to the verb.
I like the paintings that hang in the SASB North lobby.
I like the paintings hanging in the SASB North lobby.
Object pronouns can be deleted:

I like the bike that my father gave me.

I like the bike my father gave me.
Non-restrictive relative clauses can be reduced in one way.
Subject pronouns with “be” verbs can be deleted in non-restrictive clauses.
 I am moving to Louisville, KY, which is home to the Muhammad Ali Museum.
 I am moving to Louisville, KY, home to the Muhammad Ali Museum.
 My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant.
 My mother, an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant.

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Subject-verb agreement in relative clauses

Remember that the relative pronoun is substituting for a noun, which could be singular or plural
before the substitution. The verb in the relative clause must agree with the original noun.
People are lucky. People win the lottery.
People who win the lottery are lucky. (Plural verb)
A person is lucky. She wins the lottery every year.
A person who wins the lottery every year is lucky. (Singular verb)
Agreement can be tricky in “one of the…” constructions. The key is to find which noun the
relative pronoun is referring to.
 Homelessness is a problem. The problem needs to be addressed.
 Homelessness is a problem that needs to be addressed. (Singular problem)
 Many problems need to be addressed. Homelessness is one of the problems.
 Homelessness is one of the problems that need to be addressed. (Plural
problems)
Reported speech

When we change direct speech to reported speech some changes are takes place.

1. Tense
D.S R.S
 Simple future Past future/ Conditional
 Simple present Past simple
 Present continuous tense Past continuous tense
 Present perfect tense Past perfect tense
 Present perfect continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense
 Past simple Past simple/past perfect tense
 Past continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense
 Past perfect tense Past perfect tense
 Past perfect continuous tense Past perfect continuous tense
 Past future/Conditional Past future/Conditional
2. Change of pronouns
D.S R.S
I _________________ He/she
We________________ They
You________________ We/I/he/she
3. Changes in adverbs of place/time

D.S R.S
Here __________________ there
This__________________ that

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These _________________those
No____________________ then
Today__________________ that day
Yesterday______________ the day before
Last night_______________ the night before
Ago ___________________before
Last week_______________ the week before
Tomorrow _______________the following day
In the case of universal truth, permanent commands / habit there is no tense change.

Example: 1.The teacher said, “Water boils at 100oc.”

The teacher said (that) water boils at 100oc.
2. Firaol sad, “I go to school every day.”
Firaol said (that) he goes to school every day.
Reporting yes/no questions

Use if/whether

 No need of using question marks at the end of the statement instead use full stop.
 Drop the helping verbs like do, does, did which are necessary informed in direct question.
Example: 1. He said to me, “Do you do your class work.”
He said (that) if/whether I did my class work.
2. “Is your mother outside,” he said to her.
He said to her if/whether her mother was outside.
Question words/Wh-questions

 No need of using if/whether in reporting question words.

 Use question words itself.
 When you repot questions, use reporting verbs like: asked, want to know, wonder,
enquire and etc.

Example: 1. The teacher said to the girl, “What are you doing?”
The teacher said to the girl what she was doing.
2. Yanet said, “Where is my pen?” = Yanet said (that) where her pen was.
Reporting Commands/request

 Use to/ not to form

 Use reporting verbs like: tell, ask, order, persuade, instruct, invite and etc.

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Example: 1. Teacher to students, “Come on time.”
The teacher ordered the students to come on time.
2. He said, “Don’t make any noise.”
He told us not to make any noise.
Verb patterns

When one verb is followed by another, the form the second verb may be in the ‘-ing/to’ form.
Some verbs that are followed by a gerund: admit, celebrate, escape, consider, put off, explain,
tolerate, dislike, enjoy, finish, mention, mind, suggest, postpone, keep, resist, and etc.
Examples: 1.We discussed working at the company.
2. She denied committing the crime.
Some verbs that are followed by infinitive with ‘to’: afford, agree, attempt, beg, care, decide,
deserve, except, fail, intend, manage, plan, promise, refuse, swear, wait, want, offer, hope,
appear and etc.

Examples: 1.The results appear to support your theory.

2. Would you care to respond?
Verbs followed either by gerund or infinitive:

Begin, can’t bear, can’t stand, continue, hate, like, prefer, propose, start, intend, love = the
meaning is remain the same.
Example: 1. I prefer eating at night or I prefer to eat at night.
Forget, quit, regret, remember, stop, try = the meaning is different/ not the same.
Example: 1. She stopped to eat her dinner. (First she may stop activity to eat her dinner.)
2. She stopped eating her dinner. (No more eating.)
Some verbs can be followed by an object and the ‘to’ form of the verb: advise, allow,
command, forbid, force, invite, order, persuade, remind, teach, tell.

Examples: 1. All these products have helped farmers to grow more.

2. Peter advised John to call to police.
3. She reminded him to set some revision.
Bare infinitive: infinitive without ‘to’ like: make, let, dare, help
Examples: 1. My dad made me come home early.

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 2. He let me go.
3. I didn’t dare (to) go out after dark.
4. She me find a direction in life.
5. Everyone can help to reduce carbon emissions by using public transport.
Conditionals/ If sentences
A conditional sentence typically consists of if-clause (which presents a condition) and a result
clause.
1. Conditional sentence type 1 (Probable/Likely condition)
It is used to describe what will or will not happen if we think a future event is probable.
Formed as:
If clause ______________ present simple (Subject + V1)
Main clause ____________ simple future (will/shall + V1)
Example: If we participate in class, our teacher will be happy.
(Meaning: our teacher will be happy if we participate. If we won‘t, our teacher may not be
happy.)
2. Conditional type 2 (improbable/unlikely/unreal/imaginary condition)
We use unreal conditionals to talk about things which are very unlikely, unreal or imaginary
things.
It is formed as:
If clause _________ past simple (Subject + V2)
Main clause ________ future past (would/could/might+ V1)
Example: 1.If it rained, the streets would get wet.
2. If I had a lot of money, I would buy my mother a car.
(Meaning: I haven‘t a lot of money and I can‘t buy a car for my mother.)
 The meaning of unreal conditionals is present. The past simple forms don‘t indicate the
past time, but they indicate that the situation is unreal.
Examples: If I were rich, I would help the poor.
(Meaning: I can‘t help the poor now because I‘m not rich.)

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  We use were instead of was in conditional sentence type 2.
Example: If he were a teacher, he would help me with my study.
(Not: If he was a teacher, he would help me with my study.)
Conditional type 3 (Impossible Condition)
It is used to describe about the past events that did not happen and the result is impossible.
It is formed as:
If clause_____________ past perfect (had + V3)
Main clause____________ perfect conditional (would/could/might+ have+ V3)
Example: If I had worked harder, I would have passed the exam.
(Meaning: I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass the exam.)
Answer the questions with “Yes” or “No”.
1. If the weather had been good, our picnic would not have been canceled.
 Was the picnic canceled? Yes
 Was the weather good? No
2. If I had an envelope and a stamp, I would mail this letter right now.
Do I have an envelope and a stamp right now? No
Do I want to mail this letter right now? ______
Am I going to mail this letter right now? ______
3 Ann would have come to class on time this morning if the bus had not been late.
A. Did Ann tries to make it to class on time? ________
B. Did Ann makes it to class on time? _______
C. Was the bus late? ___________
4 If the hotel had been built to withstand an earthquake, it would not have collapsed.
A. Was the hotel built to withstand an earthquake? _________
B. Did the hotel collapsed? ________
Complete the sentences with the verbs in the parentheses.
1. If I have enough apples, I (bake) ________________ an apple pie this afternoon.
2. If I had enough apples, I (bake) ________________ an apple pie this afternoon.

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3. I will fix your bicycle if I (have) _______________ a screwdriver of the proper size.
4. I would fix your bicycle if I (have) _______________ a screwdriver of the proper size.
5. Sally always answers the phone if she (be) _______________ in her office.
6. Sally would answer the phone if she (be) _______________ in her office right now.

Fiction and elements of fiction

Merriam Webster defines it as, “literature in the form of prose, especially novels, that describes
imaginary events and people.”
Fiction is a particular branch of literature that consists of stories, novels, and dramas based on
made up and fabricated stories and characters.
Fiction is a type of book that is written about imaginary characters and events and not based on
real people and facts.
(Cambridge Dictionary)
Based on the above definitions, fiction is a literary form of artistic creative work in which
imaginary story is told about people or events.
Why do people read Fiction?
 Enjoyment: Many people read creative works just to enjoy or entertain. It helps large
numbers of people escape the boredom and stress of their lives.
The function of fiction is to entertain, educate and inspire the readers and the audience.
 To acquire knowledge and understanding: fictions help readers to know more about life.
Purposes of fiction
There are two different types of purposes for writing a fiction.
Fiction for a business: is commercial fiction: written and published primarily to make money,
Fiction for entertainment purpose: is written for literary purpose serious an artistic intention
who hopes to broaden, deepen, and sharpen the reader’s awareness.
THE ELEMENTS OF FICTION

The following are the most common elements

 Setting
 Plot
 Character
 Theme
 Point of View
 Style
 Symbol
1. The Setting
The setting of a story is its overall context- where, when and in what circumstances the action
occurs.
1. Setting as Place- The physical environment where the story takes place.
The description of the environment often points towards its importance.
2. Setting as Time- Includes time in all of its dimensions.

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 To determine the importance, ask, “What was going on at that time?”
3. Setting as Cultural Context: involves the social circumstances of the time and place.
Considers historical events, social and political issues of the time.
2. The Plot
The sequence of incidents or events through which an author constructs a story.

Important elements of Plot:

Conflict- A clash of actions, ideas, desires, or wills
Types of Conflict: Person vs. Person,
Person vs. Environment,
Person vs. Self.
Protagonist: The central character in a conflict
Antagonist: Any force arranged against the protagonist- whether persons, things, conventions
of society, or the protagonists own personality traits.
Suspense- The quality in a story that makes readers asks “What’s going to happen next?”

Plot Endings
Happy Ending: Everything ends well for our protagonist.
More often used in commercial fiction.
Unhappy Ending: Most instances in life do not have pleasant ends.
Force the reader to contemplate the complexities of life.
Indeterminate Ending: No definitive ending is reached.

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3. The Characters
Characters are imaginary people who live in the story.
They represent real human beings and do almost everything we do in the real world.
Types of Characters
1. Flat Characters: usually have one or two predominant traits. The character can be summed
up in just a few lines.
2. Round Characters: complex and many faceted; have the qualities of real people.
3. Static Character: a character that remains essentially the same throughout.
4. Dynamic (Developing Character): A character that under goes a significant change during the
story.
4. The Theme
Is its controlling idea or its central insight of the story: is the overall message of the author.
Not all stories have significant themes.
Focusing on the protagonist, the central conflict and other pieces will help to identify the theme.
5. The Point of View

Point of View is simply who is telling the story and how it is told.
Types of point of view
1. Omniscient POV: The story is told in third person by a narrator who has unlimited
knowledge of events and characters.
2. Third Person Limited POV: The story is told in third person limited knowledge to the
character’s perception
3. First Person POV: The author disappears into one of the characters.
Uses the pronouns “I” and “we”.
4. Second Person POV: Uses the pronoun “you”.
Infrequently used

6. The Style
Style: is the manner in which an author uses words, constructs sentences etc.
Shows how or why the words, sentences, and imaginative comparisons are effective in
terms of what is being created.
7. Diction
The diction includes
A. Vocabulary: choice of words
1. Simple words: Everyday word choice.
2. Complex words
3. Concrete words: things we can touch, see, etc. (Jeans, book...)
4. Abstract words: words that express intangible ideas (freedom, heritage, something)

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B. Syntax: arrangement of words, their ordering, grouping and placement within phrases,
clauses, and sentences.

8. The Symbol
Symbol- Something that means more than what it suggests on the surface. Can be a name,
object, action, etc.
Example: A flag symbolizes country, nation or state
Symbols serve to reinforce and add to the meaning of a story, or even sometimes carry the
meaning of the story.
Poem
A poem is a piece of writing in which the words are chosen for their beauty and sound and are carefully
arranged, often in short lines with rhyme (verse, song, lyric/poetic).
A poem is a piece of writing that uses imaginative words to share ideas, emotions or a story with
the reader. A person who writes a poem is called a poet.
Poets often use sound devices, such as rhyme/verse, rhythm/beat, alliteration/echo,
onomatopoeia or assonance/repetition.
Past perfect tense

1. When we mention two events happened sometime in the past, one before the other.

The earlier action is in the past perfect tense form while the later action is in simple past.

Examples: They were exhausted because they had walked through the complete mall.

The paragraph given below describes Mohave’s experiences at a mall. The actions in this
paragraph relate to two events that had taken place one before the other, but at a time in the past.
Read carefully and note the usage of past perfect tense in the passage.

Last weekend, Fatuma and her friends had been to the newly opened mall. They all had
finished their work before they went. They had never been to this mall before. Each time they
had planned, some other work came up. They had to cancel their plans. They had never
imagined that a get-together and outing of this kind would be so much fun. Fatuma and Rosa
had already selected a beautiful dress to buy. They liked this dress as soon as they had entered
the mall. Amit and Jay had agreed to buy pizzas for all of them. They had ordered for fresh,
cheesy pizzas, even before the others finished their shopping. By the time they left the mall, they
had seen amazing displays in each of the shops. They were exhausted because they had walked
through the complete mall. No body they knew had been to the new mall till that day. They felt
lucky.

2. When there is a mention of an action completed in the past.

Example: Last weekend, Fatuma and her friends had been to the newly opened mall.

They had never been to this mall before.

The past perfect continuous tense

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The past perfect continuous tense is used in a sentence to depict an action that started at some time in
the past and continued until a specific time in the past.

It is also called the past perfect progressive tense since it refers to an action that had been progressing
until a certain point in the past.

Examples:

1. She had been working in that company for twenty years when she was made redundant.

2. I had been studying all day, so I was tired.

3. We had been living in London for two years when our daughter was born.

4. She had been studying English for three years when she took the exam.

5. I had been running, so I was hot and tired.

The past progressive (Continuous) tense
The past progressive tense is used to describe an ongoing activity in the past.

Examples: 1. He was writing an e-mail when the phone rang.

2. When the phone rang, he was writing an e-mail.

3. While he was writing an e-mail, the phone rang.

Activity1: Choose the correct answer from the alternatives

1. Listen to this great piece of music. You __________ it.

A. enjoy B. are enjoying C. will enjoy D. are going to enjoy

2. She has secured her visa and everything necessary for her travel. The agency say she _______
move to Canada. A. may B. will C. might D. is going to

3. Did you know that Mary and Yerosan ____________ married next week?

A. are going to get B. will be getting C. will get D. get

4. I just heard on the TV that the company is selling goods at a big discount. I ________ go and
check if there is anything I might need. A. will B. would C. may D. am going to

5. Firaol has very old Dad can hardly do anything. He __________ take care of him as he is his
only son. A. may B. shall C. must (strongly necessary) D. ought to

6. How _________ a three-year-old child be expected tie his shoelaces without any help?

A. must B. can C. may D. has

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7. I’m not being superstitious, but you __________ something earlier that brought you this bad
luck. A. should have to do B. must have done (past necessity)

C. Might have been doing D. would have done

8. The fact is that I didn’t know she was in such a serious problem. Now you calm down and I
__________ do everything possible. A. may B. can C. will D. am going to

9. I don’t think I’ll need a hand. I’m sure I ______ manage to get it upstairs.

A. will B. may C. can D. must

10. You know your aunt is getting very old. You __________ visit her every day and see what’s
lacking. Check if she takes her meals properly. A. ought to B. should C. must D. has to

Tenses

1. They __________ simien mountain, Gondar, for the last 5 years. It seems they are going to do
the same this year too. A. visited B. did visit C. had visited D. have visited

12. Not all seats in the exam hall ____________ taken yet. A. has B. are C. have D. is

13. In my opinion, he has _______ come in contact with her. Listen! He could not have raped
her. A. just B. ever C. never D. rarely

14. The police ________ him in the area so many times and now they have him as a primary
suspect. A. saw B. have seen C. see D. had seen

15. We studied together at university, but I __________ her ever since.

A. won’t B. haven’t seen C. have seen D. didn’t see

16. My sister ___________ me a parcel two weeks ago, but I received it only yesterday.

A. has sent B. had sent C. Sent D. send

17. Classes begin only after you ________________ registration.

A. completed B. complete (verb in time clause is present)

18. Yosan amnd Mary are looking for a house to buy. I think, they ____________ soon.

A. marry B. are getting married C. may be marrying D. will marry

19. I’m not good at mathematics, but I _________ any problem with my English.

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 A. had never have B. have never had C. never have D. had never had

20. I’m sure you _________ a good time staying here with me this coming summer.

A. will have B. should have C. have D. will be having (future progressive action)

21. I was very sad to hear that your uncle ____. A. have died B. had died C. would die D. dies

22. We’ve known each other __________ childhood. A. while B. when C. for D. since

23. By the end of August, we __________ our placement in school.

A. will know B. have been known C. will have known D. will be knowing

24. We _________ at the scene when the alarm went off.

A. were just arriving B. had just arrived C. have just arrived D. arrived

Modal verbs

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some
important differences:
A. Modal verbs do not take -s in the third person.
Examples: 1. He can speak Chinese.
2. She should be here by 9:00.

B. You use not to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.

Examples: 1. He should not be late.

2. They might not come to the party.

C. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Modal Verbs include: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, need to, should, shall, will etc.
Modal verbs Uses Examples
I can speak English.
Can ability in the present I can type with a computer.

Could ability in the past I could play a piano when I was young.
When I was 10, I could walk on my hands.
May possibility I may become a doctor when I grow.
I might become a doctor when I grow.
Might less possibility (less possibility that I will become a doctor when I
grow up)
Must Necessity I must improve my writing skills.

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Ought to Moral obligation or duty The students ought to be punctual at school.
Need to It is important for you to do He needs to cut the grass this evening.
Will to express future intention They will attend the funeral tonight.
Shall to express future intention with We shall attend the funeral tonight.
1st person pronoun
1. I wonder if I ________ still see alive. He has been ill for five years.

A. should B. will C. could D. may

2. I’m not being superstitious, but you ________ something earlier that brought you this bad
luck. A. would have done B. should have to do C. might have been doing D. must have done

3. Doctor ______ helps you unless you tell him/her what is wrong.

A. couldn’t B. cannot C. shouldn’t D. mustn’t

4. The fact is that I didn’t know she was in such a serious problem. Now you calm down and I __
do everything possible. A. may B. will C. am going to

5. You know your grandmother is getting very old. You __________ visit her every day and see
what’s lacking. Check if she takes her meals properly. A. ought to B. should C. must

6. A: I’m very sick. What shall I do?

B: You __________ go to hospital. A. may B. might C. cannot D. had better

7. You ___________ write Gemechu a letter because he will come here to visit us before he
receives the letter. A. had better not B. don’t need to C. mustn’t D. ought not to

8. Fatuma ______ go to the party if she doesn’t want to.

A. doesn’t need to B. doesn’t have to C. mustn’t D. had better not

9. You _______ tell lies if you want people to trust you.

A. don’t have to B. ought to C. won’t have D. mustn’t

10. Daughter: Mam, I forgot to buy a sugar from a shop.

Mother: That’s a mistake. You________a kilo of sugar for this week.

A. may have bought B. need to have bought C. should have bought D. should not have bought

Using so and neither

So……I: use to say/show that we perform the same action as another person.
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 It has positive sense.

Example1: Bontu: I’m hungry.

Natnael: So am I. I haven’t eaten anything all day.

 We use so after a positive statement.

I’m hungry. So am I. (I’m hungry, too.)

Nether……….. I or I don’t either: use to say/feel the same way as another person.

It has negative sense.

 We use neither after a negative statement.

Example1: I haven’t eaten. Neither have I. (I haven’t eaten either.)

The structure is so/neither + an auxiliary + the subject. The auxiliary is a form of be or have or
a modal verb, for example, can.

Examples: 1.We are really busy at work. So are we.

2. Tom has gone to the match. So has John.
3. David cannot drive. Neither can I.
In the Present Simple and Past Simple we use a form of do.

Examples: 1. I like tennis. So do I.

2. I watch the news every day. I do too.

3. Arsenal won. So did Rangers.

4. I don’t like tennis. Neither do I.

5. I don’t watch television every day. I don’t either.

An auxiliary verb helps the main verb to express tenses, moods, or voices and also adds
function and grammatical meanings in a sentence. It is also called modal auxiliary verbs or
helping verbs. Some auxiliary verbs are ‘be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could,
may, might, must, ought,’ etc. The basic auxiliary verbs are ‘to be,’ ‘to do,’ and ‘to
have,’ respectively.

To be- am, is, are, was, were, being, been, will be

To do- do, does, did, will do
To have- have, has, had, having, will have

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Gerund

Gerunds are nouns formed from verbs. They are formed by adding -ing to verbs: walking,
talking, thinking, listening etc.

Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:

A. Gerunds act as subjects.
Examples: 1. Caring for others is right.
2. Watching television is by far the most popular activity at the weekends.

B. Gerunds act as direct objects.

Examples: 1. I don’t like cheating.

2. The teacher enjoys teaching.

C. Gerunds act as objects of prepositions.

Examples: 1.You should improve your health by doing exercise every day.
2. He is bad at remembering appointments.

D. Gerunds act as subject complements.

Examples: 1. My favorite occupation is reading.

2. The rules are confusing.

E. Gerunds can be used in perfect form (having + past participle).

Examples: 1. He denied having been married.

2. I went home having lost all my money.

Revision Exercises

I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.

1. I wouldn‘t tell her if I ______ you. She can‘t keep a secret.

A. will be B. were C. am D. had been
2. Paul would be a good artist if he ______ more patience.
A. had B. has C. will have D. have
3. If they invited me to their party. I ______ absolutely delighted.
A. am B. will be C. would be D. was
4. He ______ so many accidents if he drove more carefully.
A. hadn‘t B. wouldn‘t have C. hasn‘t D. won‘t have
5. I would help them if they ______ to me.
A. had listened B. listened C. will listen D. would listen
6. If the weather ______ warmer, we would go out.
A. will be B. had been B. were D. is

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7. Unless you ______, you won‘t find out the truth.
A. will ask B. won‘t ask C. ask D. don‘t ask
8. If you ______ me, I will bring you the book.
A. reminded B. will remind C. would remind D. remind
9. If I ______ about your birthday, I would have you bought a present.
A. knew B. would know C. know D. had known
10. If Anna ______ a little taller, she could become a model.
A. will be B. is C. had been D. were
11. __________ would you like to have for dessert?
A. Which B. How C. What D Why
12. There was some _________agreement over the decision..
A. dis B. mis C. un D. in
13. ______ us the sky was blue and _______ us the river flowed in the valley.
A. below/ above B. behind/ above C. above / below D. beside/ above
14. _______ talk during the lesson.
A. not talk B. Don‘t to talk C. Didn‘t D. Don‘t
15. John and Beti ___________ the book. Now they can watch the film.
A. Just reads B. have just read C. was just read D. just read
16. You _____________ your sister. A. like B. look like C. looks like D. looks
17. __________ do you feel today? A. Which B. How C. What D Why
18. He looked up at the ceiling ____________ him. A. above B. under C. below D. behind
19. Peter and Paul ____________their room last Saturday.
A. Cleaned B. have cleaned C. have been cleaning D. Clean
20. Beer ______________ bitter. A. looks B. sounds C. feels D. tastes
21. The police car came first; the president was in the car ______. A. behind B. on C. under
22. A: Could you tell me how to find the bookstore?
B: Sure. _______ two blocks and _______ left at the corner. It's right there!
A. Walk / turn B. Walks / turns C. Don't walk / turn D. Walk/ turning
23. He was __________ willing to make a decision before he had read the report.
A. un B. in C. dis D. im

II. Complete the following sentences.

1. When did you leave school? The interviewer asked Jane _____________________________.
2. “Stay in bed for a while,” the doctor said. The doctor told ____________________________.
3. “Don't be naughty,” Milkisa said. Milkisa said ___________________________________.
4. “I will come this afternoon.’’ Mary said. Mary said ________________________________.
5. “You can drive?” Julie asked. Julie asked _________________________________________.

III. Read the situations and write sentences in the past perfect using the words in brackets

1. I arrived at the party at 9 p.m. but Jane was already there.

(She / arrive / before / me) She had arrived before me.
2. I invited Jeff to come for lunch but he wasn't hungry.
(He / already / eat / lunch) ________________________________________ .
3. Firomsa was late for her exam. All the other students were already there.

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 (They / start / the exam) _____________________________________________ .
4. Mikiyas got home after midnight. The house was quiet.
(Everybody / go / to bed) _________________________________________________ .
5. I rang Fred but he wasn't at home.
(He / already / leave / for work) ___________________________________________ .

IV. Complete the sentences using the past perfect or the past perfect continuous.

1. By the time I got home they ______________ (eat) all the cake.
2. She retired at fifty-five, but she ______________ (work) hard all her life.
3. I was furious with Tom when he arrived. I ______________ (wait) for him for hours.
4. Harry was sad to sell his car. He ___________ (have) it for a long time.
5. Mary was covered in white paint. She ___________ (decorate) the kitchen a1l afternoon.
6. Lucy went into the sitting room. The TV was on. Her brother ________ (watch) it and
____________ (forget) to switch it off.
7. Hattie felt terribly sick. She _____________ (eat) too many cream cakes.
8. The journey was incredibly long. We ______________ (travel) for ten hours and we weren't
even half way yet.

What is debating?
A debate is a structured argument that often focuses on controversial topics. It is an argument in
which two sides speak alternately for and against a particular contention usually based on a
topical issue

Why debate?
It is an excellent way of improving speaking skills and is particularly helpful in providing
experience in developing a convincing argument.

 Debate questions often do not have a "right" or "wrong" answer and that critical thinking
develops when different ideas are present.
 Debaters should use both facts and opinions in the presentation of their argument.
 Students should also research the opposing side and perform a critical analysis to decide
which facts and opinions of the other side will be used in the rebuttal stage.

The Basic Debating Skills

a. Style

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Style is the manner in which you communicate your arguments. This is the most basic part of
debating to master. Content and strategy are worth little unless you deliver your material in a
confident and persuasive way.

b. Speed

It is vital to talk at a pace which is fast enough to sound intelligent and allow you time to say
what you want, but slow enough to be easily understood.

c. Tone

Varying tone is what makes you sound interesting. Listening to one tone for an entire
presentation is boring.

d. Volume

Speaking quite loudly is sometimes a necessity, but it is by no means necessary to shout through
every debate regardless of context

e. Clarity
 Concisely and clearly express what you have prepared
 Keep it simple

f. Use of notes and eye contact

Have extremely brief notes concerning your title of debate and that of your opponents. But they
must be brief and well organized to be effective. Obtrusive and too long notes damage your eye
contact with the audience.

General guidelines of a debate

Before the debate

 Get well prepared before the actual debate

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  Search for all relevant information on your topic; ask people, read books and
other sources
 Put your information and evidences based on their level of importance
 Try to practice in front of your friends or mirror

During the Debate

-Your dressing style should be appropriate

 You must justify your arguments with basic logic, worked examples, statistics, and
quotes.
 Debating is all about the strategy of “proof”. Proof, or evidence, supporting your
assertion is what makes it an argument.
 Reason out or justify your debate
 Put the most important arguments first

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Adverb of Degree

An adverb of degree is employed in a sentence to depict the intensity or degree of an

verb or another adverb. It usually answers the question ‘to what extent’. They are normally
positioned before the word (an adjective in most cases) they are modifying.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, adverbs of degree”are used to show the intensity or
degree of something. They can be used before adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs.” The term
‘degree’, according to the Oxford Dictionary, is defined as “the extent, measure or scope of an
action, condition or relation.” Therefore, an adverb that can describe the extent, measure or
scope of an action can be termed as an adverb of degree.

Examples: 1. Milkisa is very tall.

2. The buttermilk we had was too cold.

3. It is extremely cold this time of the year.

4. Gudata had almost completed his work.

5. The class is unusually quiet today.

Examples of Adverbs of Degree

Too Very Extremely
Horribly Unusually Wonderfully
Almost Completely Deeply
Barely Absolutely Fully
Quite Somewhat Fairly
Hardly Terribly Incredibly
Enough Largely Pretty
Really Scarcely Insanely
Remarkably Badly Greatly
Highly Most Little
Less Much Least
Just Intensely Purely
Strongly Thoroughly Utterly

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