Comm 230 notes

Chapter 1: introduction to the field of organizational

behaviour.

LO3: Anchors of Organizational Behaviour Knowledge

1. The Systematic Research Anchor

 OB knowledge should be based on systematic research, involving research
questions, data collection, and hypothesis testing.
 Systematic research supports evidence-based management, ensuring decisions
are guided by research evidence.
 Managers often embrace untested ideas due to various perceptual biases and
pressures.
 Suggestions for creating an evidence-based organization: be skeptical of hype,
embrace collective expertise, rely on systematic investigation, and take a neutral
stance towards trends.
2. Debating Point: Is There Enough Evidence to Support Evidence-Based Management?
 A key anchor of organizational behavior is the importance of knowledge based
on scientific research.
 Scholars advocate for a broader view of evidence beyond just empirical
correlational research.
 Managers often seek research that is closer to real-world variables, which can be
lacking in academia.
 Some systematic elements of organizational research studies can mask
underlying faults.
 The challenge lies in determining what constitutes "good evidence."
3. The Practical Orientation Anchor
 OB theories aim to be practical and useful in improving organizational
effectiveness.
 The impact of an OB theory is determined by how well it is applied in
organizational life.
 Examples of practical OB theories include the MARS model, which aids coaching,
diagnostics, and organizational change.
 This anchor emphasizes the importance of applying theory in real-world
situations.
4. The Multidisciplinary Anchor
 OB should welcome theories and knowledge from other disciplines, not just rely
on its own research base.
 Knowledge from psychology, sociology, communications, marketing, and
information systems can enrich OB.
 Borrowing theory from other disciplines is inevitable due to the complexity of
organizations, but OB should strive to lead in knowledge production.
5. The Contingency Anchor
 OB recognizes the complexity of people and work environments, where one
variable's effect often depends on the situation or people involved.
 Contingencies are identified in many OB theories, such as leadership style,
conflict handling, and organizational structure.
 While simplicity is preferred, the contingency anchor acknowledges that there's
no "one best way" for all situations.
6. The Multiple Levels of Analysis Anchor
 OB operates at three levels of analysis: individual, team, and organization.
 Advanced empirical research identifies the appropriate level for each variable.
 Variables are best understood by considering them at all three levels of analysis.
 For instance, communication is considered a team process but also includes
individual and organizational aspects.

Understanding these anchors is essential for a comprehensive grasp of organizational behavior,

emphasizing the importance of systematic research, practical applicability, multidisciplinarity,
contingencies, and a holistic approach across different levels of analysis.

The Emerging Workplace Landscape

LO4: Organizational Behaviour

Introduction:

 The field of organizational behaviour plays a crucial role in guiding organizations through
unprecedented change.
 Organizations face challenges such as global competition, technological disruption, and
shifts in employment relationships.
 In this section, we explore four key emerging workplace developments: diversity and
inclusive workplaces, work-life integration, remote work, and evolving employment
relationships.

Diversity and Inclusive Workplaces:

 Successful Canadian organizations aim to create inclusive workplaces that value

diversity as a resource.
 Inclusive workplaces ensure psychological safety, engagement, respect, and voice for all
employees.
  Diversity encompasses both surface-level (observable traits) and deep-level (values,
beliefs) differences.
 Consequences of diversity include enhanced creativity, better decision-making, and a
more representative workforce.
 Challenges of diversity include initial communication problems and potential conflicts.

Work-Life Integration:

 Work-life integration replaces the idea of work-life balance, recognizing the inherent
integration of different life roles.
 People have multiple roles, and success in one role can enhance success in others.
 Work-life conflict occurs when one role depletes personal resources needed for other
roles.
 Strategies for work-life integration include integrating roles, flexible scheduling,
alignment with personal characteristics, and boundary management.
 Organizations may support integration by promoting performance-based evaluation and
regular communication.

Remote Work:

 Remote work, or telecommuting, has become more common, especially with the advent
of technology.
 The percentage of remote workers varies, with a significant increase during the COVID-
19 pandemic.
 Remote work offers benefits like better work-life integration, cost savings, and reduced
environmental impact.
 Challenges include social isolation, weaker team cohesion, and potential negative effects
on organizational culture.
 The success of remote work depends on individual characteristics, job requirements,
and organizational support.

Evolving Employment Relationships:

 Formal employment relationships are changing, with more workers in part-time,

temporary, or self-employed roles.
 Direct employment remains the dominant model, but indirect employment (through
agencies) and self-employed contract work are growing.
 Indirect employment and self-employment offer flexibility but can lead to weaker social
networks and job satisfaction.
 Direct employment often results in higher commitment, organizational investment, and
work quality.
 The presence of agency workers can affect the satisfaction and commitment of
permanent employees.
Conclusion:

 Organizational behaviour plays a crucial role in adapting to the emerging workplace

landscape.
 Organizations must navigate diversity and inclusivity, work-life integration, remote
work, and evolving employment relationships.
 The success of these transitions depends on a combination of individual, job, and
organizational factors.

MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance Learning Objective 5 (LO5)

Introduction

 Historically, experts have explored direct predictors of individual behavior and

performance.
 Early formulas include "performance = person × situation" and "performance = ability ×
motivation."
 The "skill-and-will" model elaborates on the person's role in influencing individual
performance.
 The Ability-Motivation-Opportunity (AMO) model is used in organizational studies.
 Four direct predictors have been identified in recent research: motivation, ability, role
perceptions, and situational factors.

MARS Model Overview

 The MARS model stands for Motivation, Ability, Role Perceptions, and Situational
Factors.
 These four variables are critical influences on an individual's voluntary behavior and
performance.
 A deficiency in any of these elements can negatively affect performance.

1. Employee Motivation

 Motivation is the driving force within an individual that impacts the direction, intensity,
and persistence of effort for voluntary behavior.
 Direction involves goal setting and the choices people make regarding what to achieve
and at what quality or quantity.
 Intensity is the amount of effort an individual invests in a task.
 Persistence refers to the length of time an individual continues to exert effort to achieve
a goal.
 Motivation is a cognitive and emotional force within individuals that drives them to act.
2. Ability

 Employee ability encompasses both learned capabilities and natural aptitudes.

 Learned capabilities include skills and knowledge acquired through training and practice.
 Aptitudes are natural talents that help individuals learn specific tasks more quickly.
 The challenge is to match a person's abilities with job requirements to enhance
performance.
 Matching strategies include selecting applicants with required abilities, training
employees to acquire necessary skills, and redesigning jobs to align with employees'
current abilities.

3. Role Perceptions

 Role perceptions refer to how clearly individuals understand their job expectations,
including duties, task priorities, and preferred behaviors.
 Role clarity involves understanding specific duties, task priorities, and preferred
behaviors.
 Role ambiguity exists when employees know multiple ways to perform a task but
misunderstand which one the organization prefers.
 Role clarity is crucial for efficient and accurate task performance, coordination with co-
workers, and employee motivation.

4. Situational Factors

 Situational factors include any external context beyond an employee's control.

 Situational factors influence behavior and performance in two ways.
 They can either facilitate or constrain an individual's performance.
 They provide cues that guide and motivate individuals based on the work
environment.
 Employees may perform poorly if they lack resources, such as time, budget, or physical
facilities, even if they have motivation, ability, and role clarity.
 Workplace features and cues can influence individuals' behavior, e.g., safety signs in
hazardous areas.

The MARS model demonstrates how these four factors, motivation, ability, role perceptions,
and situational factors, directly impact an individual's behavior and performance in the
workplace. Understanding these elements can help organizations optimize employee
performance and achieve desired outcomes.

Types of Individual Behavior in the Workplace Learning Objective 6 (LO6)

Introduction
  The MARS model emphasizes that motivation, ability, role perceptions, and situational
factors impact all voluntary workplace behaviors and performance.
 Various types of individual behaviors can be categorized into five key groups: task
performance, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), counterproductive work
behaviors (CWBs), joining and staying with the organization, and maintaining work
attendance.

1. Task Performance

 Task performance comprises voluntary, goal-directed behaviors contributing to

organizational objectives.
 Most jobs involve multiple tasks, encompassing working with people, data, things, and
ideas.
 Three types of task performance are proficient, adaptive, and proactive:
 Proficient task performance involves efficiently and accurately accomplishing
assigned work, meeting expected standards of quality and quantity.
 Adaptive task performance focuses on how employees modify their behaviors to
adapt to changing work processes or settings.
 Proactive task performance entails employees taking the initiative to introduce
new work patterns benefiting the organization.
 Adaptive and proactive task performance become crucial in ambiguous or dynamic work
environments.

2. Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs)

 OCBs extend beyond specific tasks and include various forms of cooperation and
helpfulness, supporting the organization's social and psychological context.
 OCBs can be directed towards individuals and the organization.
 Individual-directed OCBs involve assisting co-workers, adjusting work schedules,
showing courtesy, and sharing resources.
 Organization-directed OCBs encompass supporting the organization's image, offering
ideas, attending events, and staying informed about organizational developments.
 OCBs can be discretionary or mandatory, impacting individual, team, and organizational
effectiveness.

3. Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWBs)

 CWBs encompass voluntary behaviors that can potentially harm the organization or its
stakeholders.
 CWBs include various intentional and unintentional actions like harassment, conflict
creation, deviating from work methods, theft, sabotage, and resource wastage.
 These behaviors have the potential to undermine organizational effectiveness.
4. Joining and Staying with the Organization

 Attracting and retaining employees with the right skills is crucial for an organization's
success.
 Staff shortages can limit a company's growth during economic booms and cause
significant challenges during crises.
 Employee turnover can result in the loss of valuable knowledge, skills, and relationships,
affecting organizational effectiveness negatively.

5. Maintaining Work Attendance

 Ensuring employees show up at work as scheduled is essential.

 Unscheduled absenteeism can lead to increased workloads, lower performance, poor
coordination, compromised customer service, and more workplace accidents.
 Absenteeism causes significant costs to organizations.
 Presenteeism, showing up for work while unwell, can reduce productivity, worsen
health, and spread diseases.

These types of individual behavior in the workplace play a critical role in shaping organizational
performance and effectiveness. Understanding and managing them can help organizations
achieve their objectives and maintain a healthy work environment.

Chapter 2: individual behaviour and processes

Personality and the Five-Factor Model in Organizations Learning Objective 1 (LO1)

Introduction

 Personality refers to a relatively stable pattern of thoughts, emotions, and

behaviors that define an individual.
 It plays a significant role in shaping how people act, react, and interact with the
world.
 Personality can be assessed by observing and inferring internal states, such as
thoughts and emotions, from observable behaviors.

Personality Traits and Patterns

  Personality traits are broad concepts that allow us to label and understand
individual differences.
 They represent discernible patterns in an individual's behavior.
 Traits are relatively consistent across situations and predict various behaviors and
outcomes in adulthood, including educational attainment, employment success,
and relationship quality.

Adaptation to Different Situations

 People do not exhibit the same behavior in all situations; they adapt to varying
contexts.
 Situational factors, social norms, and external conditions influence behavior.
 Despite situational adaptation, personality differences remain apparent, as
individuals maintain their unique traits.

Nature vs. Nurture

 Personality development is influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture

(environment).
 Heredity plays a significant role, with up to 50% of behavior and 30% of
temperament preferences attributed to genetics.
 Environmental factors, socialization, and life experiences shape personality.

Five-Factor Model of Personality

 The Five-Factor Model (or Big Five) is the most widely recognized and researched
framework for organizing personality traits.
 It includes five dimensions:
1. Conscientiousness: Organized, dependable, goal-focused, and disciplined.
2. Agreeableness: Trusting, helpful, good-natured, and considerate.
3. Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): Anxious, self-conscious, or calm and
poised.
4. Openness to Experience: Imaginative, creative, and curious.
5. Extraversion: Outgoing, energetic, sociable, or quiet and introverted.
 These dimensions represent clusters of specific traits and are fairly consistent
across cultures.

Five-Factor Model and Work Performance

  The Big Five personality factors influence behavior and performance by affecting
motivation and goal choices.
 Conscientiousness is the best predictor of proficient task performance.
 Extraversion also predicts proficient task performance, with assertiveness and
positive emotionality playing key roles.
 Agreeableness is linked to organizational citizenship and reduced
counterproductive behaviors.
 Openness to experience is essential for adaptive and proactive performance.
 Emotional stability (low neuroticism) is a strong predictor of adaptive
performance.
 The relationship between personality and performance is not always linear, and
some specific traits predict better than the overall factors.

Caveats When Applying the Five-Factor Model

 Personality is not static; it can change over time due to various factors.
 The Big Five does not encompass all aspects of personality; other models
emphasize different components.
 Specific traits within each factor can sometimes be better predictors of behavior
and performance.

Understanding the Five-Factor Model of personality is crucial for organizations, as it

helps assess and predict employee behavior and performance, contributing to effective
personnel management.

Other Personality Concepts: The Dark Triad and MBTI Types Learning Objective 2
(LO2)

The Dark Triad

 In the process of developing the Five-Factor Model (Big Five), certain personality
traits with explicitly positive or negative valences were deliberately excluded.
 Some excluded traits, like impulsiveness, were recognized in earlier personality
models.
 Subsequent research focused on traits with positive and negative valences,
leading to the identification of the "dark triad."
 The dark triad comprises three socially undesirable personality traits:
Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy.
  These traits collectively exhibit a "dark core" characterized by low
humility/honesty or malevolent behavior to achieve personal gains.

Machiavellianism

 Named after Niccolò Machiavelli, Machiavellianism is characterized by a strong

motivation to achieve one's goals at the expense of others.
 High-Machs believe that deceit is a natural means of achieving their objectives.
 They employ manipulation, deceit, and exploitation, showing a disregard for
moral principles and a lack of empathy.

Narcissism

 Named after Narcissus in Greek mythology, narcissism involves an obsessive

belief in one's superiority and entitlement.
 Narcissists are characterized by grandiosity, attention-seeking behavior, and
excessive self-promotion.
 Their arrogance, envious nature, low empathy, and exploitation of others become
evident over time.

Psychopathy

 Psychopathy is considered the darkest of the triad and involves ruthlessly

dominating and manipulating others.
 Psychopaths exhibit no empathy or remorse for their actions and are selfish self-
promoters.
 They use superficial charm, engage in antisocial and impulsive behavior, and take
what they want without concern for consequences.

The Dark Triad in the Workplace

 The dark triad traits are increasingly relevant in the workplace, as they are not
confined to criminology or politics.
 Dishonesty and malevolent behavior are core characteristics, leading to a lack of
trust and a focus on personal goals at the expense of team goals.
 People with dark triad traits may be perceived as functional team members in the
short run when it serves their self-interest.
 However, they are associated with serious white-collar crimes, workplace
aggression, and poor decision-making, including excessive risk-taking.
  The dark triad predicts counterproductive work behaviors, but it is not as reliable
as specific Big Five traits like low agreeableness and low conscientiousness.

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

 Jungian personality theory, measured by the MBTI, is an alternative to the Big

Five and is widely used in organizations.
 Carl Jung proposed personality preferences based on perceiving and judging
functions, leading to four dichotomies: sensing/intuition (P), thinking/feeling (J),
extraversion/introversion, and judging/perceiving.
 The MBTI assesses these preferences and additional categories related to
perceiving and judging attitudes.
 It is a popular tool for career counseling and executive coaching and is used in AI
to adapt the behavior of robots to user preferences.
 MBTI has benefits but is generally a poor predictor of job performance and is not
recommended for employment selection or promotion decisions.

Debating the Use of Personality Tests in Selection

 Personality tests, especially the Big Five, have demonstrated associations with
various workplace behaviors and outcomes.
 The Five-Factor Model can predict job performance, organizational citizenship,
leadership, counterproductive behaviors, and other important outcomes.
 Critics argue that other predictors, such as work samples and past performance,
may be more reliable for selection decisions.
 The assumption that extreme personality traits are better for job performance is
challenged because too much conscientiousness can lead to perfectionism.
 Concerns about potential discrimination, faking answers, and a lack of knowledge
regarding which traits organizations seek in applicants are also raised.
 The debate continues about the effectiveness and fairness of using personality
tests in the selection process.

Understanding the dark triad and the MBTI provides insights into the complexities of
personality and its application in organizational settings. These concepts offer additional
perspectives for assessing and understanding individual differences in the workplace.

Values in the Workplace Learning Objective 3 (LO3)

Introduction
  Values play a crucial role in job selection and daily decision-making.
 Values are stable, evaluative beliefs guiding our preferences for outcomes and
actions.
 They serve as moral compasses, influencing motivation, decisions, and behaviors
and providing justifications for actions.

Personal Values and Job Selection

 Many individuals consider personal values when choosing where to work and
making daily job-related decisions.
 Aligning personal values with an organization's values enhances job satisfaction
and effectiveness.

Hierarchy of Values

 People structure values into a hierarchy known as a values system.

 Values are developed and reinforced through socialization, influenced by factors
like family, religion, friends, personal experiences, and societal norms.
 A person's hierarchy of values is stable and long-lasting.

Organizational and Cultural Values

 Values are inherent within individuals, referred to as personal values.

 Groups may share similar values, and these are ascribed to the team,
organization, or society.
 Organizational values are crucial components of organizational culture and are
discussed further in Chapter 14.
 Cultural values are values shared across a society and are addressed later in this
chapter.

Values vs. Personality Traits

 Values and personality traits are related but differ in key ways.
 Values are evaluative and tell us what we ought to do, while personality traits are
descriptive, indicating what we naturally tend to do.
 Personality traits have minimal conflict with each other, while some values
oppose others.
 Personality traits and values have varying degrees of influence from heredity and
socialization.
Types of Values

 Schwartz's values circumplex model categorizes 57 values into 10 broad value

categories organized in a circular model.
 Categories include universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, security,
power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction.
 The values form four quadrants: openness to change, conservation, self-
enhancement, and self-transcendence.

Values and Individual Behavior

 Personal values influence behavior by impacting choice attractiveness, framing

perceptions of reality, and ensuring behavior consistency.
 Values generate positive or negative feelings towards choices, leading individuals
to act in alignment with their values.
 People perceive and interpret situations based on their values.
 Values encourage consistent behavior and motivate individuals to act
congruently with their self-concept.

Values Awareness

 The connection between personal values and individual behavior is not always
strong.
 The situation, counter-motivational forces, and lack of active consideration can
lead to values-behavior inconsistency.
 Values become more influential when individuals are explicitly reminded of them
and see their relevance to the situation.

Values Congruence

 Values congruence refers to the similarity between an individual's values

hierarchy and that of the organization or another entity.
 High values congruence leads to greater job satisfaction, loyalty, organizational
citizenship, lower stress, and turnover.
 While values congruence is essential, organizations also benefit from some level
of incongruence as diverse values offer different perspectives.

Values in Job Selection: IKEA's Example

 IKEA Canada emphasizes values congruence in job ads.

  The company recruits by values and assesses candidates' alignment with IKEA's
values.
 Values congruence enhances job satisfaction, loyalty, and success.
 Diverse values bring different perspectives, contributing to better decision-
making and organizational flexibility.

Conclusion

 Personal values play a significant role in decision-making, job satisfaction, and

organizational success.
 Values congruence with the organization is vital but should be balanced with
some level of diversity to foster creativity and flexibility.

Ethical Values and Behavior Learning Objective 4 (LO4)

Introduction

 Ethical values play a pivotal role in the workplace, shaping decision-making and
leadership.
 Ethics refers to the study of moral principles or values that determine the
rightness or wrongness of actions and the goodness or badness of outcomes.

Four Ethical Principles

 Most ethical issues revolve around four primary ethical principles: utilitarianism,
individual rights, distributive justice, and the ethic of care.
 Decision-makers must consider these principles to address ethical implications in
their decisions.

Utilitarianism

 This principle asserts that the moral obligation is to seek the greatest good for
the greatest number.
 It emphasizes outcomes and satisfaction but can be limited by challenges in
measuring outcomes and ethical concerns about means.

Individual Rights

 This principle ensures that everyone possesses the same natural and moral rights,
including freedom of speech, security, and fair trial.
  Some individual rights may conflict with others, creating ethical dilemmas.

Distributive Justice

 This principle emphasizes that similar individuals should receive similar benefits
and burdens.
 Difficulties arise in determining who is "similar" and the relevant factors, a subject
further explored in Chapter 5.

Ethic of Care

 This principle dictates that individuals have an ethical duty to help others grow
and self-actualize.
 It promotes empathy, attentiveness, and responsiveness to the needs of others.

Moral Intensity, Moral Sensitivity, and Situational Influences

 Ethical conduct is influenced by the moral intensity of an issue, individual moral

sensitivity, and situational factors.

Moral Intensity

 Moral intensity is the extent to which an issue demands the application of ethical
principles.
 It hinges on the seriousness of the impact, the probability of outcomes, and the
number of people affected.

Moral Sensitivity

 Moral sensitivity is a person's ability to recognize moral dilemmas and evaluate

their significance.
 Factors influencing moral sensitivity include knowledge, past experiences,
empathy, self-identity, and situational mindfulness.

Situational Factors

 Situational influences such as pressure from top management can impact ethical
behavior.
 Pressure should not justify unethical actions, but awareness of such influences is
crucial.
Alcoa's Ethical Standard in Russia

 An example from Alcoa Russia illustrates ethical leadership's role in challenging

bribery and maintaining a commitment to ethical standards.

Supporting Ethical Behavior

 Various strategies support ethical behavior in organizations, including codes of

ethical conduct, employee training, hotlines for reporting unethical behavior, and
shared values.

Conclusion

 Ethical principles guide decision-making in the workplace.

 Ethical behavior is influenced by factors such as moral intensity, moral sensitivity,
and situational factors.
 Promoting ethical conduct involves fostering shared values and ethical cultures in
organizations, supported by the conduct and vigilance of corporate leaders.

Values across Cultures Learning Objective 5 (LO5)

Introduction

 Values not only vary among individuals and organizations but also across entire
societies.
 Five cross-cultural values are of significance: individualism, collectivism, power
distance, uncertainty avoidance, and achievement-nurturing orientation.

Cross-Cultural Values

1. Individualism
 High: Canada, United States, Chile, South Africa
 Medium: Japan, Denmark
 Low: Taiwan, Venezuela
 Emphasizes personal uniqueness, freedom, and self-sufficiency; values
personal goals and individuality.
2. Collectivism
 High: Israel, Taiwan
 Medium: India, Denmark
  Low: Canada, United States, Germany, Japan
 Emphasizes group membership, harmony, and in-group norms; prioritizes
in-group well-being.
3. Power Distance
 High: India, Malaysia
 Medium: Canada, United States, Japan
 Low: Denmark, Israel
 Accepts unequal power distribution; views authority as unquestionable
(high power distance) or promotes shared power (low power distance).
4. Uncertainty Avoidance
 High: Belgium, Greece
 Medium: Canada, United States, Norway
 Low: Denmark, Singapore
 Tolerance for ambiguity and ambiguity avoidance vary.
5. Achievement-Nurturing Orientation
 High: Austria, Japan
 Medium: Canada, United States, Brazil
 Low: Sweden, Netherlands
 Emphasis on competition, materialism, and personal success (achievement
orientation) or relationships and well-being (nurturing orientation).

Individualism and Collectivism

 Individualism and collectivism are two interconnected values.

 Individualism emphasizes personal freedom and uniqueness, while collectivism
values group membership and harmony.
 Both concepts coexist in various cultures, and they are not necessarily opposites.

Power Distance

 Power distance reflects acceptance of unequal power distribution.

 High power distance cultures value authority, obedience, and formal procedures,
while low power distance cultures prefer power sharing and consultation.

Uncertainty Avoidance

 Uncertainty avoidance relates to tolerance for ambiguity.

 High uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer structured situations, clear rules, and
direct communication, while low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more
comfortable with ambiguity.
Achievement-Nurturing Orientation

 Achievement-nurturing orientation is about competitiveness and materialism

(high achievement orientation) or a focus on relationships and well-being (high
nurturing orientation).
 It reflects cultural values related to assertiveness and personal success or caring
and cooperation.

Cultural Diversity within Canada

 Canada is culturally diverse, not only in terms of multiculturalism but also deep-
level cultural differences.
 Various communities within Canada, such as Indigenous communities, have
unique cultural values.
 Indigenous Canadians often value collectivism, low power distance, non-
interference, and natural time orientation.
 Regional differences in personal values and personality traits exist within Canada,
influenced by regional institutions and migration patterns.

Canadian versus American Values

 Canadians and Americans share similarities but have differences in key values.
 Canadians tend to be more tolerant and morally permissive, accept collective
rights, and are less associated with religious institutions.
 They also believe in shared leadership within organizations.
 A significant difference is their beliefs regarding patriarchal authority, with
Canadians holding more progressive views compared to Americans.

Conclusion

 Cross-cultural values vary across societies and regions.

 It's essential to consider these variations in understanding individuals' values and
behaviors within a global context.
 Values can shape cultural identities, impacting social, economic, and
organizational dynamics.