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Yaduvir Singh Electromagnetic Field Thery Chapter05

Electromagnetics one of the most impost comprehensive book chapter 5

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113 views77 pages

Yaduvir Singh Electromagnetic Field Thery Chapter05

Electromagnetics one of the most impost comprehensive book chapter 5

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Bkm Mizanur Rahman
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Electrostatics 5.1 INTRODUCTION Discoveries by Coulomb, Ohm, Faraday and Kirchhoff have greatly contributed towards electric circuit theory. Maxwell's equation comprises laws of electricity and magnetism. Maxwell’s equation involves magnetic intensity density, electric field intensity, magnetic intensity, current density, charge density, etc, There are two fundamental laws: ( Coulomb's Law i) Gauss’s Law Coulomb's Law deals with electric field due to any charge configuration, whereas it is easier to use Gauss's Law, when charge distribution is symmetrical. 5.2 COULOMB'S LAW AND FIELD INTENSITY Force F exists between two point charges g; and q2 as per Coulomb’s Law along the line joining them. This force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them. Further, this force is directly proportional to F 9 Por the product g; 2 of the charges. a In Figure 5.1, force at point P as given by Coulomb’s Law is Figure 5.1 Coulomb’ Law 1 GR 5 ame oR where & =8.854%10"? Fim, g; and gz are in Coulombs, distance 2 in meters and force F in Newtons. Unit vector Gp is directed from charge q, towards charge qo, The electric field intensity is also known as electric field strength. It is denoted by &. Electric field intensity. Bis given as force per unit charge. Charge is placed in an electric field. Thus, electric field intensity E B=tim= or oq F 104 | Electromagnetic Field Theory Because of charge gy, electric field intensity Hon charge gz is obtained as, or simply Electric field intensity is expressed in Newton per Coulomb (NC) or alternatively in Volt per Meter (V/M). In Figure 5.2, the electric field around a point charge 41, is shown, Electric field intensity at a point P at a distance R, from the origin due to charge g; located at a distance R, from the origin is depicted in Figure 5.3. This electric field at P due to q, is obtained as Figure 5.2 Field around a poin charge q1 x Figure 5.3. Obtaining electric field intensit at point P due to charge qi 5,3 ELECTRIC DIPOLE Electric dipole is par of equal and opposite point charges. This charge pair is separated by a very sl distance, Dipole moment p measures the strength of the electric dipole (Figure 5.4). The magnitude of the dipole moment is given as |il=ad (in Coulomb Meter) Direction of j is from negative charge to the positive charge. : abe ——_ 1—__— Figure 5.4 Electric dipole Electrostatics | 105 5.4 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY ON AXIAL LINE OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE Figure 5.5 depicts an electric dipole. Electric intensity E at a point P on the axial line of the dipole is obtained from two electric field intensities £, and E>. E, electric intensity at P due to point charge +g is given as un 4 4m) (R+dy° Eyelectric intensity at P due to point charge -q is given as pot G. ne, (R-dy Electric field intensities E, and Ey are acting in opposite directions. Let E> . It is obtained as below: E=E,~E, where £ is the resultant electric field intensity due to £, and E; or Se of Dee © Ame, |(R-d)? (R+d)* -—4 |e es ~ Amey | (R?- 2? Further, \al= 4.24 Thus, ep ae) : 4m (R - 4° Suppose 2d << R, then Figure 5.5 Electric field intensity 106 | Electromagnetic Field Theory 5.5 FIELD INTENSITY ON EQUATORIAL LINE OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE Electric field intensity £ at a point P on the equatorial line of the dipole is depicted in Figure 5.6. Let E; be the electric intensity at P due to charge +g. Itis given as pled ne, (PN? Ind PON PN’= PO" + ON =R+d Thus, oe Figure 5.6 Electric field intensity on i aay Pad) equatorial line of dipole Let E, be the electric intensity at P due to charge -g. It is given as eel ° ane, (PMY = q 1 Arey (R°+d?) In.A POM, ZPMO = © and a. ay? ‘The resultant intensity E at P in such cases is obtained as cos® = E=E,cos®+E,cos® or =(E,\+E)cos® or 1 ‘pe tote ee al ME, (R'+d°) Anny (R? +d?) (Ray? or apes Aney(R? +d?) ? Magnitude of the dipole moment |p| = 2gq Flectrostatics | 107 ‘Thus, Ee la. Aney(R? a?) Consider 2d << R (dipole is short), aL ‘Then, ge Aneyk 5.6 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS Figure 5.7 shows various types of charge distributions. Charge element dq in various cases are given as dq={pydl (for line charge) dq={p,dl (for surface charge) and dq={p,dl (for volume charge) ‘The electric field intensity £ due to charge distribution in each case is given as é = ut in (for line charge) % Bo “ Peay (for surface charge) and 2 i= ata (for volume charge) 0 Total electric field intensity Ems due to the presence of these three types of charge distributions is simply the vector sum of three types of electric field intensity. It is given as Pe er | 4ne,R° atl a ea are,R ma P Oe y +P a4 + Point ~ Line Surface Volume charge charge charge charge Figure 5.7 Types of charge distributions 108 | Electromagnetic Field Theory 5.7 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY Electric field intensity depends on medium, where charge is placed. Electric flux density D is a ney vector field, which is independent of the medium, It is given as D=&E (valid only in free space) 5.8 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL Electric potential V, at a point P in an electric field is given as Electric potential 7, = -f” E.dl (line integral from eto point P). Electric potential difference between two points M and N in an electric field is given as Electric potential difference (Vy —Viy) = -j. E-dl (line integral from path N to M), An equipotential surface has constant electric potential over its entire surface. Let a charge q be moved from M to N. Then Wy Vy hy where Iq is the work done in moving the charge. If Vy=Vy then Way = 0 Please note that two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect cach other. It is because at the point of their intersection, there should be two directions of E, which is not possible. ‘The electric potential energy V of a system of two charges as shown in Figure 5.8 is given as % e a yo an Mo R N 4ne, R Figure 5.8 | Tio-charge system 5.9 GAUSS'S LAW According to Gauss’s law, the total electric flux @ through a closed surface is simply the total charge enclosed by that surface. Thus, the total electric flux = B.ds= dan or where Gen: is the charge present in the closed surface S and ¢ is the permittivity of the medium. This imaginary closed surface is known as the Gaussian surface. ‘Asshown in Figure 5.9, let there be a point charge +q at point A inside a volume. This volume is enclose by an arbitrary closed surface S, producing an electric field E, This eletrc flux density is D= €E. Electrostatics | 109 Consider a small area dy on this surface around a point B, Let the electric field at point B by charge +q be E, Area vector ds is directing outwards normal to area clement ds, F is along AB directing outwards. lectric flux d& through the area clement ds is mas do = Beds or simply Figure 5.9 Electric field in a volume enclosed by a surface Here, @ is the angle between E and ds. : | | done a Further, \é aa (for free space) Also, \aj- = 4m R Thus, d= 1 Mee avcoso eR Total electric flux & (through the entire closed surface S) is obtained as o=fdo On substitution, we obtain = j£% fea. ds 0088 In the case of a small cone, solid angle - dscos@ dw= ae (by geometry) On substitution, we obtain ay -[ ene AS oest w= [aw or f= fay 110 | Electromagnetic Field Theory The total solid angle subtended by an entire closed surface S at A is logically 47 (or 360°), Thus, 4 An d= or D= dene Let the surface enclose a continuous charge distribution, . Then Gone = J pr where p, is the volume charge density. The total flux is obtained as Jo. dv or Jv By av= Je.dv Thus, V-5 =p, (Maxwell’s first equation). This is the first of four Maxwell’s equations, 5.9.1 Application of Gauss’s Law Gauss’s Law can be applied to find out the electric field in problems where the charge distribution symmetrical. Charge distribution symmetry may be of spherical, cylindrical or planar types. Gauss Law implementation requires a Gaussian surface. Electric flux density D is normal or tangential to sut Gaussian surface. Let us consider few cases of application of Gauss’s Law. 5.9.1.1 Electric Field Due to a Point Charge Zz ‘As shown in Figure 5.10, a point charge q is placed at the origin. For an electric field, a spherical surface is shown, The magnitude of electric field E remains the same at every point on the surface of the sphere. The direction of electric field is radially outwards. Such a spherical surface having its centre at the origin is called “Gaussian Surface” for all such cases. ‘The magnitude of electric flux density D is given as <<, Gaussian Surface Lc Dydix where dy is the unit vector of 5 normal to the Gaussian surface. The total flux through the surfuce Figure 5.10 Point charge and spheric is obtained as Gaussian surface = fd or =§b-ds or =§Dp ds cos0® or Hlectrostatics. | 114 = Defids or = Dp 4k? Law, P= dene Thus, Deda’ = or (for free space) ax (in vector form) 5.9.1.2 Electric Field Due to Infinite Line Charge Consider an infinite line of charge. This infinite line of charge has uniform linear charge density p;,. For electric field £ ata point P a cylindrical surface is delineated, Let this cylindrical surface have radius Rand length /. Charge will be symmetrically distributed. The magnitude of electric field intensity will remain the same on this curved surface everywhere. Its direction will be radially outwards. Such a cylin- drical surface is known as “Gaussian surface” for all such cases (Figure 5.11). The electric field at every point except circular caps (lower and upper) is perpendicular to the area vectors on iz these caps. Flux through caps is a ok a a i Circular cap (upper) ©=D-ds=6,8-ds or E =e, |E|ds|cos 90° or simply | Electric flux through the entire cylindrical surface is E— obtained as ae Circular cap (lower) y §[Bl@leoso or x Figure 5.11 /nfinite line charge and cylindrical Gaussian surface 112 | Electromagnetic Feld Theory Dufids 1 Dy (Ant) ‘The total outward May. De 4d, or 04 Dy (Quek) oF Dy 2a h ‘The enclosed charge by the cylindrical surface is dew = Pe P= den Thus, Da 2m R= pi Pu Dp = "oR Further, = Pe. Pr & Me oR, The electric field at point P in this case is PL. ig 2neR, 5.9.1.3 Electric Field Due to an Infinite Sheet of Charge Consider an infinite sheet of charge as shown in Figure 5.12, Let this infinite sheet of chargt® uniform surface charge density p,. For finding electric field at a point P near this infinite sheet consider a Gaussian cylinder, i: : : On both circular caps, the clectric field density B and area vector ds are mutually parallel flux ® through a circular cap is obtained as o= Beds or = Dgdscos 0° or = Dads where Dy is the magnitude of electric flux density BD, Also, ‘ D = Dpiiz Electrostatics | 113 z > Infinit shoot eee Bae of charge density p, ee Guar cap (upper eee + 5 + + + + Mer Circular x cap (lower) as Figure 5.12 Infinite sheet of charge Electric flux density 5 and area vector ds make an angle of 90° with each other on every point on the curved surface. Electric flux through the curved surface is obtained as ©, =G5-ds or |B) cos90° or simply The total flux through the closed surface is =O, +0) +0; = 20, +0; = 2Dpds The total charge enclosed by cylinder is dex = pa ds As per Gauss’s Law D= done OF 2Dads =p. ds or Electric field intensity at a point P near the infinite sheet of charge as in this case is g=f (for free space) * 2e, 114 | Electromagnetic Field Theory 5.9.1.4 Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Sphere Let a charge +g be uniformly distributed in a sphere. The sphere has radius a with its centre at O, The charge den- sity at every point is p,C/m’. The charge has spherical symmetry, In this case, the spherical surface is a Gaussian surface. Let us consider two cases, as below: >a (an external point) or D 3R Dr _ Prt €, 3k Electrical field intensity is 3 E= oa (in vector fora) Case 2: Electrical field at an internal point: Consider a point P inside a charged sphere, Co spherical surface of radius R through point P as shown in Figure 5.14, ; The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is Hortmntaties 1 ANG DepDak or ationtans Dufde or ‘untae Dy Anh? ‘The total charge enclosed by the Cauwwian wurfnus Figure 614 Meet felt at an internal pont Ax poor Gaun'y Law, den is given as | p, a tow ‘Thus, Dy ARK = p, van oF Du f Pry (An vector form) Electric field intensity oR Be, Pale 5.10 RELATION BETWEEN E AND V Figure 5.15. The potential difference between points M and Nis path independent where Vaw=—Vyw or Faw + Vans 0. ‘Therefore, the net work done in moving a charge along, a clowed path is zero. It is given as : * Nn 0 i, A As per Stokes'’s Theorem . = Figure 5.15 Potential surface (in this case) or simply Vxii=0 (Maxwell's equation) ‘The curl of the electrostatic field is zero. The electrontatic field iv a conservative Field ss its curl is 7er0, 5.11 ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OR ENERGY DENSITY Potential energy increases if'a test charge q is moved from a lower potential point to a higher poten, point. This increase in potential energy can be obtained from external work done on the charge. Extn work done in moving a charge q from a lower potential to a higher potential is given as W=qV or W =qfE-dl Let us consider a system having three points as shown in Figure 5.16. The three point charges are qi, q2 and gs. Assume that all these charges were initially kept in an empty space. First, q; is brought from space, then gz and lastly q3. Initially, space is charge free. Electric field in space is zero. Thus, no work is required for transferring q, to position ‘1’ from space due to the absence of electric field. We get, 17;= 0. Work done in transferring q> from space to position ‘2" is Figure 5.16 Three point charges Wr=q2Vu where V is the potential difference at the location of gz due to q). Similarly, work done in bringing, is given as W3= (q3Vart 93Vx2) The total work done W= (Wet Wet Ws) ot W= (0+ qoVart q3Vart q3Vx2) 6H If the three charges are brought in an order, which is the reverse of an earlier order, then the total ® done is given as W=(Wst Wot M,) or W= (0+ gr + qV2+ qi) 6 Adding Equations (5.1) and (5.2), we get 2W= qeVart q3Vart Q3Vaxt G2Vast qVizt qiVis 2W= qi (Vi2t Vis) + 92 (Var + Vos) + 3 (Vai + Visa) The above total potential V; at gy due to qo and qsis (Vi) + Vis). Similarly, V; and V3 are obtained® ' Va=(Vat Vx) and Vy=(Vait Vo) Now, the total work is 1 We 3 (ahi + gale + 45¥) Hloctrostaties | 447 For n point charges, the total work done is similarly obtained as Wea dai Faqs tavrddla) oF =f 3am 2 Replace the summation above by integration, ifthe region has a continuous distribution own in a Figure 5.17. Let the volume be V’, charge density -— + Volume V p. (enclosed within a sphere) and sphere radius R. sphere ot ( ) In this case, the total work done is obtained as mds R-» = ’ Jec-Vdv (summation replaced by ’ integration) or 1 a Figure 5.17 Enclosed region with continuous = 5 Jv Byvaw charge distribution As per the Vector rule, V-(VD) =(V- DW + DWV) Thus, Jov-royav—1 f(o-wv) dv (5.3) As per the Divergence theorem 3h VD)dv Fora very large radius R, or Surface v R Thus, 1 y 5 f -ds=0 Are -vy. Substituting all the above in Equation (5.3), we get work done Has and electric field intensity, w 4 f@voydv or 5 idem py Ww gfe 11H | Hectromagnetic Held Meory Alea, Deh ety Ha free ope) Wherefore, ie W- A ‘dv Hlectrostatic eneryy density is abtained 1s Wy "el! (only on s Wp sian! 5.12 CONTINUITY EQUATION As shown in Vigne 5.44, consider 4 clawed volume, This clowed voluine contains change with chasyy density p.’Vhe total charye Concloned by volume) is given as Yow Spurl Lt, Ion be the net outward current Slowing through the clowd surface of the considered volves Joe is the vate of decrease of charge within a considered given volume, In is given as i a an fseds 5 a per the Diveryenie theores, Gods =[V-Iydy Figure 5.18 Closed volun ‘Therchene, JOT Iya = j@ dv 4 ; VJ= (continuity equation) 5.13 POISSON'S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATION Poi ah Legler euations belp in the study and analysis of classical field. In the case of 2 ist tetas ronhivurs, these Poisson and Laplace equations are derived easily from Gauss’s Law. Appi rases's Lan in 4 untinunas distribution of charge of volume charge density p,, VD=p, of

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