Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and

Technology International Convention

“Renewable Resources for a Sustainable

and Healthy Future”

Edited by Susan LeVan-Green

Overall General Chair: Andreja Kutnar,

InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia

July 12-15, 2020

2020 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION, VIRTUAL CONFERENCE – (FORMERLY HOTEL
BERNARDIN), PORTOROŽ, SLOVENIA
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

TABLE OF CONTENT

MONDAY, JULY 13TH

Keynote:
Wood Aging by Bohumil Kasal……………………………………………………………………………………... 1

Early Stage Researchers: Chairs Benedikt Neyses, Luleå University of Sweden;

Martin Nopens, Universität Hamburg, Germany
Slovenian wood-based bioeconomy: present state and future perspectives
by Domen Arnič…………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 1
Distributed Ledger Technology for Data Privacy and Traceability in Wood Supply Chain
Environments by Sidra Aslam …………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Spatial Augmented Reality to Improve Manufacturing of Timber Frame Prefabricated Wall
Elements by Birger Bartuska ……………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Can Woody Biomass from Orchards Still Be Considered a Waste Material? By Maria
Roberta Bruno ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
The differentiating Anatomical Features of Five Tree Species From East Seram,
Indonesia by Tekat Dwi Cahyono ……………………………………………………………………………… 11
Evaluation Of The Seismic Behavior Of Hybrid Walls With Cross Laminated Timber
For Building In Chile by Tulio Carrero ……………………………………………………………………….. 12
Water resistance of wood adhesives derived from cottonseed meal with all
components utilization by Nairong Chen ………………………………………………………………….. 14
Comparison of Devices for Acoustic Tomography of Tree and Material Properties of
Degraded Wood by Valentino Cristini ……………………………………………………………………….. 15
Cascading Potential for Recovered Wood from Heavy Timber Frame Typology in
Pre-Modern Dwelling Buildings in Madrid by Marina de Arana-Fernández ………………. 16
The Economic Balance of Obtaining the Raw Material for Briquettes and Pellets from
Forest Sanitation by Molnar Gabor…………………………………………………………………………….. 28
Determining the Aerodynamic Diameter of Various Wood Dust Types, to Better
Assess Possible Health Risks by Maria Georgiades …………………………………………………….. 38
Rapid determination of the quality of Spanish coniferous wood by models based
on IR spectroscopy by René Herrera Díaz ………………………………………………………………….. 39
Different types of coatings used for wooden shingles exposed to natural and
artificial aging by Dominik Hess …………………………………………………………………………………. 40
Sustainable development – international framework – overview and analysis
in the context of forests and forest products with competitiveness and new
opportunities by Annika Hyytiä ………………………………………………………………………………… 41
Modeling and Optimisation of Alkaline Sulphite Pretreatment of Maize (Zea mays)
stalk fractions for Bioethanol Production by Tolulope Kolajo …………………………………….. 42
The effect of growing conditions on wood density by Luka Srajnc …………………………….. 54

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Differences between hygroscopicity limit and cell wall saturation investigated by

LF-NMR on thermally-modified and lignin-removed Southern pine (Pinus spp.) by
Jingyu Li ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
Some mechanical properties of particleboards produced from four agro-forest
residues using cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesives by Prosper Mensah 56
Spectroscopic characterisation of wood treated by different coatings after .
weathering in subarctic conditions by Olena Myronycheva ………………………………………… 57
Identification of wood vibro-acoustic parameters for musical instruments by Patrik Nop 65
Triboelectric activation of sawdust during cutting and sanding processes, a
new approach to lower wood fine-dust contamination by Luca Nüssel…………………… 66
ABES and DMA cure monitoring of tannin adhesive by Jaša Saražin ………………………… 67
Characterization of raw materials and physical properties of particle board made
from Douglas-fir bark by Mathias Schuh ……………………………………………………………………. 68
Pulp and Paper Making Potential of Elephant and Thatching Grasses Growing in
Zambia by Kennedy Sichamba ……………………………………………………………………………………. 70
Numerical Study of Sorption Behavior of Piano Soundboard by Pavlina Suchomelova … 76
Papermaking fines a potential wood-component for new materials outside the paper
industry? by Armin Winter …………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
Effect of lacquer decoration on VOCs and odor release from P.neurantha (Hemsl.)
Gamble by Bin Zeng ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
Numerical Analysis of Tree Dynamic Response by Barbora Vojáčková ……………………….. 95
Assessment of European beech timber based on non-destructive measurement by Jan
Zlámal ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 96

Timber Engineering: Chairs: Bohumil Kasal, Fraunhofer Institute for Wood Research, Germany;
Mariapaola Riggio, Oregon State University, USA
Analysis of Half-Lap Joint of Full-Scale Unprotected CLT Floors and Walls During
ASTM E119 Fire Tests by Seung Hyun Claas ……………………………………………………………….. 97
Deconstructable Timber-concrete Composite connectors by Mohammad Derikvand …. 98
CLT panels from below-grade yellow-poplar sorted by non-destructive proof loading by
Rafael Azambuja ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 106
Development of a Simplified Method for Prediction of Acoustic Behaviour of CLT
with Facing Layers by Franz Dolezal ……………………………………………………………………………… 108
A Knowledge Management System to Support the US Cross Laminated Timber
Industry by Omar Espinoza …………………………………………………………………………………………… 116
Recovered Wood as Raw Material for Structural Timber Products. Characteristics,
Situation and Study Cases: Ireland and Spain by Daniel Llana ………………………………………… 117
Connection Ductility Demand for Different Ductility Levels in Capacity Design
of Multi-Storey CLT Buildings by Igor Gavric ………………………………………………………………… 124

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Environmental Impacts and Carbon Offset of Mass Timber construction –

A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment Study by Marilia Hellmeister ……………………………… 125
VOC-emission optimized Cross Laminated Timber by Marko Kovacevic ………………………. 126
What is the best timber for construction? Available forest resources, mechanical
efficiency, carbon storage by Jean-Michel Leban …………………………………………………………… 127
Comparative assessment of energy efficiency and environmental impact between
bamboo and polyvinyl chloride-based packing in cooling towers by Xinxin Ma ………….. 128
Monitoring Mass Timber Buildings: A Case Study of the InnoRenew CoE Building
by Eva Prelovšek Niemelä ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 129
The case for mass timber tall buildings using a net zero carbon framework by Azzeddine
Oudjehane ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 131
Regenerative wooden buildings in Europe: comparing Spain to other countries by
Alberto Quintana Gallardo ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 141
ClickDesign project approach to model aesthetic performance of buildings by Jakub
Sandak ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 142
Parameters to Minimize the Environmental Footprint of Wood and Engineered
Wood Products by Erwin M. Schau ……………………………………………………………………………. 143
TallWood Design Institute: Latest Resilient Design and Seismic Engineering Research
by Evan Schmidt …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 152
Are wood and sustainability-related terms emphasized more nowadays than
20 years ago? Corpora-based study in Czech and Slovenian languages by Vaclav Sebera 153
Options for climate change performance indicators for cross-laminated timber by Lars
G.F. Tellnes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 154

Business, Marketing, Digitalisation, and Regulations: Chairs Eric Hansen, Oregon State
University, USA; Rob Kozak, University of British Columbia, Canada
Contribution and potential of the wood industry and its products to the circular economy:
Case examples from the US and Central-Southeast Europe by Andreja Pirc Barcic……… 155
Digitalization Rate of SMEs Involved in the Wood Fibres Value Chains in the Alpine Region
by Tina Beranič ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 166
A Circular Economy for Wood under the European Green Deal by Michael Burnard …… 173
Raising the bar: Women administrator leaders in top world forestry universities by
Pipiet Larasatie …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 174
The Oil Palm Trunk: Opportunities and Challenges for the Malaysian Timber-Based
Industries by Yueh Feng Loh ………………………………………………………………………………………. 175
Moving past the traditional structure of academic publishing – re-aligning incentives
with the goals of science by Benedikt Neyes …………………………………………………………….. 176
The Wood Science and Technology Program at West Virginia University: A Case
Study by Gloria Oporto ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 177
Material Choice: A new frontier in corporate sustainability by Rajat Panwar …………….. 178

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Barriers and Drivers of thermally-modified wood: Perceptions of Architects in the

US by Henry Quesada ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 179
Wood Waste, Source of Sustainable Livelihood for Women Group by Haruna Seidu … 180

TUESDAY JULY 14TH

Composites and Adhesives: Chairs: David DeVallance, InnoRenew CoE & University of
Primorska, Slovenia; Douglas Gardner, University of Maine, USA
Learning about and from the functionality of primers in glulam bonding by Thomas
Böger ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 181
Porous structures produced from different bark particles by mechanical foaming by
Maria Busquets Ferrer ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 183
Influence of Atmospheric Air Plasma Pre-Treatment of Veneers on the Mechanical
Properties and Stability of Beech Plywood by Sebastian Dahle ……………………………….. 184
The Compatibility between Components of Wood-Plastic Composites using
Chemical Force Microscopy by Bernard Effah ……………………………………………………………. 185
Innovative High-Feed Rate Additive Manufacturing Using Sustainable Nano- Micro-
Cellulose-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites by Doug Gardner …………………………… 194
Green enzyme-based processes for value-added applications of lignin by Georg Guebitz 195
New Bio-Based Sandwich Panel with High Impact-Resistance, following Cradle-to-
Cradle Design by Raphaela Hellmayr …………………………………………………………………………. 196
Systematic evaluation of wheat flour, wheat starch and wheat protein in urea and
phenol formaldehyde resins by Elfriede Hogger ……………………………………………………….. 197
Influences of various infill patterns on specific mechanical properties of 3D printed
wood/Polylactic Acid (PLA) composites which were processed using Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM) by Stefan Kain ……………………………………………………………….. 199
4D X-Ray CT Studies on Wood-based Panels at UGCT-Woodlab by Pierre Kibleur ……… 207
Edge Banding Performance Analysis of Wood Based Material In The Furniture Industry
by Kucuk Huseyin Koc ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 209
Highly efficient, stable, and recyclable hydrogen manganese oxide/cellulose film
for the extraction of lithium from seawater by Daxin Liang …………………………………………. 218
Agrocomposites for the reinforcement of concrete within light weight structures by
Laetitia Marrot …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 219
Laboratory testing on the face bond durability of cross-laminated hardwoods by
Munkaila Musah ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 220
Characterization of recycled wood plastic composites with added torrefied wood by
Jaka Gašper Pečnik …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 221
Study on One-Shot Process for Wood-based Composites by Vicky Reichel ………………… 222
Long Fiber Wood Compounds by Thomas Schmid ……………………………………………………… 233

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Effect of Scavenger and Microwave Heating on Formaldehyde Emission from

Particleboard by Anil Kumar Sethy …………………………………………………………………………….. 234
Biobased porous structures based on cellulosic materials by Axel Solt-Rindler ………….. 236
Wood species dependent performance of pMDI adhesion by Pia Solt ……………………….. 238
Highly Anisotropic Wood-Based Composite with Layered Structure for Thermal and
Electrical Conduction by Hao Sun ……………………………………………………………………………. 240
Low Temperature Adhesive Bonding for Structural Wood Materials by Anita Tran …. 241
Development of a Concept for Electrically Conductive Furniture Panels by Christof
Tschannen …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 242
Bonding Strength of Benuang and Duabanga Glulam Using Their Bark as Filler for
Phenol Formaldehyde Resin by Imam Wahyudi ………………………………………………………… 253
Preparation of Cellulose Acetate-Polyacrylonitrile Composite Nanofibers by
Multi-fluid Mixing Electrospinning Method: Morphology, Wettability, and
Mechanical Properties by Dong Wang ………………………………………………………………………. 254
Characteristic properties of 3D-printed wood/Polylactic acid composites with
different extrusion temperatures using fused deposition modeling by Chin-Hao Yeh … 255
Wood-Metal Bonding Strength Improved Via Atmospheric Plasma Pre-Treatment by
Jure Žigon …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 256

Wood Chemistry & Cell Biology: Chair: Gloria Oporto, West Virginia University, USA
Simultaneous Chemical and Topographical Mapping of Wood Ultrastructures by
Chemical Force Microscopy by Claudia Gusenbauer …………………………………………………. 257
Comparison of wood volumes and quality produced both by forestry and agroforest
systems: the case of walnut (Juglans x Regia x Nigra by Lucie Heim ………………………….. 259
In situ synthesis of mesoporous carbon-encapsulated Iron nanoparticles derived
from rattan for efficient adsorption by Lili Shang ……………………………………………………… 266
The Visualization of Microstructure of Bamboo Nodes by High-resolution X-ray
Microtomography (Micro-CT) by Shumin Yang …………………………………………………………. 267
A direct bioautography as a screening-method for bioactive wood extracts against
basidiomycetes, Regina Wanschura …………………………………………………………………………. 268

WEDNESDAY, JULY 15TH

Wood in Health & Wellbeing: Chairs: Mike Burnard, InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska,
Slovenia; Eva Haviarova, Purdue University, USA
Building Wooden Hives for the Wellbeing of Honeybees, by Anna Dupleix ………………….. 282
Human physiological responses during tactile and visual contact with densified and
laminated wood by Dean Lipovac ………………………………………………………………………………… 284
Preparation of Kenaf based nanobiocomposite as sustainable adsorbent for the
removal of organic and inorganic and pathogenic contaminants by Sujata Mandal …….. 286

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Wood as a Building Material Affects the Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) and
Well-being of Occupants by Riina Muilu-Mäkelä …………………………………………………………. 287
Demonstration of REED- Restorative Environmental and Ergonomic Design principles
on InnoRenew CoE building architecture by Aarne Niemelä ………………………………………. 289

Biodeterioration & the Impact of Forest Disturbances: Chairs: Yusuf Sudo Hadi, Bogor
Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia; Francesco Negro, DISAFA, University of Torino,
Italy
Population distribution and structure of Afzelia species in Southwestern Nigeria by
Adejoke Akinyele ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 291
Termite Resistance of Stem and Branch Wood of Two Tropical Hardwood Species in
Ghana by Kwaku Antwi …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 311
Accelerated Biodegradation of Kenaf Fiber/Soy Protein Composites Using Pectinase
under Soil Burial Condition by Yu Fu ………………………………………………………………………….. 322
Impact of forest disturbances on wood quality: a review by Francesco Negro …………… 323

Wood Modification & Preservation: Chairs: Anna Sandak, InnoRenew CoE & University
of Primorska, Slovenia; Dick Sandberg, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden
Investigation on Thermo-Hydro Mechanical Treatments effects to densify
Tasmanian planted and native timber species by Michelle Balasso …………………………… 324
Prospects for powder coatings by Olha Baranova …………………………………………………….. 326
Characterization of Spruce Log Soaking Water and their Antifungal and Wood
Preserving Properties by Aitor Barbero-López ………………………………………………………….. 327
Integrated Flattening and Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Modification of Bamboo Split
by Changhua Fang ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 333
Manufacturing and Optimization of a Cellulose-Based “Green” High-Performance
Materia by Matthias Jakob …………………………………………………………………………………………. 334
Parameter Study on a Wood Impregnation Process by Mariana Frias ………………………… 335
Inspired by nature: a novel impregnation process for wood preservation by Shujun Li .. 336
Microbial Dyeing—Infection Behavior and Influence of Lasiodiplodia theobromae in
Poplar Veneer by Yuansong Liu ……………………………………………………………………………………. 337
Effect of Moisture Content and Preservatives on Discoloration of Oil Palm Lumber by
Prosper Mensah ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 338
Irregular treatment during wood modification (furfurization, mineralization and
acetylation) for hardwood from tropical species growing in fast-growth conditions
by Roger Moya …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 339
Characterization of some properties of fast-growing Masson pine wood subjected to
two-step freeze silicon oil treatment by Chukwuemeka Onyinyechi ………………………….. 340
An ionic-liquid based fire retardant for wood-based panels by Jussi Ruponen ………….. 348
Bioinspiration as a source for alternative wood modification, protection and
functionalization by Anna Sandak ……………………………………………………………………………… 354

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Hardness Determination in Surface-densified Wood: The Influence of the Hardness

Test Method and the Density Profile by Alexander Scharf ………………………………………….. 355
Coupling THM treatments with phenol-based resin for reduced set-recovery by
Matthew Schwarzkopf ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 356

Wood Physics and Mechanics: Chairs: Ales Straze, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Mike
Wolcott, Washington State University, USA
X-ray computed tomography studies of moisture-content distribution in spruce boards
exposed to liquid water by José Couceiro ……………………………………………………………………. 357
Understanding the Energy Dissipation Process on Hardwoods and its Dependence
on the Anatomical Structures by Júlio Amando de Barros …………………………………………………… 359
What Do We Know on Rosewoods Properties? A Wood Mechanics Update on the
Endangered Pantropical Genus Dalbergia by Iris Brémaud ………………………………………………… 361
Hardwood cutting forces at different speeds up to 80 m/s for an evaluated real chip
thickness by Ondrej Dvoracek ……………………………………………………………………………………. 362
Advanced X-ray CT Scanning: a Versatile Research Tool for Analyzing Cores of Living
Trees by Tom De Mil …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 363
A sawmill simulation study of the volume yield changes when sawing with thinner
kerfs by Magnus Fredriksson ……………………………………………………………………………………… 364
Mechanical Properties versus Structure of Oil Palm Wood (Elaeis guineensis JACQ.)
by Katja Fruehwald-Koenig ………………………………………………………………………………………. 377
Color Change and Physical–Mechanical Properties of Four Furfurylated Fast-Growing
Tropical Wood Species by Yusuf Sudo Hadi ……………………………………………………………….. 378
Auto-ignition characteristics of wood by Christian Hansmann ………………………………….. 379
Mechanical behavior of a painted wooden panel from the heritage subject to
hygrothermal variations: role of the reinforcement by Delphine Jullien …………………… 380
Dynamic compensation of load cell response for cutting force measurements in
wood machining by Daniel Lechowicz ……………………………………………………………………….. 382
Assessment of Energy-Saving by Using a Membrane-Based Thermal Energy
Recovery System to Improve the Energy Efficiency of Kiln Drying Processes by
Ling Li …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 383
The Steady-State Diffusion of Moisture in Southern Pine Lumber Ilona Peszlen ………… 384
Review of Physical and Structural Properties of Oak Wood from Historical
Constructions by Alex Straze ………………………………………………………………………………………. 385
Bark and wood as raw materials for high performance insulations,by Oliver Vay ……….. 386
Effects of latent heat exchange on water vapor sorption kinetics by Wim Willems …….. 387

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POSTERS SESSION
STUDENT POSTERS:
Understanding the Thermodiffusion Properties of Ionic Liquids in a Cellulosic
Medium by Júlio Amando De Barros…………………………………………………………………………… 394
Intra-Tree and Inter-Tree Variations in the Wood of Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis,
Parkinson Ex. F.A Zorn) Fosberg by Olusola Samuel Areo ………………………………………….. 395
Investigation on Thermo-Hydro Mechanical Treatments Effects to Densify Tasmanian
Planted and Native Timber Species by Michelle Balasso …………………………………………….. 396
Characterization of Spruce Log Soaking Water and their Antifungal and Wood
Preserving Properties by Aitor Bargero-López …………………………………………………………… 397
Porous structures produced from different bark particles by mechanical foaming by
Maria Busquests Ferrer …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 398
Hardwood cutting forces at different speeds up to 80 m/s for an evaluated real chip
Thickness by Ondrej Dvoracek ……………………………………………………………………………………. 399
Simultaneous Chemical and Topographical Mapping of Wood Ultrastructures by
Chemical Force Microscopy by Claudia Gusenbauer ………………………………………………….. 400
The importance of cold tack of urea formaldehyde in plywood production by Elfriede
Hogger ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 401
Sustainable development – international framework – overview and analysis in the
context of forests and forest products with competitiveness and new opportunities by
Annika Hyytiä ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 402
Triboelectric Activation of Wood Surfaces by Mechanical Friction by Lena Maria Leiter 403
Structural, chemical, and multi-scale mechanical characterization of waste windmill
palm fiber (trachycarpus fortunei) by Jing Li ……………………………………………………………….. 404
Differences between hygroscopicity limit and cell wall saturation investigated by
LF-NMR on thermally-modified and lignin-removed Southern pine (Pinus spp.) by
Jingyu Li …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 419
Preparation of Kenaf based nanobiocomposite as sustainable adsorbent for the
removal of organic and inorganic and pathogenic contaminants by Sujata Mandal……. 420
Bioinspired wood protection – evaluation of wood treated with biofinish by Faksawat
Poohphajai ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 421
An ionic-liquid based fire retardant for wood-based panels by Jussi Ruponen ………….. 422
ABES and DMA Cure Monitoring of Tannin Adhesive by Jaša Saražin ………………………… 423
Highly Anisotropic Wood-Based Composite with Layered Structure for Thermal and
Electrical Conduction by Hao Sun ………………………………………………………………………………. 424
Low Temperature Adhesive Bonding for Structural Wood Materials by Anita Tran ……. 425
The Vibrational Properties of Catalpa Ovata Wood for the Back Plate of the Guqin by
Yi-Hsuan Tsai ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 426
Effects of Wood Decay on the Deformation Mechanism and Shear Performance of
Screwed and Nailed Joints by Rintato Ueda ………………………………………………………………… 427

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Adding Value to Timber Components through Consideration of Demolition and

Disassembly by St. John Walsh ………………………………………………………………………………… 436
Preparation of Cellulose Acetate-Polyacrylonitrile Composite Nanofibers by Multi-
fluid Mixing Electrospinning Method: Morphology, Wettability, and Mechanical
Properties by Dong Wang …………………………………………………………………………………………. 437
Analysis of VOCs and odor-active compounds from veneered particleboard coated
with water-based lacquer by Qifan Wang …………………………………………………………………. 438
Effect of lacquer decoration on VOCs and odor release from P.neurantha (Hemsl.)
Gamble by Bin Zeng ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 455

REGULAR POSTERS:
Properties of Particleboard Made from Recycled Polystyrene and Cocos
nucifera Stem Particles by Babatunde Ajayi ……………………………………………………………… 456
Heterospecific tree density and environmental factors affect Afzelia africana Sm.
population structure in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, West Africa: Implications
for Management and Restoration by Atanasso Akpovi Justin …………………………………… 457
Enhancing the fire resistance of cement-bonded particleboard made of Scots pine and
Poplar by Tibor L. Alpár …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 459
Promotion of Eucalyptus Hybrid Species as Utility Poles for Electricity Transmission:
The Mechanical Strength Properties of Eucalyptus urograndis Grown in Ghana by
Emmanuel Appiah-Kubi ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 469
Increasing Cold Tack of pMDI resin with Partial Soy Flour Substitution by Osei
Asafu-Adjaye ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 477
Adhesive Bonding of Planed and Sawn Jointed Sugar Maple Lumber: Bending Strength
of Glued Joints by Mohammadali Azadfar …………………………………………………………………… 478
The Influence of Oil Uptake on Moisture Excluding Efficiency in Thermally Treated
Wood by Jan Baar ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 479
Non-linear Material Model of Mechanical Behaviour of Oak Wood Exposed to
Different Relative Humidity Conditions by Martin Brabec ………………………………………….. 488
Building Your Social Media Presence by Candra Burns ……………………………………………….. 489
Development of technology for one-sided surface carbonization of wood by Petr
Cermak ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 490
Surface free energy of ten tropical woods species and their acrylic and alkyd varnishes
wettability by Wayan Darmawan …………………………………………………………………………………. 496
Bond Strength of Wood Adhesives: The Sensitivity of Standard Test Methods to
Imperfections by Mohammad Derikvand …………………………………………………………………….. 507
Bagasse xylan nanocomposite films with high transparency, barrier properties and
enhanced mechanical strength characteristics by Seyedrahman Djafaripetroudy ……….. 515
Experimental analysis of mass loss kinetics during heat treatment of wood by Jakub
Dömény ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 516

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Smart Thumper™, a Non Destructive Lumber Evaluation Phone Application by

Frederico José Nistal França……………………………………………………………………………………… 523
Building a portable offline bark identification system through training:
A MobileNet-V2 by Knowledge Distilling and Network Pruning by Rado Gazo …………. 524
Assessing success of sustainability curriculum development efforts: evidence from
a US higher education institution by Rado Gazo ………………………………………………………… 525
Circular Economy Principles for Furniture Industry by Eva Haviarova ………………………… 526
Natural insulating material in the form of burning by Michaela Horváthová ……………… 527
Low temperature potassium hydroxide pulping of straw by Md Sarwar Jahan …………… 528
Objective and Subjective Detection of Wood Defects by Branimir Jambreković …………. 529
Dynamic Properties of Traditional Timber Building by Gi Young Jeong ……………………….. 530
Cellulose Nanofiber Effect on Bonding Strength of PUR and PVAc Glued Wood Joint
in Shear Loading by Gourav Kamboj ……………………………………………………………………………. 531
Digital Solutions in Architecture and Timber Construction by Manja Kitek Kuzman ……. 532
Investigations of the Strength and Resistance of Glued Pine Wood from Tuchola
Region by Tomasz Krystofiak ………………………………………………………………………………………. 533
Variations of earlywood vessel diameter of Quercus petraea Liebl according to tree
size and altitude by Jean-Michel Leban ……………………………………………………………………… 535
Comparative study on moso bamboo shear strength in four test methods by
Huanrong Liu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 537
Development of Palm Oil-based Resins for Natural Fiber Composites by Wendi Liu …… 538
Anatomical features and growth ring width correlation of Catalpa bungei by Yamei Liu 539
Structural Reliability Analysis of Cross Laminated Timber Plates submitted to Bending
Test by Nilson Mascia ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 540
Physical Properties of Particleboard Produced from Residues of Musa paradisiaca
pseudostem, Theobroma cacao and Ceiba pentandra by Prosper Mensah ………………….. 548
Characterization of Particleboard Produced from Residues of Musa Paradisiaca
Pseudostem, Theobroma Cacao Pod, Theobroma Cacao Stem and Ceiba Pentandra by
Stephen Mitchual …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 549
Steaming and heating treatment in small sawlog for improving lumber quality of
two tropical species with moderate wood density by Roger Moya ………………………………. 570
Global CLT industry in 2020: Growth beyond the Alpine Region by Lech Muszynski …….. 571
How Megaplatypus mutatus behaves inside a trunk? Studying its galleries via
Computerized Axial Tomography and Digital Images Processing by Esteban Ceriani
Nakamurakare ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 579
Introducing the SWST Wood Technology Student Chapter at DISAFA, University of
Torino, Italy by Francesco Negro ………………………………………………………………………………….. 580
Investigation of the damping behaviour of beech material by Gábor Németh …………….. 581
Measuring the heat of interaction between lignocellulosic materials and water by
Martin Nopens …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 582

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Combined FTIR spectroscopy and rheology for investigating the influence of

different wood extracts on adhesive curing by Merve Özparpucu ……………………………… 584
An anionic polyelectrolyte hybrid for wood-polyethylene composites with high
strength and fire safety via self-assembly by Mingzhu Pan ………………………………………… 585
Dynamic behavior of phenol-formaldehyde modified wood under cyclic loading by
Jaka Gašper Pečnik ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 586
The way of using logging waste in wood-based panels production by Olena
Pinchevska ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 587
Utilization of Juniper residues for strandboard manufacturing by Tomas Pipiska ……… 588
Surface Modification of Bamboo Fibers for Reinforcing Cement-based Composites by
Renhui Qiu …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 589
Mapping of moisture on wood surface with hyperspectral imaging by Jakub Sandak …. 590
Reduction of Phenol Formaldehyde Resin Content in Dry-Processed Fibreboards by
Adding Hydrolysis Lignin by Viktor Savov …………………………………………………………………….. 592
Life cycle assessment of the new InnoRenew CoE research building – hot spots
and the effects of methodological differences on the results for a wooden
frame building by Erwin M. Schau ……………………………………………………………………………….. 602
Adhesives Based on Lignin, Tannin and Liquefied Wood by Milan Sernek ……………………. 603
Structural joints of furniture made of cardboard and plywood by Alena Sobotkova …….. 604
Paper and plastic waste composite boards for furniture by Alena Sobotkova ………………. 606
Attracting children to wood science and renewable material professions by Vesna
Starman ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 607
Effect of Moderate Thermal Treatment on Properties of Resonance Spruce for Piano
Soundboard by Jan Tippner …………………………………………………………………………………………… 608
Effect of Cutting Parameters on Dust Emission and Surface Roughness during Helical
Planing Sucupira Wood by Bruna Ugulino ……………………………………………………………………… 609
Effects of Radial Growth Rate on Wood Quality Parameters of Superior Teakwood
from Muna Island, Indonesia by Imam Wahyudi …………………………………………………………… 610
Impacts of Activation Methods on the Porous Structure of Biomass-Derived
Activated Carbons for Energy Storage by Jingxin Wang ………………………………………………… 611
Modeling of Thermal Performance of Cellulose Insulation Imbedded with Phase
Change Material by Xun Wang ……………………………………………………………………………………… 612
Segmentation of Knot Defects on Coniferous Lumber Surface Using Deep Neural
Network by Hwanmyeong Yeo ……………………………………………………………………………………… 613
Classification of Heat Treatment Degree of Wood Components Using Near-infrared
Spectroscopy by Hwanmyeong Yeo ………………………………………………………………………………. 615
Enhancing particleboard panels’ performance properties by nanocellulose and boric
acid reinforcement by Mert Yildirim …………………………………………………………………………….. 617
Development of low formaldehyde-emitting furniture components by nanocellulose
and boric acid reinforcement by Mert Yildirim ……………………………………………………………… 618

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Improving the Mould and Blue-stain resistance of Bamboo through Acidic Hydrolysis
By Zixuan Yu ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 623
Physical and mechanical properties of flatten bamboo panel and bonding
performance in different bonding surface by Xiubiao Zhang …………………………………….. 624

Biographies and Photos 625

Sponsors 813

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Monday, July 13

Keynote:
Ageing of wood in structures: does it really happen?

Bohumil Kasal,
Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic and Professor at the
University of Primorska, Slovenia.

Abstract
Ageing in general is a process or permanent, irreversible change of relevant properties with time. This definition is
applicable to many scenarios and the term relevant properties is of the key importance. To study the ageing (or
causes of ageing) is practically impossible in the context of structural materials that are intended to be used
sometimes for centuries. Accelerated methods are often used to predict the change of materials properties with time
and often, extrapolation is used to do so. Direct validation of accelerated methods to simulate processes of ageing is
virtually impossible. This presentation will attempt to shed the light onto the mystery of ageing of wood.

Early Stage Researcher

Chairs:
Benedikt Neyses, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden
Martin Nopens, Universität Hamburg, Germany

Slovenian wood-based bioeconomy: present state and future perspectives

Domen Arnic, Slovenian Forestry Institute

[email protected]
Peter Prisian, Slovenian Forestry Institute
[email protected]
Luka Juvancic, Dept of Animal Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana,
Slovenia
[email protected]

Abstract
The availability of fossil fuels, overexploitation of natural resources and climate change are implying a more sustainable use of
raw materials. Bioeconomy is an economic paradigm, with the main idea to minimize the energy and material consumption and
to maximize the share of renewable resources (Winkel, 2017). Expanding the bioeconomy has been identified as a strategic aim
of the EU. Forestry and wood-based bioeconomy represent an important part of the overall bioeconomy (Hagemann et al., 2016).
Paper and wood manufacturing, as well as forestry, represent 9%, 8% and 2% of the EU's bioeconomy turnover respectively (El-
Chichakli et al., 2016).

Forest are covering almost 60% of the total surface in Slovenia, representing a source of wood-based raw materials for a
sustainable bioeconomy. We assessed the current state of bioeconomy in Slovenia based on four indicators suggested by
Hagemann et al. (2016) and Jasinevičius et al. (2017): (I) availability of wood biomass, (II) wood biomass market, (III) policy
and social context and (IV) added value within bioeconomy (Arnič et al., 2019).

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In 2017, annual available wood biomass on the market was 5.01 million m3; 53 % was exported and 47 % was used in the
domestic wood processing industry. In the same year, a Slovenian forest- and wood-based bioeconomy employed around 19.000
workers and created more than 770 million euros of gross value added, which represents one-third of gross added value of
Slovenian bioeconomy (the highest economic result in last two decades). Compared to other countries (i.e. Austria, Germany, and
Finland) Slovenia still lags in development of a wood-based bioeconomy, due to the low percentage of harvested forest growth
and in a higher share of exported wood.

Further development of wood-based bioeconomy in Slovenia may be performed at two levels. Firstly, by improving the
efficiency of forest management and optimizing and upgrading existing timber-processing technologies. Secondly, with the
development and establishment of novel technologies that enable more efficient use of lower quality wood, wood residues and
by-products of the wood processing and paper industry according to the principles of circular bioeconomy (Hurmekoski et al.,
2018).

References:

Arnič D., Prislan P., Juvančič L. 2019. Raba lesa v slovenskem biogospodarstvu. Gozdarski vestnik, 10, 77: 375-393.

El-Chichakli B., von Braun J., et al. 2016. Five cornerstones of a global bioeconomy. Nature, 535, 7611: 221.

Hagemann N., Gawel E., et al. 2016. Possible Futures towards a Wood-Based Bioeconomy: A Scenario Analysis for Germany.
Sustainability, 8, 1: 98.

Hurmekoski E., Jonsson R., et al. 2018. Diversification of the forest industries: role of new wood-based products. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research, 48, 12: 1417-1432.

Jasinevičius G., Lindner M., Verkerk P., Aleinikovas M. 2017. Assessing Impacts of Wood Utilisation Scenarios for a Lithuanian
Bioeconomy: Impacts on Carbon in Forests and Harvested Wood Products and on the Socio-Economic Performance of the
Forest-Based Sector. Forests, 8, 4: 133.

Winkel G. 2017. Towards a Sustainable European Forest-based Bioeconomy: Assessment and the Way Forward. European
Forest Institute (EFI) pp.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Distributed Ledger Technology for Data Privacy and

Traceability in Supply Chain Environments

Sidra Aslam1,2* - Michael Mrissa1,2

1InnoRenew CoE, Livade 6, 6310 Izola, Slovenia

*{firstname.surname}@innorenew.eu

2University of Primorska, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and

Information Technology, Glagoljaška ulica 8, 6000 Koper, Slovenia

Abstract
Wood supply chain stakeholders need traceability of individual products as well
as protection from disclosure of their global activity (e.g. operation volumes), thus
making data privacy a major concern. However, typical solutions to manage
privacy-sensitive data are centralized and rely on third parties. Therefore, they suffer
from single point of failure, trust and performance issues. Distributed ledger
technology ensures data replication, immutability and availability, however, privacy-
sensitive data remains publicly available. In this paper, we propose a framework
design that combines distributed ledger technology with ring signature, mix
networks and distributed hash table to manage data privacy. We illustrate the
applicability of our solution with a product traceability scenario for the wood supply
chain.
Keywords: distributed ledger, wood supply chain, privacy, security

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Spatial Augmented Reality to Improve Manufacturing of Timber

Frame Prefabricated Wall Elements

Birger Bartuska1
[email protected]
Alfred Tesichinger2
[email protected]
Martin Riegler1
[email protected]

Wood K Plus, Austria

1

2 Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, Department

of Material Sciences and Process Engineering, BOKU – University of

Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Abstract
Industry 4.0 the so called 4th industrial revolution is a concept that includes many different approaches that could lead to a highly
efficient and flexible (manufacturing) industry. A main goal of Industry 4.0 is to be able to achieve mass customization with the
same cost as mass production. In several branches of the wood industry for example kitchen- or prefabricated housing production
it is already state of the art to produce in lot size 1. Often this is only possible with a lot of manual labor which increases the price
of the manufactured products significantly.

Production of complex products like prefabricated timber wall elements in lot size 1 requires numerous work instructions that are
different for every single part that is produced. These instructions need to be understood and carried out with as few errors as
possible and as fast as possible to keep rework and cycle times to a minimum. Therefore, flexibility in production is a key
element because of the large variety of the produced elements.

Spatial augmented reality makes it possible to integrate information directly into a work environment by projecting it on
workbenches or even work pieces themselves. Because spatial augmented reality does not require a headgear or goggles to be
worn it can in many cases be implemented in production processes quite easily without restricting workers in their movement or
field of view.

In this research we evaluate a self-developed projector based spatial augmented reality application for the manufacturing of
timber frame prefabricated wall elements and compare it to existing production processes that are well established in the industry.
The completion time and the error rates are measured during selected production steps performed under laboratory conditions.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Can Woody Biomass from Orchards Still Be Considered a

Waste Material?
Maria Roberta Bruno1*, Valentina Lo Giudice1,Paola Cetera2, Luigi Todaro3.
1 PhDStudent,School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of
Basilicata. V.le dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy,*Corresponding author
[email protected];
[email protected]
2
PhD, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics -Research Centre for Engineering and
Agro-Food Processing (CREA-IT), Via dellaPascolare, 16 - 00015 Monterotondo (Roma), Italy
[email protected]
3Professor, School of Agricultural, Forestry, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of
Basilicata. V.ledell’AteneoLucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy,
[email protected]

Abstract

In Europe (EU-27) orchards occupy 5,947,860.54 ha (Eurostat, 2017). The main permanent crops
are represented by olive trees, orange trees, vineyards and different crops belonging to the
Rosaceae family (i.e. apricot, peach, cherry, pear and apple trees). Their management produces
a large amount of biomass. According to Pari et al., (2018), in Europe more than 13 million tons of
pruning biomass (over dry basis) are available from the main orchards each year, in Italy around
6 million tons are produced yearly (including uprooted biomass). This biomass is mostly burned
either sometimes chopped and left on the soil to maintain the organic carbon levels or to prevent
soil erosion. The interest in finding sustainable solutions related to the wood residues
management has led to focus the attention on the extraction of secondary metabolites from
pruning residues, also called "extractives". The aim of this study is to enhance the wood biomass
coming from apricot (Prunus Armeniaca L.), olive (Olea Europaea L.) and orange trees (Citrus
sinensis L.). The experimental material was collected in Basilicata region in May 2018. The
biomass includes pruning residues (branches) and trunk residues obtained after the cultivations
explant. In all samples the bark was separated from the wood. In the case of orange and apricot
samples, the sapwood and the heartwood within the trunk were considered separately. These
samples first were cut into small pieces, then ground to obtain sawdust. Extraction of sawdust
was performed using an Accelerated Solvent Extractor with three types of solvents: ethanol/
water (50:50v/v), only ethanol and only water, at 120°C. After extraction, organic solvents were
evaporated under vacuum using a rotary evaporator at 37°C, while water was freeze-dried for
48h. The chemical analyses of the extracts were performed using an LC-MS. The results showed
the extractive yields and the secondary metabolites present in each sample. Secondary

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

metabolites are chemical compounds produced by several plant tissues (e. g. leaves, bark, roots,
buds, wood). They provide different medicinal applications, due to the antioxidant, anticancer,
anti-inflammatory, antifungal and other properties. The investigation of the natural compounds
is not an easy procedure but interesting natural compounds as catechine and oleuropein were
found in the samples. These types of natural compounds may be applied in the cosmetic sectors
in order to create new value-added products, opening a perspective for the use of orchard
biomass as new raw material.

Key words: biomass, agricultural, waste, chemical analysis, metabolites secondary, antioxidant
compounds, reuse.
Introduction

In Europe (EU-27) the orchards occupy 5,947,860.54 ha (Eurostat, 2017). Italy with its
1,389,829.43 ha (Eurostat, 2017) is in Europe (EU-28) the second Country after Spain, with the
largest number of orchards. In the Italian regions, the orchards that cover the largest areas are
olive trees equal to 51% of the entire surface, followed by vineyards with 31%, orange trees
with 6% and tree crops belonging to the rosaceae family (peach, apricot, apple, pear, cherry)
which occupy about 9% (Istat, 2018). The orchards produce a large quantitative of biomass
coming from pruning and trees explantation. This biomass from pruning and explants is mostly
burned, sometimes chopped and left on the soil to maintain the organic carbon levels, rarely it
is added to produce the farm organic compost. The main reason why this biomass is burned,
reflects the fact that it doesn’t produce sufficient profit. Therefore, the European strategy have
created the basis for enhancing the natural resources as well as for a sustainable economic
growth. Starting to the European line guides, the aim of this study is the valorisation of biomass
from orchards, in particular from apricot tree (Prunus Armeniaca L.) olive tree (Olea Europaea
L.) and orange tree (Citrus Sinensis L.), through the analyses of the secondary metabolites
present in the extractives from pruning and trunk biomass of these plants. Both in the pruning
and in the trunks were separated the bark from the wood, in add in the trunk (except for the
olive tree) the wood is divided in heartwood and sapwood. In all these plants parts there were
determined: i) their most frequent molecular compounds, ii) their chemical composition using
liquid chromatography (LC-MS). The investigation of the natural compounds is not an easy
procedure but interesting natural compounds as catechine and oleuropein was found in the
samples.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Materials & Methods

ORCHARDS BIOMASS EXTRACTIVES

The biomass from Apricot trees (Prunus Armeniaca L. var. Pisana), olive trees (Olea Europaea L.
var. Coratina) and orange trees (Citrus Sinensis L. var. Navellina) formed by pruning residues
and trunk uproot were gathered in May 2018 in different orchards within Policoro-Metaponto
area (Basilicata Region). The samples were pounded through a Fritsch grinder ring to obtain the
powder (Vibrating Mill Pulverisette Cup 9, 3 times 40 seconds at 1000 RPM) with the grinding
set N° 484125. Extraction of sawdust was performed using an Accelerated Solvent Extractor
(Dionex ASE 200, Voisins Le Bretonneux, France). Extraction was performed in 33mL cell size on
5 g of sawdust at 120°C under a pressure of 100 bars (3 static cycles of 5 minutes each) using
ethanol, water and a mixture of ethanol:water (50:50 v/V). After extraction, organic solvents
were evaporated under vacuum using a rotaryevaporator (Rotary evaporator BuchiRotavapor
R-300) at 37°C.
LC–MS ANALYSIS
U-HPLC analysis of extracts was carried out using an LC–MS-8030Shimadzu apparatus equipped
with a Diode array detector SPDM20A.The separation was carried out in thermostatic
conditions at 40 °C with a reversed-phase column (Phenomenex® Luna 3µm C18). The detection
was carried out with an UV detector set atthe wavelength of 280 nm and under selected ion
monitoring by negative and positive mode ESI-MS. The operating parameters for MS detection
were as follows: nebulizing gas (N2), flow 3.0 L/min, drying gas flow 15 L/min, interface voltage
4.5 kV, gas pressure 230 kPa, DL temperature: 250 °C, block heater temperature 400 °C.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The most frequency molecular compounds and PCA were computed using the R statistical
software environment (http://www.r-project.org).

Results and Discussion

The LC-MS analyses are still being worked on but the first results showed that the most
frequent compounds, in the samples of apricot tree, olive tree and orange tree, are interesting
molecular compounds. In the apricot tree samples (fig.1) was detected these phenolic
compounds as m/z 289 [Catechine+H], m/z 575 [ProcydinDimer+H], m/z 433 [Naringenin +H],
m/z 559 m/z [Phenolic Glycoside+H], m/z 271 [Phlorentin+H]. According to Rice-Evans et al.,
1997, the phenolic compounds have an high antioxidant activity and several proprieties as
against cancer, cardiovascular diseases.
In the Fig. 2 are reported the most frequency compounds analysed in the different part of the
olive tree samples. The compounds as m/z 539 [Oleuropeina+H], m/z 523 [Ligstroside+H], have

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 Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

according to Cardoso et al., 2011antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial,

cardioprotective, hypoglycemic and anticarcinogenic. The orange tree samples (fig.3) showed
that among the most frequent compounds there is m/z 179 [CaffeicAcid+H] that exhibits a
significant potential as an antidiabetic agent by suppressing a progression of type 2 diabetic
states that is suggested by an attenuation of hepatic glucose output and enhancement of
adipocyte glucose uptake, insulin secretion, and antioxidant capacity (Un et al., 2006).

Figure 1: Most frequent compounds in the Apricot tree samples

Figure 2: Most frequent compounds in the Olive tree samples

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Figure 3: Most frequent compounds in the Orange tree samples

Summary and Conclusions

The agricultural biomass coming from pruning and uproot tree of tree different orchards species
apricot tree, olive tree and orange tree have several proprieties as reported in the analyses of this
study. This agricultural biomass, considered waste material, contains different antioxidant
compound with useful properties for the human health. Our research will proceed by applying
these agricultural wood extractives as a raw material in an industrial product.

Acknowledgements

The Ph.D. programme in Agricultural, Forest and Environmental Sciences is coordinated by F.

Napolitano, at the University of Basilicata, supported by Maria Roberta Bruno.

References

Eurostat - Data Explorer, 2017: https://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

Statistics Istat, 2018: http://dati-censimentoagricoltura.istat.it
Cardoso, S.M., Falcão, S.I., Peres, A.M., Domingues, M.R.M., (2011) Oleuropein/ligstroside
isomers and their derivatives in Portuguese olive mill wastewaters. Food Chem. 129, 291–296.
Rice-Evans, C.A., Miller, N.J., Paganga, G., (1997) Antioxidant properties of phenolic
compounds. Trends Plant Sci.

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Un, J.J., Lee, M.K., Yong, B.P., Jeon, S.M., Choi, M.S., (2006)Antihyperglycemic and antioxidant
properties of caffeic acid in db/db mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 318, 476–483

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The Differentiating Anatomical Features of Five Tree Species from East

Seram, Indonesia

Tekat Dwi Cahyono, University of Darussalam Ambon, Indonesia

[email protected]
Atmawi Darwis, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
[email protected]

Abstract
This research was aimed to determine the differentiating anatomical features of tree species naturally
grow in East Seram, Indonesia. The selected tree species were Ficus virgata, Duabanga moluccana,
Terminalia catappa, Octomeles sumatrana, and Hernandia nymphaeifolia. The differentiating features
of those tree species shown as the druses were found only in the axial parenchyma of T. catappa.
Furthermore, F. variegata had the axial parenchyma in the form of wide-band and latex canal in ray
parenchyma. The storied fibers were only found in O. sumatrana. The smallest vessel pit diameter and
traumatic canal were found in H. nymphaeifolia. Meanwhile, those in D. moluccana may be
differentiated with the other tree species by paying more attention to the short and narrow rays.
Prismatic crystals of D. moluccana often present in non-chambered axial parenchyma cells, where
usually a few large crystals and many minute crystals are present in the same cell.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Evaluation of the Seismic Behavior of Hybrid Walls with Cross Laminated

Timber for Building in Chile

Tulio Carrero,
[email protected]
Pablo Guindos,
[email protected]
Hernán Santa María,
[email protected]
Jairo Montano
[email protected]

UC Timber Innovation Center, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, Chile

Abstract
It has been proven, both experimentally and numerically, that CLT walls are structural systems of high
rigidity and strength. Through the use of hybrid light-frame-type (Light Frame Building, LFTB) type walls,
obtained by combining frames of different materials (wood, steel, concrete) with CLT stiffener plate, it is
estimated that its optimized their seismic behavior.

It is essential to advance the reproduction of results for the use of the material (CLT) as a structural
alternative while using ductile connection systems with the support of other materials. On the other hand,
if the benefit of the increased ductility of the wall connections is taken into account, this system could
compete internationally against the wall system in CLT.

A structural configuration of wooden walls has been invented that allows doubling capacity and stiffness,
in addition to significantly increasing ductility with respect to conventional walls made of equivalent
wood. The conventional composition of this type of wall consists of a CLT panel, one or more hold-down
anchors and one or several cutting angles. The deformation under the action of a lateral load, such as an
earthquake, shows a clear dominance of the movement of a rigid tipping and sliding body. The capacity,
rigidity and ductility with aspect ratios close to 1: 1 is governed by the lifting force concentrated in the
hold-down anchor.
Unlike the conventional wall, the invented composition consists of:

• A labeled frame composed of rigid elements of steel tubes, post-tensioned reinforced concrete or
high-strength wood compounds such as micro-laminated wood or laminated wood chips.
• Two CLT panels arranged externally with respect to the rigid frame and forming a sandwich panel
as a whole.
• Self-drilling screws or pins that connect the CLT panels to the rigid frame.
• Steel cables that hold the wall axially preventing the movement of rigid body by overturning.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The general objective of this research is to increase the technical and economic feasibility of medium-
sized wooden buildings in Chile through hybrid structures with CLT as a resistant system. To achieve this
objective, the following methodology will be used: (i) both the CLT connections with the framework and
the real-scale hybrid walls will be studied experimentally; (ii) finite element numerical models will be
calibrated (using MCASHEW and RFEM TIMBER) based on the experimental results.
This current doctoral research has already obtained promising experimental results when evaluating a
proof of concept for a combination of wood and steel (system connections and walls), showing much
potential to explore in this construction system in structural terms, as will be seen later. Among the
important advantages achieved with the proposed system, there is a reduction in the amount of structural
walls required in the projects. Structural designs of a private housing building with the proposed wall
system were made, the results indicated that the walls meet the requirements of the national standard for
seismic building design (NCh433) for 6 and 10 floors.
KEYWORDS: Connection, CLT, hybrid connections, cyclic behavior, steel, concrete, Seismic design,
wooden laminate walls, hybrid structures, ductility, rigidity.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Water Resistance of Wood Adhesives Derived from Cottonseed Meal with

All Components Utilization

Nairong Chen, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China

[email protected]

Abstract
Development of eco-friendly adhesives from renewable biomass, as a promising replacement for
petro-derived formaldehyde adhesives for woody composites, have attracted considerable attention
due to the rising environment, health, and resource concerns. Here, the cottonseed meal, a non-food
biomass, which was modified by Sodium Dodecyl Sulfonate (SDS), urea, hydroxyl sodium, or
polyquaternary ammonium salt (PAS) to prepare an eco-friendly wood adhesive, and its performance
was evaluated by water absorption, insoluble content, and shear strength of Eucalyptus plywood.
Results showed that cottonseed meal with particle sizes higher than 140 mesh is suitable for adhesive
application. After curing, the SDS or PAS modified adhesive showed light color compared to other two
adhesives formulation. When soaking into water, the PAS modified adhesive had the lowest water
absorption and the highest insoluble content. Whereas, the SDS modified adhesive showed the best
wet shear strength. Both water absorption, insoluble content and shear strength had positive
correlation in each modifier pretreatment adhesive, but the properties correlation in different modifiers
treated adhesive was ambiguous. We reasoned that modifiers can unfold the globular of protein to
liner structure, and then entangled together with enhancement water resistance during the curing
process of adhesive.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Comparison of Devices for Acoustic Tomography of Tree and Material

Properties of Degraded Wood

Valentino Cristini,
[email protected]
Jan Tippner
[email protected]

Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood

Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
With street and park trees, unlike forests, the risk of damage to property and health is significantly
higher, therefore trees growing on such sites need to be regularly checked.

Some damages or rots adversely affecting the stability of trees are simply not detectable by visual
assessment. Though so, the use of acoustic tree tomography is in such a case necessarily, which
consists in measuring defects in radial cross-sections of a stem by the velocity of sound waves
propagation.

This study compares the results of the three most used devices for acoustic tomography of standing
trees (ARBOTOM®, ARBORSONIC® a PICUS® ) on selected individuals of hardwood species in Brno
(Czech Republic) and the acoustic (sound velocity, dynamic elastic modulus, acoustic constant),
physical (moisture content and density) and mechanical ( elastic modulus and compressive strength)
properties of wood degraded by white-rot fungi measured in laboratory environment.

According to an analysis of variance, there is a significant statistical difference between the values
measured by the PICUS® acoustic tomograph and the values measured by ARBOTOM ® and
ARBORSONIC® tomographs.
Based on the measured data, it can be stated that PICUS® measured velocities are considerably lower
than those recorded by the other acoustic tomographs (ARBOTOM ® and ARBORSONIC®). Image
reconstructions (tomograms) from the three acoustic tomographs differ significantly from each other.

Measured material properties of degraded wood will be applied in the interpretation of non-destructive
test results used for tree stability assessment and to understand the correlation between fungal
species and the level of wood degradation.

Keywords: sound propagation, tomograph, wood-decay fungi, material properties, tree stability,
biological degradation

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Cascading Potential for Recovered Wood from Heavy Timber

Frame Typologies in Pre-Modern Dwelling Buildings in Madrid
Marina de Arana-Fernández1*– Daniel F. Llana1,2 – Bahareh Nasiri3 – Guillermo
Íñiguez-González 1,2

1
Department of Foresty and Enviromental Engineering and Management,
MONTES (School of Forest Engineering and Natural Resources), Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
[email protected]*
[email protected]
[email protected]
2
Timber Construction Research Group, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
3
Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
[email protected]

Abstract

Wood is one of the premodern materials par excellence. It lost presence due to the appearance of
steel and concrete in construction, however, now it is regaining importance for its structural
performance, its capacity to fixate CO2 and its low energy demand during manufacturing process.
In our current climate emergency, rethinking how resources are treated has become a need, and
wood can be in the centre of the debate. The use of recovered timber in construction could be an
important measure to widen the lifespan of this material. Cascading could help in the development
of new economic models and potentiate environmental-friendly others like circular economy.
Premodern buildings could be a great source for reclaimed timber because the presence of timber
in them is almost inevitable. A quantification of amount of recoverable timber that can be obtained
from them is interesting in order to potentiate the reuse of the material.

Key words: Cascading, circular economy, corrala, dwelling typologies, Madrid cultural
heritage, reclaimed timber, timber reuse

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Introduction and state of the art

Timber has been used in construction since the ancient times. It is a highly versatile material,
workable and resistant. It has gone through difficult times due to the appearance of modern
materials such as steel and concrete, but nowadays it is regaining its former importance thanks to
the evolution of timber engineering products, the prefabrication and for its great performing
characteristics, resistance and sustainability.

In the present times, due to the climate change emergency that we are enduring where our
ecosystems and resources are being affected (Lindner et al., 2010; Schröter et al., 2005), material
reuse and recovery are necessary to achieve a sustainable and responsible economy and way of
life. Timber presents itself as one possible solution, being the only construction material to fixate
CO2 (Wood, 1991) and it can be adapted to new needs without the use of large amounts of energy
in the transformation process (Peck, 2001).

Circular economy is a key principle for reaching sustainable development goals (Sachs et al.,
2019). This concept has highlighted sustainable use of resources, materials and energy due to
increasing dependency on resources and increasing resource consumption (de Wit et al., 2018).
Remarkably, around 40% of the resource consumption has been used in building and
construction industry on a yearly basis (Bringezu et al., 2017). Thus, it is necessary to enhance
the resource efficiency of materials in buildings through cascading concept, reusing the same
piece or unit several times (Sirkin & Houten, 1994). Timber is the perfect example for it as it could
help to achieve this compromise with the planet thanks to its renewability and reusability.

The spread of the use of recovered timber could be one of the challenges of this century. Studies
are being held in order to determine the potential for cascading of timber and how can it be
obtained from building demolitions (Fraanje, 1997; Höglmeier et al., 2013; Sakaguchi et al., 2016,
2017). As a result of those studies, cascading wood from buildings is a possible and influential
course of action, though several choices, such as ecological taxation of resources, prohibition to
dumping waste wood on site, regulation enabling the use of recovered wood in buildings and
reliable data, showing the quantity and quality of available recovered wood, need to favour
cascading.

Although there is currently an abundance of forests, the resources of the planet are finite, and it is
our duty to rethink how we use them in a more efficient, responsible and circular way.

Re-examining how we have built our cities, the constructive systems and the pre-modern materials
used, could be a good start to understand the cascading potential for recovered wood.

Firstly, cities are fundamentally made of anonymous constructions, which are the true originators
of a good urban tissue, and their use is mainly dwelling. These buildings are rarely the most
notorious constructions of a city, but they are the most common, the less protected by cultural
heritage laws and the most likely to suffer a change of use or rehabilitation.

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Secondly, studying the pre-existent constructive systems and typologies could deepen the
understanding of the aforementioned buildings. A very common dwelling typology in
Mediterranean cultures is the house with a courtyard. This typology has evolved since the ancient
Mesopotamians, the Greeks and the Romans to our days, and it has been progressively adapted
to the times, the culture and the urban tissue. There is an endemic type of courtyard house in
Madrid mainly built between the 16th and 19th centuries that is very present in the city centre,
called “corrala” (Santa Cruz Astorqui, 2012).

Finally, vernacular residential constructions are linked to a city’s DNA and it is important to
maintain them in order to keep the essence of our cities. As the pre-modern buildings that they
are, all of them have timber in its structure. The quantification of these structures, determining
the species used and the general amount of timber saved, could lead to a change of paradigm
and foster new behaviours towards rehabilitation, construction and reuse of materials.

Traditional typologies and timber constructive systems in residential buildings in Spain

In Spain, as well as in many other countries, timber constructive systems have evolved from the
primigenial log shelters, to more intricated systems as heavy timber frames and light timber
frames. Recently, due to the appearance of new timber-derived products, an important
development in new constructive systems has taken place. The recent appearance of these new
ways of construction has changed the paradigm for timber buildings.

In Spain, as it happened in other countries, the appearance of new materials such as concrete
and steel has put timber in a second place, and almost since the beginning of the 20th century
timber construction began to lose presence in the Spanish construction paradigm.

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) supposed a turning point in the industrial use of timber
(Zapata Blanco, 1998). Timber´s use in construction was relegated to the countryside and
northern areas of the country, where forests are more present. Thus, the main “source” of
recoverable structural timber is premodern architecture; considering premodern constructions
those buildings that were built with neither concrete nor steel in their structures.

The main timber constructive system in Spain before the Civil War is heavy timber frame. Timber
is present in the horizontal and roofing structures and, in some typologies, in the vertical
structure too, either laced in the walls or as isolated supports.

In the following scheme (Fig. 01), the main dwelling typologies, materials and constructive
systems have been studied to define the most common residential timber buildings and main
examples of premodern architecture with timber structures.

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Fig. 01. Traditional typologies scheme.

Recovered timber has an enormous potential as constructive material, either as sawn timber or
transformed into a timber-derived product. Analysing the state of the built heritage, a deeper
understanding of the existing structures could be achieved. It could lead, for instance, to more
curated demolition practices that could benefit both the conservation of built heritage and the
reuse of the timber obtained from it (Nunes et al., 2019). If the obtained pieces are in good
conditions (not damaged by water or attacked by termites or fungi), they could be placed into
similar buildings that use pieces of approximately the same dimensions.

In this process of reusing the timber obtained from existing buildings, a new category has been
stablished. Depending on the amount and quality of the material (i.e. dimension of the cross-

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section, length, species and condition of the pieces) that can be obtained from the existing timber
buildings, they will be considered as either “sources” or “drainers” of timber. The sources will be
those buildings from which reusable timber can be obtained, and drainers will be those in which
timber is needed in order to be rehabilitated.

Again, demolition practices are of vital importance because with more curated systems (e.g.
manual demolition), more material may be recovered for potential reuse. With better demolition
practices, all buildings are potential sources for recovered wood, excepting the ones protected
by cultural heritage laws.

For the present study, a vernacular dwelling typology has been chosen; the Madrilenian
“corrala”. It has been selected in order to analyse the potential of an existent building to be
source of recoverable timber. The state of the timber of demolished buildings is interesting to be
defined to determine its potential for cascading (Sakaguchi et al., 2016) and to quantify the
amount of timber in the built heritage of Spain.

Pre-modern Madrid. The “corrala”

The “corrala” belongs to the corridor typology. It is a common type of building in Madrid’s centre
because it was an abundant typology and many of those buildings have arrived at our days mainly
untouched. In Madrid’s Centro district, there are 3,221 dwelling buildings built prior to 1900
(EMVS – Empresa Municipal de Vivienda y Suelo), 286 of which are “corralas” (Santa Cruz
Astorqui, 2012). They represent the clearest example of vernacular residential architecture in the
city.

This typology has been in use since the 16th century until the first decades of the 20th century,
and in the meantime has not substantially evolved. Originally, it was a simple house and when
the city began to grow and the need of dwelling was a pressing matter, these houses began to
suffer transformations to lodge all the people coming to the city. They began to grow in height
and depth, inhabiting the spaces that were previously destined for the courtyards, and ended by
tilting the urban tissue (Fig. 02). Most of them have arrived to our days as 4-storey buildings. The
expansive use of the typology took place between the 17th and 19th centuries.

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Fig. 02. Development of a “corrala” from the beginning to the complete occupation of the urban
lot.

The constructive system, heavy timber frame with timber-laced walls, remained the same during
all the years that the typology was in use. All the supporting structure is timber made with pieces
of different cross-sections depending on the part of the building that they are placed. The cross-
sections were defined by the urbanistic laws of the moment, “Ordenanzas de Madrid” by
Ardemans (1719), and were anthropomorphic measurements (e.g. elbows, hands, feet, fingers)
(Fig. 03).
a. “Elbow beam” of
undetermined length
b. “Foot-and-quarter
beam” of
undetermined length
c. “Foot beam” of
undetermined length
d. “Hand beam” of
lengths varying from
6,50 to 3,34 m.
e. “Eleven-and-a-half-
finger joist” of lengths
varying from 5,00 to
2,78 m.
f. “Nine-finger joist” of
length of 4,45 m
g. “Half-a-foot joist” of
undetermined length
h. “Seven-finger joist”
of lengths varying from

Fig. 03. Cross-sections established by Teodoro de Ardemans, 1719.

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As a vernacular typology being built in the urban tissue, the building adapted itself to the space
available, not following any particular urban guidelines. The typical “corrala” has generally one
facade front and is developed in depth. It is built between party walls and has the courtyard as
common feature, although it can vary in extension and position within the lot. The surface
considered for the archetypical “corrala” illustrated in Fig. 04, is of 260 sqm. per storey, and four-
storey height.

Fig. 04. Plan of an archetypical “corrala”.

Until the 19th century, the totality of the supporting structure of the dwelling buildings was timber
made. After the 19th century, facades begun to be masonry-made instead of timber laced and
the corridor supports could be made of cast iron.

The vertical structure, with exceptions in the facade (those built after the 18 th century), is
composed by timber-laced walls (Aroca Hemández-Ros & González-Redondo, 2000). Timber
laced structures are mentioned in texts from the 12th century (Langenbach, 2009), and its use is
spread around the globe. The laced wall is composed by vertical and horizontal timber elements
that support the upper floors (Fig. 05).

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Fig. 05. Composition of a laced wall in a “corrala”.

The filling between the supports could be either masonry, adobe or wattle-and-daub. For the
“corralas” built after the fire of the Main Square in Madrid in 1790, masonry filling began to be
the most used because it avoided the spread of the potential fires (Villanueva, 1790).

In the “corrala” the horizontal structure, composed by beams and joists, is also timber-made.
Being the constructive system the heavy timber frame, the joints between pieces are usually
mortise and tenon, and no steel is present.

The roofing structure is usually composed by ridgepole trusses with a simple design. Due to the
lack of high loadings and the cheap construction, they usually lack the bottom chord (Fig. 06).

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Fig. 06. Transverse section.

The species used for this type of building are mainly Scots Pine (Pinus Sylvesris L.) (Santa Cruz
Astorqui, 2012) and European Black Pine (Pinus nigra A.) because they are the most common and
accessible species of timber due to the proximity of the forests to the city.

The interest of the present work is to analyse the volumes of timber that could be recovered
from the pre-existing buildings. The data obtained from this analysis would help to determine
the cascading potential that these buildings, and in particular the “corrala”, have for the timber
in their structures.

In order to achieve this, and with the description and characterisation of the archetypical
“corrala”, the general volume calculations have been made dividing the structure in: vertical
structure, horizontal structure, roofing and shakes (Table 01).

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Table 01. Volumes and sections of the timber structures present in the “corrala”

Average section of the pieces in

Location in the building Volume of timber in m3 cm
Vertical structure 38.00 20.89x27.86
Horizontal structure 102.00 13.93x20.00
Roofing 15.40 13.93x20.89
Shakes (roof + flooring) 17.80 Thickness = 2.00
Total (without shakes) 155.40 -

The laced walls (mullions, wall plates) and isolated supports were considered in the calculations
of the vertical structure. In the horizontal structure, joists and bolsters. In the roofing, the trusses.
The shakes were not considered in the general figure due to the fact that they are not structural
pieces and the possibilities to reuse them are lower than with the structural pieces because of its
use and location in the building.

Previous studies consider that the amount of recovered wood from buildings that could be
reused as bearing structures is a 26%. If the timber could be transformed into other pieces, the
reusable amount would be a 45% (Höglmeier et al., 2013). If the results obtained from the
“corrala” are merged with this data, from the raw 155.40 m3, 40.40 m3 would be reusable as
supporting structures and 69.90 m3, would be the total of timber reusable to be transformed into
other products.

As it has been described, there is timber in all the parts of the structure. The geometry of the
pieces, their lengths, sections and timber quality, makes them an interesting source for recovered
timber.

Conclusions: the potentials for cascading

Timber is present in all the elements of the structure of the “corrala” with different sections and
lengths. The reusability of the timber is very high because the joinery between the pieces is
mainly steel-free; the pieces are usually joint by tight ropes and mortise and tenon. The fact that
almost all the elements of the structure can be reused allows the categorization of these buildings
as “sources” of recoverable timber.

The potential of timber to be transformed and reused into other structures is immense. Those
pieces could be either used to rehabilitate similar buildings protected by heritage laws that need
the same kind of timber or transformed into new timber products that would also have great
performance although they were made with recovered timber.

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Cascading should be put into practice with the timber recovered from constructions by
transforming high quality timber into smaller pieces such as joists. After its service life it could be
transformed into boards, then into chips, and so on until it is no longer reusable.

These results should encourage on the one hand, a revision and completion of the current
regulation of reclaimed timber to establish the parameters in which timber is reclaimed and
further uses of it. On the other hand, the deconstruction of buildings instead of the demolition
in order to enhance the possibilities for timber to be reused once the life of the building has come
to an end.

Acknowledgements

Project InFutUReWood is funded in Spain by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y

Universidades (MICIU). Project reference PCI2019-103544. Diseño innovador para el futuro –
uso y reutilización de componentes de edificación de madera.

Project InFutUReWood is supported under the umbrella of ERA-NET Cofund ForestValue by

Vinnova – Sweden´s Innovation Agency, Formas – Swedish Research Council for Sustainable
Development, Swedish Energy Agency, the Forestry Commissioners for the UK, the Department
of Agriculture, Food and the Marine for Ireland, the Ministry of the Environment for Finland,
the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture through the Agency for Renewable Resources for
Germany, the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for Spain, the Ministry of
Education, Science and Sport for Slovenia. ForestValue has received funding from the European
Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement N° 773324.

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Ardemans, T. (1719). Ordenanzas de Madrid, y otras diferentes que se practican en las ciudades
de Toledo y Sevilla, con algunas advertencias á los alarifes y particulares, y otros capítulos
añadidos á la perfecta inteligencia de la materia, que en todo se cifra en el gobierno.
Imprenta de Don Joseph Doblado.
Aroca Hemández-Ros, R., & González-Redondo, E. (2000). Tipificación de las soluciones
constructivas de la edificación doméstica madrileña de los siglos XVIII y XIX. In A. Graciani,
S. Huerta, E. Rabasa, M. Tabales, I. J. de Herrera, SEdHC, U. Sevilla, J. Andalucía, & C.
Granada (Eds.), Actas del Tercer Congreso Nacional de Historia de la Construcción (pp. 26–
28).
Bringezu, S., Ramaswami, A., Schandl, H., O’Brien, M., Pelton, R., Acquatella, J., Ayuk, E. T., Chiu,
A. S. F., Flanegin, R., Fry, J., Giljum, S., Hashimoto, S., Hellweg, S., Hosking, K., Hu, Y.,
Lenzen, M., Lieber, M., Lutter, S., Miatto, A., Zivy, R. (2017). Assessing global resource use.
A system approach to resource efficiency and pollution reduction. In International
Resource Panel of the United Nations Environmental Programme. UNESCO (ed.).
de Wit, M., Hoogzaad, J., Ramkumar, S., Harald, F., & Douma, A. (2018). The Circularity Gap

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Report. An analysis of the circular state of the global economy. In Circle Economy (Issue
January).
Fraanje, P. J. (1997). Cascading of pine wood. Resour. Conserv. Recy., 19(1), 21–28.
Höglmeier, K., Weber-Blaschke, G., & Richter, K. (2013). Potentials for cascading of recovered
wood from building deconstruction - A case study for south-east Germany. Resour.
Conserv. Recy., 78, 81–91.
Langenbach, R. (2009). Don’t tear it down! : preserving the earthquake resistant vernacular
architecture of Kashmir. UNESCO (ed.).
Lindner, M., Maroschek, M., Netherer, S., Kremer, A., Barbati, A., Garcia-Gonzalo, J., Seidl, R.,
Delzon, S., Corona, P., Kolström, M., Lexer, M. J., & Marchetti, M. (2010). Climate change
impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems. Forest Ecol.
Manag., 259(4), 698–709.
Nunes, A., Palmeri, J., & Love, S. (2019). Deconstruction vs. Demolition: An evaluation of carbon
and energy impacts from deconstructed homes in the City of Portland (Issue March).
Peck, T. (2001). The International Timber Trade (Woodhead Publishing Limited (ed.)).
Woodhead Publishing Limited.
Sachs, J. D., Schmidt-Traub, G., Mazzucato, M., Messner, D., Nakicenovic, N., & Rockström, J.
(2019). Six Transformations to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Nat. Sustain.,
2(9), 805–814.
Sakaguchi, D., Takano, A., & Hughes, M. (2016). The potential for cascading wood from
demolished buildings: the condition of recovered wood through a case study in Finland.
Int. Wood Prod. J., 7(3), 137–143.
Sakaguchi, D., Takano, A., & Hughes, M. (2017). The potential for cascading wood from
demolished buildings: potential flows and possible applications through a case study in
Finland. Int. Wood Prod. J., 8(4).
Santa Cruz Astorqui, J. (2012). Estudio tipológico, constructivo y estructural de las casas de
corredor en Madrid. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid.
Schröter, D., Cramer, W., Leemans, R., Prentice, I. C., Araújo, M. B., Arnell, N. W., Bondeau, A.,
Bugmann, H., Carter, T. R., Gracia, C. A., De La Vega-Leinert, A. C., Erhard, M., Ewert, F.,
Glendining, M., House, J. I., Kankaanpää, S., Klein, R. J. T., Lavorel, S., Lindner, M., Zierl, B.
(2005). Ecology: Ecosystem service supply and vulnerability to global change in Europe.
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sustainability with applications for product design. Resour. Conserv. Recy., 10(3), 213–276.
Villanueva, J. de. (1790). Ordenanzas que se incluyen en el Informe enviado el 1 de octubre de
1790 al Ayto. de Madrid.
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XIX a 1936. Un primer esbozo. (Vol. 9).

Biography

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The Economic Balance of Obtaining the Raw Material for Briquettes and
Pellets from Forest Sanitation

MOLNÁR Gábor *
dr.eng. – Transilvania University in Brasov
Address: Str. Universitatii nr. 1, 500068 Brasov, Romania
E-mail: [email protected]

Loredana Anne-Marie RĂDULESCU

Prof.dr.eng. – Transilvania University in Brasov
Address: Str. Universitatii nr. 1, 500068 Brasov, Romania
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

In Romania, there are several tests for the use of wood biomass resulting from the exploitation and
cleaning of forests, respectively of pastures and woodlands, in order to obtain energy. For this purpose the
collected wood biomass is chopped, crushed when the chipping is obtained, by the process of transforming
the wood and wood residues into technological chips with dimensions of 10 - 35 mm.
Chopping is the raw material for obtaining industrial products, plates, cellulose, or which can be
used as fuel, briquettes, pellets.
In order to make a calculation to justify the use of the ax in order to obtain the energy, we start from
calculating the possible area of collection of the remains needed for the ax. For example the forested area
+ pastures + meadows in Harghita county according to I.N.S1.: 264.113 + 153.385 + 162.739 hectares. So
580.237 hectares.
Through this paper I have proposed to bring to your attention a very topical theme, with pronounced
practical valences, namely the superior use of wood material from forest sanitation.

Key words: spruce; biomass; forest sanitation.

INTRODUCTION
Analyzing the quantity of firewood needed for heating at the country level we can see that the
market for briquettes is huge and by using for heating the briquettes by the inhabitants, especially in the
rural area, the cost is reduced by up to 50% compared to the use of fire wood. Thus, we can speak of an
efficiency resulting from the difference in density and calorific power between firewood and briquettes (680-
740 kg / m3 dry firewood, 900 kg / m3 in briquettes). At the same time, the burning mode differs, the
briquettes burn for a longer period of time, increasing the energy efficiency of the stoves compared to the
dry firewood that burns with open fire and in a short time (Coşereanu et al. 2015).
For example, the volume of wood mass from these surfaces, exploited in the period 2008-2017 is
of, according to I.N.S: 10,644,600 m3. From the biometrics, the percentage of cracks (Melles 2007) is
calculated 319,338 m3 and of bark 851,568 m3, so in total 1,170,996 m3 of unused wood mass.
Figure 1 shows a depot of wood residues from Harghita County.

OBJECTIVE
The objectives of the research consist in the study of the woody material from the hygiene of the
forests, taking into account the cost of harvesting, production and the resulting profit, taking into account
the previous studies, completed by the researches carried out by the author.

MATERIAL, METHOD, EQUIPMENT

* Corresponding author
1 I.N.S. – Institutul Naţional de Statistică - National Institute of Statistics

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The collection of biomass needed for energy use from the forests of Romania began with the
technology that allows the application of the method of wood chopping, using:
1. cutting the debris of the operating debris and of the small trees, with mobile shredders, of small size;
2. chopping in the primary platform of the wood in the form of trees or parts of trees.
The study of the collection of the thin wood, of the wood from the hygiene of the forests and of the
remains of the forest was carried out in the field, using specific questionnaires at the same time by collecting
the data from the National Forest Registry.

Fig. 1
Wooden warehouse for chopping in Harghita County (photo G. Molnár)

With table and graphs we try to study the cost of collection, production and capitalization.

The collection of the thin wood, of the wood from the hygiene of the forests and of the remains of
the forest can be done with trailers, carts, forestry tractors respectively universal and at an approximate
price of (information collected from the commonages representants):
- in case of using the forestry tractor for the collection of the thin wood, the price is of 38 - 55 lei per
m3 wood material exploited and transported on the forest road, namely 38 lei per m3 is the cost for felling
and gathering (28 lei per m3) plus cleaning of cribs (10 lei per m3) and transported maximum 500 m,
respectively 55 lei per m3 is the cost for demolition and gathering (45 lei per m3) plus cleaning of cribs (10
lei per m3) and transported maximum 4500 m.
- in the case of the use of slags for the collection of the thin wood, the price is 62 - 82 lei per m3
wood material exploited and transported on the forest road, namely 62 lei per m3 is the cost for felling,
cleaning cracks and collecting (40 lei per m3 ) plus the cost of binding (7 lei per m3) plus the proximity with
the forestry tractor (15 lei per m3) and transported maximum 500 m, respectively 82 lei per m3 is the cost
for felling, cleaning pots and collecting (60 lei per m3) plus the cost of binding (7 lei per m3) plus the nearest
one with the forestry tractor (15 lei per m3) and transported maximum 4500 m.
- collection, transport of cakes, scraps and debris are not for a fee (Commonages).

Determining the price of a m3 of chop depends on:

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A. The price of wood per foot

B. Cost of machine operating time and productivity over 8 hours
C. Different, unpredictable (5%)

A. The price of wood per foot

For future calculations we will use the following transformations:
0.7 m3 = 1 m ster,
1 m ster chisel = 0.67 m3 nc (non-compact cubic meter) (Gaber et al. 2014)
From the information collected from D. S2., 2019, we know that the price of one m3 of wood for
biomass is:
- thin wood, weeding I, 50 - 75 lei / m3 (Sandominic commonages),
- thin wood, cracking II, 95 lei / m3 (Sandominic commonages),
- thin wood, weeding, 42 - 70 lei / m3 (D. S. Harghita),
- wood from hygiene, 260 lei / m3 (D. S. Suceava),
- jars and other debris, free of charge in the amount of collection and transport (the Sandominic
commonages).
At the same time 0.4 m3 of wood is equal to 1 m3 nc of chopping (Gaber et al. 2014). If for one m3
of thin wood the price offered in 2019 is on average 68.5 lei, the price 1m3 nc of chopping is 30.2 lei.

B. The cost of the machine operating time and the productivity for 8 hours consists of the cost-hour-
machine cost (CTOM) of the following phases of work, respectively the quantity of wood processed per
hour:

a. Shaping of small wood

b. The collection of the thin wood, wood from hygienic and the resulting wood residues
c. Transport of thin wood and wood waste to the primary platform
d. Wood chipping in the primary platform
e. Transport to the combustion boiler or briquetting / pellet press

a. Forming small wood, according to symbol D62c5 (**** 1997) we know that the production of a
working group with two workers is 40.37 m 3 in 8 hours per worker. The cost of the labor for the 8 hours and
2 workers is: 8 hours x 2 workers x 14.55 Lei / h = 232.8 lei, which can be transformed into a cost related
to 1m3 nc of chopping, which is 6.54 Lei / m3 nc of cut (232.8 Lei / ((2 * 40.37 * 0.7 * 0.67) = 35.60 m3 nc)
of cut realized).

The cost-hour-machine cost, CTOM, that is the cost of the small wood shaping machine,
mechanical saw:
The purchase price of the machine is 2000 lei,
Amortization period 5 years,
Number of hours of use per year 1600 hours
10% interest
Fixed expenses
Amortization: 2000 / (5 * 1600) = 0.25 lei / h.
Interest: (2000 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 5 * 1600) = 0.075 lei / h
Variable expenses, that is
Maintenance - repairs and others 0.075 lei / h

The total cost of the small woodworking equipment:

0.25 + 0.075 + 0.075 = 0.40 lei / h which represents a cost of (8 * 0.4) / 35.6 = 0.089 lei / m3 nc.

Productivity is the ratio between the production achieved and the total consumption of time without
delay, namely 80.74 m3 respectively 35.60 m3 nc in 8 hours, so 4.45 m3 nc in one hour.

2 D.S. Direcția silvică, Forestry Direction

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Total processing cost, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 0.089 * 8 + 6.54 * 30.65 = 0.712 + 200.45
= 201.16 lei

b. The collection of wood materials with harness, in 8 hours:

Minimum workmanship depending on the distance to be assembled, max. 100 m, according to
symbol J2Ia (**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 0.63 lei / hour = 8 * 8.63 = 69.04 lei for 12.7 m 3 in 8 hours, so 5.43 lei
per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 101 and 200 m, according to symbol J2Ia
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 0.78 lei / hour = 8 * 10.68 = 85.64 lei for 10.19 m3 in 8 hours, so 8.38 lei per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 201 and 300 m, according to symbol J2Ia
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 0.94 lei / hour = 8 * 12.87 = 103.02 lei for 8,59 m3 in 8 hours, so 11.99 lei per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 301 and 400 m, according to symbol J2Ia
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 1.1 lei / hour = 8 * 15.07 = 120.56 lei for 7,3 m 3 in 8 hours, so 16.51 lei per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 401 and 500 m, according to symbol J2Ia
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 1.25 lei / hour = 8 * 17.12 = 137 lei for 6.4 m 3 in 8 hours, so 21.4 lei per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 501 and 600 m, according to symbol J2Ia
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 1.41 lei / hour = 8 * 19.31 = 154.53 lei for 5,69 m3 in 8 hours, so 27.15 lei per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 601 and 700 m, according to symbol J2Ia
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 1.56 lei / hour = 8 * 21.37 = 170.97 lei for 5.13 m3 in 8 hours, so 33.32 lei per m3
The maximum work according to the distance to be assembled, between 701-1000 m, according
to symbol J2Ia (**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 2.02 lei / hour = 8 * 27.67 = 221.39 lei for 3,95 m 3 in 8 hours, so
56.04 lei per m3.

The thin wood gathering with the arms, in 8 hours:

The work according to symbol J4I (**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.32 * 1.27 lei / hour = 8 * 16.91 = 135.35 lei
for 6.30 m3 in 8 hours, so 21.48 lei per m3.

The small wood gathering with arms, in 8 hours:

The work according to symbol J5 (**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.32 * 1.57 lei / hour = 8 * 20.91 = 167.29 lei
for 5.1 ms steri, that is 7.28 m3 in 8 hours , so 22.97 lei per m3.

Gather woody materials with tassel, in 8 hours:

Minimum workmanship depending on the distance to be assembled, max. 50 m, according to
symbol J3Ia (**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 1.5 lei / hour = 8 * 20.25 = 162.00 lei for 5.32 m3 in 8 hours, so 30.45
lei per m3.
The maximum manpower according to the distance to gather, over 400 m, according to symbol J3If
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.7 * 3.98 lei / hour = 8 * 54.52 = 436.2 lei for 2,09 m3 in 8 hours, so 208.71 lei per m3.

Gather wood material with universal tractors, in 8 hours:

Minimum workmanship depending on the distance to be assembled, max. 15 m, according to
symbol J9a (**** 1997) is: 8 x 14.03 * 0.2 lei / hour = 8 * 2.80 = 22.45 lei for 78.2 m 3 in 8 hours, so 0.28 lei
per m3.
The work according to the gathering distance, between 16-50 m, according to symbol J9b (****
1997) is: 8 x 14.03 * 0,22 lei / hour = 8 * 3.08 = 24.68 lei for 71 , 38 m3 in 8 hours, so 0.345 lei per m3.

The maximum work depending on the distance to be assembled, over 50 m, according to symbol
J9c (**** 1997) is: 8 x 14.03 * 0.28 lei / hour = 8 * 3.92 = 31.42 lei for 57,28 m 3 in 8 hours, so 0.54 lei per
m3.

The cost of the cost-car-hour, CTOM, namely the cost of the harness:

The purchase price of the harness is 10,000 lei,

The purchase price of horses, 2 x 10,000 = 20,000 lei,
Amortization period 5 years,
The number of hours of use per year is 200 days with 8 working hours, namely 1,600 hours,

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The insurance premium is 1000 lei / year,

Interest calculated by the bank is 10% per annum.
In the process of working with the harness we must distinguish two types of expenses:
Fixed expenses, that is:
Amortization: 10,000 / (5 * 1600) = 1.25 lei / h,
Interest: (10,000 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 5 * 1600) = 0.37 lei / h,
Insurance: 1000/1600 = 0.62 lei / h.
Variable expenses, that is:
Horse provisions, 20,000 lei per year = 12.5 lei / h,
Tires: 5,000 lei / 1,600 h = 3,125 lei / h
Repairs, oil and other expenses, 3000/1600 = 1.87 lei / h.

The total hourly labor cost of the harness is: 1.25 + 0.37 + 0.62 + 12.5 + 3.12 + 1.87 = 19.73 lei / h.

The cost of the harness for the activity of collecting the remains, namely the cost per m3 nc produced, is
made up of the actual working time plus the standing time ie:
Effective working time:
Collection and transport of wood waste to the primary platform, 8 hours,
Chopping wood, 8 hours,
Transport to the combustion boiler or to the briquetting / pelletized press, 8 hours,
TOTAL 24 h
Stationary time 10% of the actual working time, namely 2.4 h.
TOTAL 26.4 h
Therefore, the cost of the harness, related to m3 nc of waste produced, is thus: 19.73 * 26.4 / 35.6 = 14.63
lei / m3 nc.

Productivity according to the gathering distance, max. 100 m, namely 12.7 m3 in 8 hours, respectively 1.58
m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 101-200 m, namely 10.19 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 1.27 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 201-300 m, namely 8.51 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 1.06 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 301-400 m, namely 7.30 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 0.91 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 401-500 m, namely 6.40 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 0.80 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 501-600 m, namely 5.69 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 0.71 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 601-700 m, namely 5.13 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 0.64 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to be collected, between 701-1000 m, namely 3.95 m3 in 8 hours,
respectively 0.49 m3 in one hour.

Figure 2 shows the relationship between the collection distance and productivity characterized by the
polynomial regression equation.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Fig. 2
Increasing the collection distance correlated with productivity

The total processing cost, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 14.63 * 8 + 69.04 = 186.08 lei, in case
when the distance to gather is max. 100 m.
The total cost of processing, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 14.63 * 8 + 221.39 = 338.4 lei, if the
distance to gather is between 701-1000 m.

The cost-hour-machine cost, CTOM, namely the cost of the universal tractor:

The purchase price of the tractor is 40,000 lei,

Amortization period 5 years,
The number of hours of use per year is 200 days with 8 working hours, namely 1,600 hours,
The insurance premium is 3200 lei / year,
Interest calculated by the bank is 10% per annum.
In the process of working with the universal tractor we have to distinguish two types of expenses:
Fixed expenses, that is:
Amortization: 40,000 / (5 * 1600) = 5 lei / h,
Interest: (40,000 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 5 * 1600) = 1.5 lei / h,
Insurance: 3,200 / 1600 = 2 lei / h.
Variable expenses, that is:
Fuel (9l to 5.62 lei): 50.58 lei / h,
Oils and lubricants (estimated at 20% of fuel cost): 50.58 * 0.2 = 10.1 lei / h,
Tires: 10,000 lei / 1,600 h = 6.25 lei / h
Repairs expenses (estimated at minimum 30% of depreciation): 5 * 0.3 = 1.5 lei / h.

The hourly labor cost, namely the cost-hour-machine cost, CTOM of the universal tractor is: 5 + 1,5 + 2 +
50,58 + 10,1 + 6,25 + 1,5 = 76,93 lei / h.
The cost of the universal tractor for the activity of collecting the remains, namely the cost per m3 nc
produced, is made up of the actual working time plus the parking time namely:
Effective working time:
Collection and transport of wood waste to the primary platform, 8 hours,
Chopping wood, 8 hours,
Transport to the combustion boiler or briquetting / pelletizing press, 8 hours,
TOTAL 24 h

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Stationary time 10% of the actual working time, namely 2.4 h.

TOTAL 26.4 h
So the cost of the tractor compared to m3 of waste produced is therefore: 76.93 * 26.4 / 35.6 =
57.00 lei / m3 nc.

Productivity according to the gathering distance, max. 15 m, namely 78.2 m3 in 8 hours, respectively
9.775 m3 in one hour.
Productivity depending on the distance to be collected, between 16-50 m, namely 71.38 m3 in 8
hours, respectively 8.92 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the distance to gather, over 50 m, namely 57.28 m3 in 8 hours, respectively
7.16 m3 in one hour.

The total cost of processing, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 57 * 8 + 22.45 = 478.45 lei, if the
distance to gather is max. 15 m.
The total cost of processing, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 57 * 8 + 31.42, = 487.42 lei, if the
distance to gather is over 50 m.

The cost-hour-car cost, CTOM, namely the cost of the cart (Brad 2010):
The purchase price of the cart is 15,000 lei,
The purchase price of horses, 2 x 10,000 = 20,000 lei,
Amortization period 5 years,
The number of hours of use per year is 200 days with 8 working hours, namely 1,600 hours,
The insurance premium is 1000 lei / year,
Interest calculated by the bank is 10% per annum.
In the process of working with the cart we have to distinguish two types of expenses:
Fixed expenses, that is:
Amortization: 15,000 / (5 * 1600) = 1.87 lei / h,
Interest: (15,000 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 5 * 1600) = 0.56 lei / h,
Insurance: 1000/1600 = 0.62 lei / h.
Variable expenses, that is:
Horse provisions, 20,000 lei per year = 12.5 lei / h,
Tires: 5,000 lei / 1,600 h = 3,125 lei / h
Repairs, oil and other expenses, 3000/1600 = 1.87 lei / h.
The total hourly labor cost of the cart is: 1.87 + 0.56 + 0.62 + 12.5 + 3.12 + 1.87 = 20.54 lei / h.

The cost of the cart for the activity of collecting the remains, namely the cost per m3 nc produced,
is made up of the actual working time plus the parking time namely:
Effective working time:
Collection and transport of wood waste to the primary platform, 8 hours,
Chopping wood, 8 hours,
Transport to the combustion boiler or to the briquetting / pelletized press, 8 hours,
TOTAL 24 h
Stationary time 10% of the actual working time, namely 2.4 h.
TOTAL 26.4 h

So the cost of the cart compared to m3 of waste produced is therefore: 20.54 * 26.4 / 35.6 = 15.23 lei / m3
nc.
Productivity according to the mode of gathering, with the arms thin wood, namely 6.30 m3 in 8
hours, respectively 0.787 m3 in one hour.
Productivity according to the mode of gathering, with the arms small wood, namely 7.28 m3 in 8
hours, respectively 0.91 m3 in one hour.
The total cost of processing, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 15.23 * 8 + 135.35 = 257.19 lei, if
the way of gathering is with the arms, thin wood.
The total cost of processing, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 15.23 * 8 + 167.29, = 289.13 lei, if
the way of gathering is with the arms, small wood.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

c. Transport of thin wood and wood waste to the primary platform consists of:
- loaded thin round wood with Ifron, in 8 hours,
The minimum manpower depending on the distance, between 10-15 m, according to symbol J12a
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 14.25 * 0.09 lei / hour = 8 * 1.28 = 10.24 lei for 89 m 3 in 8 hours, so 0.11 lei per m3.
The maximum manpower depending on the distance, between 75.1-100 m, according to symbol
J12b (**** 1997) is: 8 x 14.25 * 0.186 lei / hour = 8 * 2.65 = 21.20 lei for 43 m 3 in 8 hours, so 0.49 lei per
m3.

- loaded steri wood with Ifron, in 8 hours

The minimum manpower depending on the distance, between 10-15 m, according to symbol J13
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.72 * 0.111 lei / hour = 8 * 1.52 = 12.18 lei for 72 meters steri equal with 50.4 m 3 in 8
hours, so 0.24 lei per m3.
The maximum manpower depending on the distance, between 75.1-100 m, according to symbol
J13 (**** 1997) is: 8 x 13.72 * 0.211 lei / hour = 8 * 2.89 = 23.15 lei for 38 meters steri equal to 26.6 m 3 in
8 hours, so 0.87 lei per m3.

- the transport of wood to the primary platform costs us 20 lei per m3,
- unloaded thin round wood with Ifron, in 8 hours
The minimum manpower depending on the distance, between 10-15 m, according to symbol J14a
(**** 1997) is: 8 x 14.75 * 0.026 lei / hour = 8 * 0.38 = 3.06 lei for 307 m 3 in 8 hours so 0.009 lei per m3.
The maximum manpower depending on the distance, between 75.1-100 m, according to symbol
J14b (**** 1997) is: 8 x 14.75 * 0.02 lei / hour = 8 * 0.29 = 2.36 lei for 163 m 3 in 8 hours, so 0.014 lei per
m3.
At short distances, the most economical mode of transport is for the operating residues to be
transported in a natural state to the chopping center (Brad 2010)
On longer distances the operating residues (Brad 2010) are baled in bales bound 70 cm in diameter
and 3.2 meters long, bearing the names of logs of composite residues or composite residue logs (CRL).
Such a bundle of green debris weighs 500 kg and is packed and transported to the road by conventional
forwarders and then to the chopping station using log carriers.

The cost-hour-machine cost, CTOM, of the light wood transport equipment, cracks.
The purchase price of the machine is 61,000 lei,
Amortization period 10 years,
Number of hours of use per year 1600 hours
10% interest
Fixed expenses
Amortization: 61,000 / (10 * 1600) = 3.81 lei / h.
Interest: (61,000 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 10 * 1600) = 1.14 lei / h
Variable expenses, that is
Maintenance - repairs and others 2.7 lei / h
The total cost of the transport equipment of thin wood, jacks:
3.81 + 1.14 + 2.7 = 7.65 lei / h which represents a cost of (8 * 7.65) / 35.6 = 1.72 lei / m3 nc.

d. Chopping of thin wood and wood waste in the primary platform, in 8 hours
Labor: 8 * 14.5 lei / hour = 116 lei
The labor per m3 nc of chop is 116 lei / 35.6 m3 nc of chop = 3.26 lei / m3 nc.
Wood chopping in the primary platform is done using a chopper operated by a tractor (in the case
of small quantities), or a larger chopper mounted on a truck (in the case of many scrap operations).

The cost-hour-machine cost, CTOM, namely the cost of the chopper:

The purchase price of the chopper is 43,800 lei,
Amortization period 10 years,
Number of hours of use per year 500 hours
10% interest

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 Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Fixed expenses
Amortization: 43,800 / (10 * 500) = 8.76 lei / h
Interest: (43,800 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 10 * 500) = 2.63 lei / h
Variable expenses, that is
Maintenance - repairs and others 5.7 lei / h
Total cost of the chopper
8.76 + 2.63 + 5.7 = 17.1 lei / h which represents a cost of (8 * 17.1) / 35.6 = 3.84 lei / m3 nc.

The productivity of the chopper is 35.6 m3 nc in 8 hours, respectively 4.45 m3 nc in one hour.

The total processing cost, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 3.84 * 8 + 116 = 146.72 lei.

e. Transport to the combustion boiler or to the briquetting / pelletized press,

Time required: 8 hours for 40.37 m3 of small wood, that is 5.04 m3 of small wood per hour.
Labor: 8 * 14.5 lei / hour = 116.0 lei
The labor per m3 nc of chop is 116 lei / 35.6 m3 nc of chop = 3.25 lei / m3 nc.
The transport is done by pickup trucks.

The cost-hour-machine cost, CTOM, of the chip transporter:

The purchase price of the machine is 61,000 lei,
Amortization period 10 years,
Number of hours of use per year 1600 hours
10% interest
Fixed expenses
Amortization: 61,000 / (10 * 1600) = 3.81 lei / h.
Interest: (61,000 * 0.1 * 6) / (2 * 10 * 1600) = 1.14 lei / h
Variable expenses, that is
Maintenance - repairs and others 2.7 lei / h
The total cost of the chip transport equipment: 3.81 + 1.14 + 2.7 = 7.65 lei / h which represents a cost of (8
* 7.65) / 35.6 = 1.72 lei / m3 nc.

The productivity of the chip transporter means 35.6 m 3 nc in 8 hours, respectively 4.45 m3 nc in one hour.

Total processing cost, Ct = (CTOM * 8 hours) + CMat = 1.72 * 8 + 116 = 129.76 lei.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

So the cost of operating the machine is the cost-hour-machine (CTOM) sum of the following phases of
work:
a. Shaping of small wood
b. The collection of the thin wood and the resulting wood residues
c. Transport of thin wood and wood waste to the primary platform
d. Wood chipping in the primary platform
e. Transport to the combustion boiler or briquetting / pellet press

That is, it consists of the following:

The total cost of the small woodworking equipment, 0.089 lei / m3 nc.
The cost of the tractor or harness or cart, namely 57 lei / m3 nc or 14.63 lei / m3 nc or 15.23 lei / m3
nc,
The cost of the transport equipment for thin wood, namely 1.72 lei / m3 nc.
The cost of the mincer namely 3.84 lei / m3 nc,
The cost of the chip transport equipment namely 1.72 lei / m3 nc.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Total Tr (Tractor) = 64.37 lei / m3 nc.

Total At (Harness) = 21.99 lei / m3 nc.
Total Cr (Cart) = 22.59 lei / m3 nc.

The determination of the price of one m 3 nc, non-compact cubic meter, of the resulting chips is
established as follows:
A. The price of wood per foot, namely 30.2 lei / m3 nc,
B. Cost of machine operating time,
C. Different, unpredictable (5%).

Tr. (A + B) * 1.05 = 99.30 lei / m3 nc,

At. (A + B) * 1.05 = 54.79 lei / m3 nc,
Cr. (A + B) * 1.05 = 55.42 lei / m3 nc.

The average weight of one m 3 nc (non-compact cubic meter) of chips is on average 320 kg (Brad
2010), so the average price calculated per ton is, depending on the equipment used for collection:

Tr. 310.31 lei / ton,

At. 171.21 lei / ton,
Cr. 173.21 lei / ton.

Average: 218.24 lei / ton.

So as a conclusion we can say that from the wood waste, which otherwise we would not use, we
can obtain, with an average production price of 218.24 lei / tonne, chop, raw material for pellets that have
a sale price of 870 lei / tonne, respectively raw material for briquettes with an average selling price of 666
lei / tonne.

REFERENCES

Brad, M., L. (2010).Cercetări privind valorificarea superioară a lemnului de mici dimensiuni, Teză de
doctorat, Braşov

Coşereanu, C., Lica, D., Lunguleasa, A. (2015). Investigation on the quality of briquettes made
from rarely used wood species, agro-wastes and forest biomass. PRO LIGNO, 11(1):32-39.

Grabner, M., Cherubini, P., Rozenberg, P., Hannrup, B. (2006). Summer drought and low earlywood density
induce intra-annual radial cracks in conifers. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 21: 151-157.

Grîu, B., T. (2014). Evaluarea şi mărirea puterii calorice a biomasei lemnoase, Teză de doctorat, Braşov.

Melles, E. (2007). Cercetări privind recoltarea şi valorificarea produselor lemnoase din pădurile montane
din zona Harghita, Universitatea Transilvania, Teză de doctorat, Braşov.

**** 1997. Norme de timp și producție unificate pentru lucrări din silvicultură, R.N.P.

Biography

37
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Determining the Aerodynamic Diameter of Various Wood Dust Types, to

Better Assess Possible Health Risks

Maria Georgiades1
[email protected]
Roman Myna2
[email protected]
Raphaela Hellmayr1
[email protected]
Stephan Frömel-Frybort2
[email protected]
Rupert Wimmer1
[email protected]

1Universityof Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

2Wood K plus – Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry,
Austria

Abstract
During wood processing such as sawing, cutting, routing, turning and sanding, particulate matter as
particles, fibers or wood flour are produced, which are posing risks to the workers’ health. The
breathing in dust is the most common type of exposure, and the question is, to what extent particles
of different sizes remain airborne, before they get deposited on the ground? It is known that the upper
respiratory system is able to filter out larger particles, while smaller particles can go deep into the
lungs causing damage and scarring to the lung tissue. Deposition rates of wood particles have
certainly a linkage to the particles diameter, however, it is also possible that bigger particles coming
from e.g. solid wood might stay airborne as long as smaller particles coming from other wood
materials (e.g. particleboards). To better assess possible health risks of wood dust particles, we have
developed a new approach to rapidly determine the aerodynamic diameter of wood dust particles. In
general, the aerodynamic diameter of a particle is defined as that of a sphere, whose density is 1 g /
cm3 (density of water), which is settling in still air at the same velocity as the particle in question. We
built a closed chamber deposition apparatus, and measured deposition times of various wood dust
fractions and types. The measured deposition times of the differently-sized wood particles allowed an
improved classification of wood particles in terms of potential health risks. It is now possible to better
characterize wood particles in terms of particle matter sizes as well as their effective airborne-
behavior.

Key words: aerodynamic diameter, airborne dust, wood dust particles, wood processing, deposition
time, respiratory system

Biography

38
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Rapid Determination of the Quality of Spanish Coniferous Wood by Models

Based on IR Spectroscopy

René Herrera Díaz, University of the Basque Country, Spain

[email protected]
Juan Ignacio Fernández-Golfin Seco, Spanish Center of Forest Research (CIFOR)-
INIA
[email protected]

Abstract
The preliminary detection of changes in the wood matrix by using non-destructive methods is a research
area under continuous exploration, and it is of great interest to different industries and forest managers
due to the generalized way that forest management is practiced. Therefore, the information on the
proportion of juvenile wood produced in a given plantation area is highly interesting. The Infrared
techniques are associated with multivariate statistical methods such as principal components analysis
(PCA), principal components regression (PCR) and partial least squares regression (PLS-R), in order to
extract information about the material tested. Thus, the original variables are converted into a set of
uncorrelated linear combinations of the original variables containing most of the variability of the dataset,
to use finally for the calculation of prediction models. The objective of this study is to find fast and highly
reliable methods for distinguishing different species of coniferous wood existing in Spain and in each of
them, differentiate their qualities. For this, profiles of radiata pine, maritime pine, Scots pine, and Austrian
pine were used. Each profile was measured from the juvenile zone to the limit with the bark (65 % RH
and 25 ºC), performing at least 30 individual measurements in transmittance mode. The pre-processing of
the signals included the calculation of the derivatives, the smoothing, and trimming of the noise and the
lengths that do not discriminate the samples, in addition to the normalization of the vector. The derived
models were calculated according to the Savitzky-Golay algorithm. For the mathematical transformation
of the spectra, PCA, parallel factor analysis, regression modeling and classification (SIMCA, PLS), cluster
analysis (CA), identity test ( IT) and partial least squares (PLS) methods were applied. The preliminary
results showed predictions with high correlations (≥98 %) regarding the differentiation of the coniferous
wood studied, being a relatively fast and economical methodology. The second goal was to differentiate
the wood quality in each sample. The results showed a qualitative classification of the wood samples,
separating each sample in three regions (juvenile, transition, and adult) and with correlations higher than
81 %. These are promising techniques from the economic and scientific point of view since it does not
involve the destruction of the material nor require long measuring times.IR techniques associated with
chemometrics showed adequate results for the discrimination of the samples, but the application in the
wood-industry is required more calibrations and validation models in order to avoid false positives.

Biography

39
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Different types of coatings used for wooden shingles exposed

to natural and artificial aging
Authors: Dominik Hess *, Jan Baar, Jan Tippner
Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood
Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech
Republic; office phone: +420545134550; e-mail: hessdominikcloud.com;
*corresponding author

The present study aims to perform a chemical analysis of the surface of wooden shingle exposed
to natural and artificial aging, which were treated with various types of protective coatings. The
specimens were made by Spruce wood (Picea abies L.). The dimension of the specimens were
(18 ± 1) × (74 ± 1) × (150 ± 2) mm (R × T × L). The faces of all specimens were covered by epoxy
resin to prevent water absorption in the longitudinal direction. Three coatings were used for surface
treatment: wood tar (high temperature decomposition without oxygen), and carbolineum
(distillation residues of benzoic acid). The coatings were applicated by brush. After application of
the coatings, the specimens were air-conditioned at the relative humidity of 65 % and
the temperature of 20 °C. Before artificial and natural aging, initial FTIR analysis of the Spruce
wood surface were performed on a Nicolet iS 10 (Thermo Scientific) instrument with ATR-FTIR
full reflection attenuation technique. The natural aging specimens were exposed on the outdoor
racks. The artificial aging was carried out in the Q-SUN XE-1 XENON TEST chamber. Artificial
exposure conditions were stated according to ASTM G155. In the infrared spectra of control
specimens surfaces there were vibrations of bonds and parts of molecules of all wood components:
celluloses, lignin, hemicelluloses and extractive substances. Absorption bands can be identified in
two basic areas – the characteristic group vibration area (3700-3000 cm-1) and the 'fingerprint' area
(1800-650 cm-1). In the infrared spectra of the treated specimens by wood tar, in addition to the
individual wood components, vibrations of parts of the molecules of the chemical components of
wood tar were also reflected. The vibrations of the –CH2 and –CH3 groups were most pronounced.
The components of the wood tar preparation contain various C=O carbonyl groups, the most
intense vibrations of which were at 1736 and 1708 cm-1. By comparing the infrared spectra of
treated specimens by carbolineum and untreated specimens, the presence of the carbonyl group
C=O (aldehydes or esters) as well as the hydrocarbon chains in carbolineum can be established.
The components of wood tar contained longer hydrocarbon chains, i.e. with a higher number of –
(CH2)– groups than the components of carbolineum. Differences can also be observed in the
wavelength range 1800-1620 cm-1, where vibrations of the carbonyl groups occur. The first
measurements of the surface of spruce specimens treated by wood tar and carbolineum were
performed. Tests for artificial and natural aging are still ongoing. After the tests, further FTIR
measurements will be made and the results will be compared and properly described.

Key words: wooden shingle; spruce; wood tar; carbolineum; artificial aging; natural aging; FTIR

Biography

40
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sustainable Development – International Framework – Overview and

Analysis in the Context of Forests and Forest Products with
Competitiveness and New Opportunities

Ms. Annika Hyytia, Finland

[email protected]

Abstract
The forest sector is in a remarkable role providing significant new sustainable opportunities globally.
Innovations have an important role in the sustainable development, business and competitiveness.
Quality is part of competitiveness. Quality is important for competitiveness. Customers’ role is important.
This is a qualitative research based on literature. It is based on research articles and literature and
organizational literature including several academic sources, for example Proquest, Academic Search
Complete (EBSCO), Agris, CAB Abstracts, SCOPUS (Elsevier), Web of Science (ISI) and Google Scholar
and Internet sites.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Modeling and Optimization of Alkaline Sulphite Pretreatments of Maize (Zea Mays) Stalk
Fractions for Bio-ethanol.
Kolajo, Tolulope E.
Department of Wood Products Engineering, University of Ibadan
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Chemical pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is usually under high temperatures and are
preferential for lignin condensation, especially in an heterogenic structured biomass such as maize
stalk. A low temperature pretreatment of maize whole stalk (WS) and fiber-rich Rind Fractions
(RF) was achieved using Alkaline sulphite (AS) and NaOH. Pretreatment was done in a chemical
reactor at 1200C, with 14, 16 and 18%w/v active alkali charges for 60, 90 and 180 minutes, resulting
in a first order 32 2 full factorial experiment. Regression models were developed to predict cellulose
yield (CY) and Residual Klason Lignin (RKL) through the interaction of independent variables.
Optimization was achieved using Response Surface Methodology. The highest CY for both
pretreatments was at 14%, 60 minutes. Difference in CY between WS and RF was not statistically
significant at α0.05. The models developed have high R2 values (0.758 - 0.954 for CY, 0.767 - 0.963
for RKL) in both pretreatments, with no significant difference between actual and predicted values.
Optimized schedules were 18%,120 minutes and 16%,60 minutes; for WS and RF, and 14%,120
minutes and 18%60 minutes for AS and NaOH respectively. The models developed adequately
predicted CY and RKL with reasonable agreement between adjusted and predicted R2 values.
Keywords: Pretreatment, Cellulose Yield, Residual Klason Lignin, Optimization, Rind fraction
INTRODUCTION
Bio-ethanol is the most common alternate fuel and can be produced via fermentation of ligno-
cellulosic biomass (Achinas et al., 2016; Park et al., 2019). Cellulosic ethanol is a type of biofuels
produced from agricultural residues, wood, grasses, or some parts of plants, otherwise referred to
as biomass. Biomass is present in different forms such as agricultural crops ad residues, grasses
and all green plants, some mill wastes such as bagasse, and these can be found all over the world
(Sun and Cheng, 2002). The conversion of Cellulose-derived sugars into ethanol and other biofuels
have been established, and this is through chemical and biochemical technologies (Binder and
Rainesl, 2010). Lignocelluloses however, have recalcitrance, a resistance to degradation which is
attributable to its composition, stability and the robustness to the cell walls of the biomass, and to

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the cross-linking between the cellulose, hemicellulose and the lignin

through ester and ether linkages (Zhu and Pan, 2010). Therefore, in order to extract carbohydrates
from plant cell walls, there is need to disconnect the cellulose fibers from the binder-lignin, and
then hydrolyze the celluloses fibers. These are broken down into simple monosaccharides which
are then available for a myriad of uses such as fermenting to ethanol. The recalcitrance of ligno-
celluloses has been the major constraint in a number of applications, such as bio-ethanol
production (Bloomberg, 2013; Zhao et al., 2018). Several pretreatment methods have been
explored, which includes: Dilute acid pretreatment (Li et al., 2016; Thomas et al, 2017; Liu et al.,
2018), Organosolv pretreatment (ethanol, tetrahydrofuran and γ-valerolactone) (Nguyen et al.,
2015; Thomas et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018), Ionic liquids (Liu et al., 2016; Raj et al., 2018), Wet
Oxidation (Qiang and Thomsen, 2012), Sulfite pretreatment to remove recalcitrance of
lignocellulose (Zhu et al., 2009a), Fiber Steam explosion (Guerrero et al., 2017; Liyakathali et al.,
2017), Liquid water pretreatment (Hongdan et al., 2013), Ultrasound pretreatment (Ivetic et al.,
2017; He et al., 2017; Luzzi et al., 2017), Extrusion pretreatment (Heredia-Olea et al., 2015)
Biological pretreatment using enzymes (Janusz et al., 2017; Houtman et al., 2018) amongst others.
An effective pretreatment is expected to overcome biomass recalcitrance, deconstruct the biomass
into the three dimensional structure of a ligno-cellulose, break cellulose crystallinity, avoid
degradation of carbohydrates, avoid the formation of inhibitory byproducts and allow lignin
recovery (Alvira et al., 2010). Alkaline sulphite is a mild pretreatment method which has been
used for the maize stalk fractions (Marzieh et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2016) and meets the
requirements stated above. It achieves delignification by increasing the internal surface swelling,
decreasing polymerization and cellulose crystallinity, and breaking of links between lignin and
other carbohydrates (Badiei et al., 2014).
The optimization of the most suitable pretreatment methods is specific for a particular biomass
type, and is a function of both the pretreatment variables applied and some inbuilt characteristics
of the plant biomass such as age, structure and composition (Zabed et al., 2017). A pretreatment
schedule is defined by a combination of process factors such as chemical charge, time, pressure,
solid to liquid ratio, temperature and the presence/absence of catalysts (Jonsson et al., 2013). The
Response Surface Methodology (RSM) uses statistical and mathematical techniques to investigate
and optimize the combined effects of input variables influencing responses with the main aim of
optimizing this response (Montgomery, 2005). In this case, the process factors are limited to

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chemical concentration and preteratment time while the responses are cellulose yield and the
residual lignin in the pretreated hydrolysates. RSM has been used in the design, formulation,
development, and analysis of new scientific studies, using a reduced number of experimental runs
and simultaneously varying the process factors. Oehlert (2000) describes RSM as a suitable tool
in describing a response and in optimisation using continuous treatments on the input variables.
When there is more than one response then it is important to find the compromise optimum that
takes all the variables into consideration.
A factorial design combines levels of the independent variables and dependent variables through
models generated by multiple linear regressions and a set of predefined experiments. These models
produce response surface graphs that describe the behaviour of the system all over the experimental
range, and can be extrapolated to cover areas where experiments were not performed. A
full factorial experiment is one that considers all possible combinations of the two or three factors
involved in the experimental design, across all levels (Box et al., 2005; Rabelo et al., 2014). Such
an experiment allows the study of the effect of every single factor being considered on the response
variable. It also determines the effects of interactions between the input factors on the response
variable. In this study, the full factorial experiment was used to obtain the actual value of the
responses.
Maize cultivation is predominant in South West Nigeria, producing abundant residue after its
harvest. Maize stover is a morphologically diverse biomass containing cobs, leaves, husks and
stalks in ration15:22:14:50 per kg of dry matter of maize grain while the stalk is an heterogeneous
mix of pith and rind fractions, also having different morphologies (Li et al., 2011; Takada et al.,
2018; Djatkov et al., 2018, Dawid et al., 2020). The fractions of the maize stalk having different
characteristics might have varying reactions to similar delignification schedules (Jiang et al., 2015;
Kolajo and Onilude, 2019). This study optimizes the low temperature chemical pretreatment of
maize whole stalk (WS) and fiber-rich Rind Fractions (RF) using AS and NaOH.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Collection and Preparation
The maize stalks were of the 3-months maturation DMR-LSR-W (Streak and Downy mildew
resistant) variety from the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Ibadan,
Nigeria. The stalks were reduced into chips (25mm) and some of the chips were further separated

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into pith and rind fractions; the rind is the hard outer part while the pith is the soft inner core. These
were air dried until a constant mass was obtained prior tests and pretreatment.
Pretreatment Schedule
Pretreatment variables were alkali charges of 14, 16 and 18% for a pretreatment time of 60, 90 and
120 minutes for the whole maize stalk and the rind fraction, making it a 32 2 full factorial
experimental. Each schedule was pulped in three replicates. The cellulose yield (CY) was obtained
as a percentage of the input raw biomass while residual lignin (RKL) in the pulp lap was analyzed
using TAPPI T236 standards.
Modeling and Optimisation

Linear models, two factorial interaction, quadratic models and cubic models were used to interpret
the response of cellulose yield and RKL to changes in concentration and pretreatment times for
each of the biomass fractions. The models were obtained using Design Expert software 6.0
(Statease, USA, MN) and the appropriate equation was selected from the highest order polynomial
where there is insignificant lack of fit, the model was not aliased and there is maximization of the
R2 value with close relationship between Adjusted R2 and the Predicted R2 values.
The general form of the quadratic equation chosen was:
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘

𝑌 = 𝑎0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 + ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑖2 + ∑ ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑗 + 𝜀 . . . (1)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖≠𝑗=1

Where,
xi, xj are the input variables,
a0 is the intercept,
ai, aii, aij are the first order, quadratic and interaction coefficients respectively
i, j are the index numbers of the factors
Ɛ is the residual error
Y is the response function
The adequacy of the model was proven by the coefficient of determination R2 and adequate
precision values. Quadratic model was chosen based on high R2 value and low deviation from the
mean. Validation of the model developed was achieved by comparing the empirical data with those
predicted by the models. A Chi-square test was also used to test the validity of the model. Chi-
square is expressed as X2.
(𝐸𝑥𝑝 − 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑)2
𝑋2 = ∑ . . . (2)
(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑)
Where,

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X2 = Chi-square
Exp = Experimental/Actual/Empirical values
Pred = Predicted values

Optimization was achieved using Response Surface Methodology. Results from pretreatment were
optimized using the Historical data package of Design Expert® software, using the criteria of
highest CY and lowest RKL for each level of variation.

Statistical Analysis
Values obtained for CY and RKL were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The difference
between the means was obtained by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at α0.05.

RESULTS
The effects of the variables' individual and second order interactions on the response surface of
the independent variables were analyzed. The experimental design, with each corresponding
pretreatment yield and RKL are presented in Supplementary Tables S1 to S4.
Modeling
The experimental data for the CY and RKL from WS (Table S1) and RF (Table S2) using AS
pretreatment were approximated by a quadratic function, after which the efficiency of the models
for prediction of CY and RKL was estimated based on the error parameters and correlation
coefficients (Kasote et al., 2013; Ogunsina et al., 2014). A reduced polynomial model was
obtained by excluding the insignificant terms from the quadratic models. The terms 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are
alkali charges and pretreatment time respectively.
AS pretreatment
The final equations for AS pretreatment estimating CY and RKL are for WS are given by equations
3 and 4 respectively:
𝐶𝑌 (%) = 40.68 − 1.5𝑥1 − 2.43𝑥2 + 1.33𝑥22 + 1.2𝑥1 𝑥2 . . . (3)
(Std Dev = 1.63, Mean = 41.79, Adj R 2 = 0.7006, Pred R2 = 0.6157, R2 = 0.758)

𝑅𝐾𝐿(%) = 5.14 − 0.80𝑥1 − 0.46𝑥2 + 0.5𝑥12 − 0.19𝑥22 − 0.25𝑥1 𝑥2 . . . (4)

(Std Dev = 0.20, Mean = 5.35, Adj R 2 = 0.9438, Pred R2 = 0.9277, R2 = 0.9546)
In the same way, the final equations for AS pretreatment for RF are as given in equations 5 and 6:
𝐶𝑌 (%) = 45.56 − 2.98𝑥1 − 1.17𝑥2 + 0.4𝑥1 𝑥2 . . . (5)

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(Std Dev = 0.79, Mean = 45.54, Adj R2 = 0.9190, Pred R2 = 0.8896, R2= 0.935)
𝑅𝐾𝐿(%) = 4.99 − 0.59𝑥1 − 0.23𝑥2 + 0.54𝑥12 + 0.2𝑥1𝑥2 . . . (6)
(Std Dev = 0.13, Mean = 5.32, Adj R 2 = 0.9547, Pred R2 = 0.9421, R2 = 0.963)
Equations 3 and 5 reproduced CY and showed that there are significant interactions between
pulping time and liquor concentration. There was high regression coefficient (R2 = 0.758,
0.935) while the Adjusted R2 is in agreement with the Predicted R2 for WS (0.7006, 0.6157)
and RF (0.9190,0.8896) respectively. This trend is also true for RKL (Equations 4 and 6)
with R2 of 0.9546, 0.963 and the Adjusted R2 (0.9438, 0.9547) and Predicted R2 (0.9277,
0.9421) in close agreement. The pure errors obtained for CY was less than 5% (0.01 - 4.38%;
0.01 - 1.66%) and less than 1% (0.01 - 0.27%; 0.01 - 0.36%) for RKL and Chi-square values
are insignificant at 95% confidence level. Analysis of Variance shows a low lack of fit which
indicates that the model represents the actual relationship of input factors and responses. The
model is therefore adequate to navigate the design space.

NaOH pretreatment
The reduced mathematical equations to predict CY and RKL for WS are given by equations 7 and
8 respectively.
𝐶𝑌 (%) = 43.96 − 3.7𝑥1 − 1.17𝑥2 − 1.43𝑥12 − 0.55𝑥1𝑥2 . . . (7)
(Std Dev = 0.81, Mean = 42.64, Adj R2 = 0.9429, Pred R2 = 0.9218, R2 = 0.954)
𝑅𝐾𝐿(%) = 5.28 − 0.17𝑥1 − 0.33𝑥2 − 0.17𝑥12 − 0.13𝑥22 . . . (8)
(Std Dev = 0.12, Mean = 5.08, Adj R 2 = 0.8854, Pred R2 = 0.8424, R2 = 0.907)

Thr final equations for RF are given as:

𝐶𝑌 (%) = 42.29 − 0.95𝑥1 − 1.78𝑥2 − 0.38𝑥12 + 0.42𝑥22 . . . (9)
(Std Dev = 0.61, Mean = 42.31, Adj R2 = 0.8836, Pred R2 = 0.8473, R2 = 0.906)
𝑅𝐾𝐿(%) = 5.22 − 0.38𝑥1 − 0.65𝑥2 + 0.15𝑥1𝑥2 . . . (10)
(Std Dev = 0.40, Mean = 5.01, Adj R 2 = 0.7112, Pred R2 = 0.6212, R2 = 0.767)
The R2 values are high for CY (0.954 and 0.906 for WS and RF respectively) and RKL (0.907 and
0.767). The closeness of the values of Adjusted R2 and Predicted R2 for both WS (0.8836 and
0.8473) and RKL (0.7112 and 0.6212) confirms the suitability of the model to navigate the design

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space. The residuals obtained were less than 2% (0.01 - 1.24%) and less than 1% (0.01 - 0.62%)
for RKL. Values obtained from Chi-square test shows that the difference is not significant at α0.05.
Effect of alkali charge and pretreatment time on CY
The highest CY obtained from AS pretreatment was 46.8±2.9% at 14% concentration and 60
minutes for WS, and 50.0±0.2% at 14% concentration and 60 minutes for RF. NaOH pretreatment
has the highest CY at 14% alkali charge and 60 minutes for both WS (46.4±0.5%) and RF
(45.0±0.5%). There is a gradual decline in the yield as pulping time increased from 60 minutes, to
90 minutes and 120 minutes at all the concentrations of 14%, 16% and 18%. The difference
between cellulose yields for whole and rind fraction is significant at α0.05
Effect of alkali charge and pretreatment time on RKL
The lowest RKL was 4.0±0.01% for WS and 4.7±0.01% for RF using AS at 18% 120 minutes.
NaOH pretreatment records the lowest RKL at 4.5±0.02% for whole stalk and 3.6±0.16% at the
same schedule. This translates to an average of over 70% lignin removal, which is slightly lower
than 82% recorded by Liu et al., (2016).
Optimized schedule
The schedule with run order with 120 minutes and 18% concentration was selected for AS pulping
of WS, with a desirability index of 0.583. The schedule 16% alkali charge, 60 minutes, was
selected for RF with an average desirability of 0.652. For NaOH pulping, 14% concentration at
120 minutes at 0.652 desirability was selected for WS while 18% concentration at 60 minutes at
0.549 desirability was selected as the optimized pre-treatment schedule for RF. The response
surface plots for these optimised schedules are seen in Figures 1 and 2.

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(a) (b)
Figure 1: Response Surface Plots for optimised Alkaline sulphite pretreatment schedule for (a)
WS (b) RF.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Response Surface Plots for optimised NaOH pretreatment schedule for (a) WS (b) RF.
CONCLUSION
The results presented have contributed to the development of more suitable pretreatments which
saves energy, cost and time in the production of cellulosic ethanol from biomass. The different
process factors in AS and NaOH pretreatments of maize stalk fractions have been examined and
their relationships established; when time and alkali charge are increased, there is a corresponding
decrease in the RKL of the biomass. The difference between the cellulose yield and RKL of whole
stalk and the rind fraction was statistically significant. The results of the pulping experiments
which were modeled into quadratic polynomial equations showed that the model fitted well as the
residuals generated between actual and predicted values were not significant. From optimization
results, the residuals follow the normal distribution with very minimal deviations. The model

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obtained from the pretreatment experiment may be used to predict cellulose yield and residual
klason lignin for other biomass with similar physical and chemical morphology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Petroleum Technology Development Fund of the Federal Republic
of Nigeria and The Postgraduate College, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
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Bioenergy 2018;115:130e5.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.04.023
Thomas VA, Donohoe BS, Li M, Pu Y, Ragauskas AJ, Kumar R, Nguyen TY, Cai CM, Wyman CE. Adding
tetrahydrofuran to dilute acid pretreatment provides new insights into substrate changes that greatly enhance biomass
deconstruction by Clostridium thermocellum and fungal enzymes. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2017;10:252.
Zabed H, Sahu JN, Suely A, Boyce AN, Faruq G. Bioethanol production from renewable sources: current perspectives
and technological progress. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2017;71:475–501.

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Zhao, X., Luo, K., Zhang, Y., Zheng, Z., Cai, Y., Wen, B., Cui, Z., Wang, X., 2018. Improving the methane yield of
maize straw: Focus on the effects of pretreatment with fungi and their secreted enzymes combined with sodium
hydroxide. Bioresour. Technol. 250, 204-213.
Zhu, J.Y. and X.J. Pan. (2010). Woody biomass pre-treatment for cellulosic ethanol production: Technology and
energy consumption evaluation. Bio-resource Technology 101 (2010) 4992–5002
Zhu, J.Y., X.J. Pan, G.S. Wang and R. Gleisner. (2009a). Sulfite pre-treatment for robust enzymatic saccharification
of spruce and red pine. Bio-resource Technology 100, 2411–2418.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The Effect of Growing Conditions on Wood Density

Luka Krajnc
[email protected]
Polona Hafner
[email protected]
JOŽICA GRIČAR
[email protected]

Slovenian Forestry Institute, Slovenia

Abstract
European forests overall are currently a net carbon sink, however, this is likely to change in the coming decade. It is therefore
important to optimize the relationship between maintaining forest carbon stock and producing an annual yield of higher-quality
timber, which will remain in use longer and will more likely be recycled. Wood density is one of the most important indicators of
wood quality overall, as it is closely related to other important mechanical properties (elastic modulus, bending strength).
Together they form the grade-determining properties, which are used for classifying structural timber into strength classes.
Presented study has investigated how different environmental factors affect wood density of the most commonly grown tree
species in Slovenia. Standing trees were sampled in various forest stands using a Resistograph, a high-resolution resistance
drilling device. Sampled tree species were European beech (Fagus sylvatica), Norway spruce (Picea abies) and silver fir (Abies
alba). Factors like soil bedrock, elevation and others affecting wood density were studied, quantified and compared between
sampled species. The preliminary results indicate that wood density varies significantly between trees of different species
growing under the same conditions and that elevation has a tangible positive effect on wood density overall. The results currently
indicate that an approximately 10% increase in wood density of Norway spruce trees can be detected between trees from 700 m
and trees from 1500 meters above the sea level. The identified magnitude of differences between trees is likely associated with
shortening of the growing season with altitude, which affect basic relations between wood anatomy, tree-ring width and wood
density.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Differences between Hygroscopicity Limit and Cell Wall Saturation

Investigated by LF-NMR on Thermally-Modified and Lignin-Removed
Southern Pine (Pinus spp.)

Ms Jingyu Li, Beijing Forestry University, China

[email protected]

Abstract
Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) was used to clarify the difference between the fiber
saturation point (FSP) determined at the hygroscopicity limit (HL) versus cell wall saturation (CWS) of
untreated, thermally-modified (TM), and lignin-removed (DL) Southern pine (Pinus spp.). The thermal
treatment was conducted at 225℃ for 4 hours, and the delignified treatment was done by a mixture of
967 mL distilled water, 20 g sodium chlorite (NaClO2), and 13 mL acetic acid (CH3COOH) at 40°C in a
water bath for 40 h. The HL samples was attained by conditioning in 100% relative humidity (RH)
while CWS samples were fully saturated with distilled water. Cell wall water of CWS samples was
determined at -3℃ with LFNMR.The moisture content (MC) of the HL samples was found to decrease
after thermal treatment, while increase after lignin removal. The tendency remain to be same for cell
wall water of CWS samples. At 25°C, the HL state of the treated samples contained 2 peaks,
representing bound water and part of water constrained in pits, respectively; The samples included 3-
4 peaks in CWS state, corresponding to bound water, water in pits or smaller pores, and free water in
the cell lumena (usually Peak 3 and Peak4). When comparing the cell wall water difference for HL and
CWS samples, an increase by 5.58% was shown for untreated samples. A possible explanation may be
the cell wall was further swollen under liquid saturation. This difference was found to increase for DL
samples by 8.58%, while TM samples shows negligible difference. The results suggest that the number
of sorption sites in the cell wall decreased after heat treatment, and the swelling behavior was
weakened. But for delingnified treatment, more soption sites may be exposed , and the cell wall was
more resilient towards water swelling.
Moreover, the increase in water content located in the cell wall was determined using freezing point
depression. For untreated samples, about 11% of the MC was found in cell wall nanopores with sizes
ranging from 1.73 nm to 13.80 nm. The discrepancy between the HL and CWS values of the samples
was attributed to freezable water in the nanopores of the matrix components and inter-microfibrils.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Some Mechanical Properties of Particleboards Produced from Four Agro-

forest Residues Using Cassava Starch and Urea Formaldehyde as Adhesives

Mr. Prosper Mensah, CSIR Forestry Research Institute, Ghana

[email protected]

Abstract
The increase in demand of particleboards for furniture and other applications has prompted a large-
scale research into the suitability of various types of lignocellulosic materials for its manufacture. For
the appropriate use of particleboards produced from such materials their properties need to be
established. This paper evaluated some mechanical properties of particleboards produced from four
agro-forest residues using cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesives. One layer
homogenous particleboards of sizes 20 mm x 300 mm x 300mm were manufactured from the agro-
forest residues. The boards which were produced at a targeted density of 600kg/m 3 with adhesive
content of 12% (based on the oven-dry weight) were pressed at 170⁰C for 480 seconds using
compacting pressure of 3.5 MPa. The modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture and hardness were
determined in according with the American National Standard Institute A208.1-2009. With the cassava
starch (CS) blend, MoR was in a range of 4.95-12.93 MPa and urea formaldehyde (UF) blend the MoR
was in the range of 6.89-16.54 MPa. The MoE for the CS blend ranged from 1030.50-2173.00 MPa and
that of UF blend were in the range of 1390.68-2412.68 MPa. CS blend recorded 2.49-6.79 MPa for its
hardness and UF blend hardness was in the range of 3.63-8.78 MPa. The uniform distribution of the
respective biomass particles and the flowability of the adhesives in the microstructure of the
manufactured particleboards is the major factor responsible for the improvement in the mechanical
properties tested. It was concluded that with the exception of particleboards manufactured
from Theobroma cacao pod using CS and UF all other selected biomass made an acceptable
particleboards with optimum performance, minimum weight, and possible cost effective for interior
application, fitments and other furniture to be used in dry conditions.

Keywords: Agro-forest residue; Cassava starch, Mechanical properties; Particleboard, Urea

formaldehyde

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

SPECTROSCOPIC CHARACTERISATION OF WOOD TREATED BY DIFFERENT

COATINGS AFTER WEATHERING IN SUBARCTIC CONDITIONS

Olena Myronycheva1, Alona Sekan1, Injeong Kim1, Olov Karlsson1, Peter Jacobsson2, Margot
Sehlstedt-Persson1, Dick Sandberg1

1 Wood Science and Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Skellefteå, Sweden

2 Martinsons Byggsystem AB, Skelleftea, Sweden

Abstract
Weathering of wood is a complex natural phenomenon that is influenced by factors both in macro-
and micro-scale. The degradation by weathering constitutes of complex physical-chemical changes
influenced by environmental factors such as moisture, sunlight, temperature, chemical compounds,
wind, and biological organisms and their related agents. The aim of our study was the evaluation
of MIR and NIR spectroscopic technique for characterisation of wood treated by commercial
coatings contained different biocidal treatments after weathering in subarctic conditions.
Tangential and radial surfaces of the Scots pine and Norway spruce were treated with coatings
containing various biocides. Treatment was in the form of fairly transparent wood oil (T), while
the two others were coatings that had more of a non-transparent character (H and P). Treated
specimens and control were placed in various directions on racks outdoor for natural weathering.
The measurement of the NIR spectra of specimens that were not exposed, after weathering and
dried after weathering, was done by the point-based microNIR portable sensor. Multivariate
statistical analysis (MSA) showed that data from types of exposure contributed less compared to
surface treatments in the 3D principal component analysis model (PCA). Grouping pattern around
treatments H and P could be obtained as the two individual groups more or less fully separated.
From the treatment T and non-treated specimens, no individual grouping behaviour could be
observed, however, more intense exposed seemed to be clustered in a different way than mildly
exposed ones. A more extensive weather exposure gave also a more degraded surface for T-treated
specimens. The NIR portable spectrometer may be used for assessment of the extent of weathering,
but the treatment P followed by treatment H had minimal changes. Coefficients Plot in the PLS-
DA model for different types of exposure for those treatments showed the influence of the NIR
wavelengths in classes related to exposure type. The changes caused by weathering phenomenon
was evaluated by using multivariate methods in which resulting multivariate model parameters for
prediction of the changes were determined. Analysis of the chemical structure of coatings after
weathering analysed by mid-infrared spectroscopy gave support to the lower stability of T-
treatment during weathering.

Keywords: wood, treatment, natural weathering, infrared, near-infrared, spectroscopy

INTRODUCTION

The measurement by electromagnetic radiation such as mid-infrared (MIR) and near-infrared

spectroscopy (NIR) is non-destructive analytical techniques providing an individual chemical
fingerprint of the sample. The non-destructive nature of the technique made it quite popular in

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material science and widely applied to the wood (Sandak, Sandak, and Meder 2016). Industrial
digitalisation and movement towards the Industry 4.0 revolution opened new applications to
spectroscopic techniques in environmental chemistry. However, the semi-quantitative approach
and heterogeneity of wooden material limit its application in the material involved in
environmental analysis such as weathering. Weathering of wood is a complex, natural
phenomenon that is influenced by factors both in macro- and micro-scale. The surface degradation
by weathering evolves complex physical-chemical-biological changes caused by environmental
factors such as moisture, sunlight, temperature, chemical compounds, wind, and biological
organisms.
Therefore, the aim of our study was the evaluation of field NIR spectroscopic technique for
characterisation of wooden material treated by commercial coatings of three different types, in
outdoor applications in subarctic conditions.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Kiln-dried Scots pine sapwood boards were cut into specimens with a dimension of 15x12x2 cm
(TxWxL). Kiln-dried Norway spruce boards were cut to specimens with a dimension of 15x8x1.5
cm. The end-grain surfaces of each specimen were sealed with a SikaFlex, Switzerland. The total
non-sealed surface area of the specimens was 420 cm2 and 300 cm2 for Scots pine and Norway
spruce, respectively. Three surface treatments with different biocidal composition and an uncoated
control group were evaluated, and variables in the experimental design of the current study
presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Experimental design.

Variables Code Description of Variables No. of replicates
Treatment H Waterborne Pigmented Primer with two 18
biocides and alkyd binder
T Waterborne wood oil with a single biocide 18
P Waterborne paint for indoor use with four 18
biocides and acrylate binder
C No treatment 18
Wood specie Scots pine 36
Norway spruce 36
Angle of 0 24
exposure 45 (south) 24
90 (north) 24
No exposed 20
Type of No exposed/After exposure for 115/Dried 20/72/72
exposure after exposure for 115 days

The amount of applied treatment coating on each specimen was 100±10 g/m2. The specimens were
placed on the exposure site (in Skellefteå latitude: 64.744453, longitude: 20.955569) at June 5th,
and removed September 27th with a total exposure time 115 days. The specimens were inclined to
the south with an angle of 45˚, and to the north by an inclination angle of 90˚ against the horizontal
plane as well as in the horizontal position.
The moisture content of the specimens before and after outdoor exposure was measured
gravimetrically by heating in an oven at 103˚C until constant weight.

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The NIR spectra were collected by portable microNIR OnSite Spectrometer (VIAVI Solutions
Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) with NIR wavelengths from 908 to 1676 nm with step 6 nm, every week
during the observation period. NIR spectral data collected in five replicates and dataset contained
1166 observations in total used for the prediction model. The analysis was performed using
variables Treatment, Wood Specie, Day and Angel of Exposure. The FTIR spectra in the MIR range
4000-400 cm-1 were collected from dried specimens (MC in Table 2) isolated by scraping surface
material from the treated wood after weathering of specimens in ATR mode and transformed to
the absorbance mode by FT-IR Frontier Spectrometer, PerkinElmer. The comparison of unexposed
treatment and treatments at different directions of exposure was made for chemical changes
detection. Data analysis was performed with MS Excel 2016, IBM SPSS, USA and SIMCA14,
Umetrics AB, Sweden (Eriksson et al. 2013).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

In Figure 1, the multivariate modelling of the NIR spectra of the grouping of all specimens in the
study is presented. This is shown as a three-dimensional plot of principal component analysis
(PCA). In this way clear grouping pattern by treatments that are coloured differently could be seen:
treatment with P-product (red) and H-products (blue) dots where separated quite well from the
other groups whereas untreated (yellow) and treated with T-treated (green) were mixed (Figure
1a).

a) b)

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

c) d)

Figure 1. The 3D PCA model of NIR spectra overview with legends coloured by: a) coating
treatment, b) type of exposure, c) wood species, d) angle of exposure (0 – non exposure
specimens)

Already in the non-exposed specimens (red dots in Figure 1b), such separation between treatment
H and P was seen whereas for T-treatment mixing with uncoated specimens were obvious. Also,
after the weathering exposure, such separation of specimens related to the various treatments could
be observed (green dots in Figure 1b). Furthermore, the weathered specimens in treatment H and
P (green dots in Figure 1b) were clustered at somewhat different position in the plot than the
corresponding non-exposed specimens (red dots in Figure 1b). Moisture is a frequent contributor
in NIR spectra, and H- and P-dried weathered specimens (green dots in Figure 1b) were also
clustered at somewhat different positions than the dried weathered specimens (blue dots in Figure
1b). This indicated that also, other factors than moisture contributes to the separations of groups
in the PCA-plot as the treatment itself played a dominant role in the separation in the multivariate
plot of weathered specimens.
From visual inspection, T treatment was found to be more vulnerable to weathering conditions
than treatment H and especially treatment P (Table 2).

Table 2. The final pictures of the treated Scots pine boards after 115 days of exposure before drying
Angle H T P C

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

90

180

45

Furthermore, moisture content in the specimens varied depending on the exposure position as
shown in Table 3. In Figure 1d influence of exposure position on the modelled NIR-data is
presented; specimens from T-treated and uncoated ones that were more exposed (180 degree) were
clustered more or less at other position than the mildly exposed (90 degree), while a similar trend
was more difficult to observe for H- and P-treatments.

Table 3. Moisture content of weather exposed specimen

Treatment Angle of Wood Specie
Exposure Pine Spruce
H 45 (south) 16.77±0.16 15.03±0.13
0 19.75±0.56 17.70±0.02
90 (north) 16.38±1.25 16.59±0.32
T 45 (south) 16.78±0.31 17.04±0.46
0 17.75±0.34 18.42±0.26
90 (north) 17.78±0.13 16.54±0.75
P 45 (south) 16.84±0.48 15.42±0.70
0 18.79±2.36 18.81±0.11
90 (north) 17.20±1.06 17.01±2.83

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C 45 (south) 15.99±0.13 16.97±2.62

0 18.07±0.30 18.32±0.15
90 (north) 16.75±0.36 16.99±0.62

Alkyd and acrylate binder were the dominant organic components in H- and P-coating treatment
and biocides contributed only to low extent. Functional groups in these two binders also
contributed to absorptions when analysing the surface materials using FTIR in which carbonyl
absorptions at 1720 cm-1 was found to be fairly stable towards weathering, while changes in
hydrocarbon absorptions were more difficult to evaluate. Preliminary data for T-treatment
indicated changes in the carbonyl absorptions that might reflect its less stable appearance. Thus,
the importance of degradation of coating in the clustering within each coating is still difficult to
verify and needs further studies.

Validation of multivariate models

The PCA model of NIR spectra which provided the data for the presentations in Figure 1 gave a
description of data (R2) 99.9% and prediction (Q2) 99.9% that is quite good for NIR spectra (Table
4). The partial least squares regression (PLS) model with Y variables (Treatment, Wood Specie,
Day, Angel of Exposure, Type of Exposure) contained 21 principal components and less prediction
value (Q2 in Table 4) was used to find the best-modelled variable. The variable Type of Exposure
contributed mostly to the models' performance compared to other variables after the diagnostic of
the PLS model (data not shown here). Therefore, that variable (Type of Exposure) was used as a
response in the PLS-DA model since that model provides maximum separation between such
amounts of classes (Eriksson et al. 2013). The parameters of all models developed are described
in Table 4.

Table 4. The multivariate models' parameters

№ Name Component Observations R2X(cum) R2Y(cum) Q2(cum)
1 PCA 3 1166 0.999 0.999
2 PLS 21 1166 1 0.799 0.788
3 PLS-DA 8 1166 1 0.845 0.844

The Coefficients plot in Figure 2, displays regression coefficients correlated to scaled and centred
X-variables (NIR-spectra) from all specimens in class After exposure. As the model is based on all
samples and their composition varies this means that correlations could not be related to a specific
treatments structure. However, some general conclusions can be drawn. Negative and positive
correlations were found indicating decreases and increases in presence of absorptions upon
weathering exposure, respectively. The negative high coefficients at the beginning of the NIR
spectra (lower wavelength) could be related to the VIS region and visible changes of colour on the
surface (Schwanninger et al. 2011). Although moisture was found in the specimen (Table 3),
typical strong water signal (around 1450 nm) have not been generated.
The observation of Coefficients plot for all classes in the PLS-DA model showed the strongest
correlation for wavelength around 1620 nm which may be related to C-H hydrocarbon chains
possibly in alkene groups (Workman and Weyer 2012; 2008). Class Dried after exposure had the
strongest positive correlation around wavelength 1403 nm that is close to absorptions originated
from methyl C-H absorptions associated with branched aliphatic hydrocarbon (Workman and
Weyer 2012; 2008).

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Figure 2. The Coefficients plot of PLS-DA model from all specimens.

The misclassification table in the PLS-DA model shows the proportion of correctly classified
observations in the prediction set. The NIR spectra in different treatments could be predicted to
the extent of around 80% in total, as presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Misclassification table PLS-DA

(green - correct prediction, yellow -misclassification)
Variable Number Correct After Dried No No class
exposure after exposure (YPred≤)
exposure
After exposure 599 100% 599 0 0 0
Dried after exposure 367 95.91% 0 352 15 0
Non exposure 200 100% 0 0 200 0
No class 0 0 0 0 0
Total 1166 98.71% 599 352 215 0

The classes represented types of exposure regarding no exposure and after exposure could be
predicted with 100%. When in dried after exposure type 15 specimens were misclassified. The
explanation of such consequences could be due to the nature of the treatment P that was less
degraded during exposure than other treatments-product and homogeneity of the weathered and
the non-weathered wood

CONCLUSION
The evaluation of three commercial wood coating by spectroscopic techniques revealed that NIR
spectra might be used for the detection of weathered or non-weathered specimens. From our data
from NIR and MIR, the most variability in the model was probably from changes in hydrocarbons
as well as carbonyl compounds related to the chemical composition of the treatment T. Despite
complicated for interpretation spectra and step 6 nm in the portable microNIR spectrometer, the
PLS-DA model gave almost 99% of the prediction. That indicates portable microNIR as a
promising technique for the assessment of the weathered coated wood in outdoor exposure.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The acknowledgement by authors provided to the Swedish Research Council for the Environment
Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning, FORMAS (project number 419, 2017) and IPOS DP2
Vinnova for funding our research. Kempe foundation is gratefully acknowledged for financial
support.

REFERENCE
Eriksson, L, T Byrne, E Johansson, J Trygg, and C Vikström. 2013. Multi- and Megavariate
Data Analysis: Basic Principles and Applications.
Sandak, Anna, Jakub Sandak, and Roger Meder. 2016. 'Tutorial: Assessing Trees, Wood and
Derived Products with near Infrared Spectroscopy: Hints and Tips'. Journal of Near Infrared
Spectroscopy 24 (6): 485. https://doi.org/10.1255/jnirs.1255.
Schwanninger, Manfrred, Jos&#x00E9 Rodrigues, Carlos, and Karin Fackler. 2011. 'A Review
of Band Assignments in near Infrared Spectra of Wood and Wood Components'. Journal of Near
Infrared Spectroscopy 19 (5): 287–308. https://doi.org/10.1255/jnirs.955.
Workman, Jerry, and Lois Weyer. 2008. Practical Guide to Interpretive Near-Infrared
Spectroscopy. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.
———. 2012. Practical Guide and Spectral Atlas for Interpretive Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.
2nd ed. Boca Raton ; London: CRC Press.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Identification of Wood Vibro-acoustic Parameters for Musical Instruments

Patrik Nop,

Department of Wood Science and Technology,

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech
Republic
[email protected]

Abstract
Wood is one of the most interesting materials in terms of studying acoustic properties. For its unique
character has always been the most used material for the production of quality musical instruments,
loudspeakers, architecture acoustic elements etc. The treatment of composites or wood modifications
can significantly improve properties to meet the highest standarts of products. Consequently,
advanced vibro-acoustic analysis of material is necessary to identify main characteristics determining
wood quality in terms of acoustics and asses its suitability for acoustic related applications.

The three methods are used for determination of acoustic properties of materials – resonance
frequency method by microphone, modal analysis using microaccelerometers or laser vibrometers,
direct measurement of speed of sound transmission through the material by piezoelectric probes.
Acoustic parameters of the material are derived from the physical properties measured by these
metods (density, speed of sound propagation, dynamic modulus of elasticity). Acoustic constant and
sound impedance calculated from these properties, the loss coefficient or logarithmic decrement of
damping and finally acoustical conversion efficiency (ACE) and relative acoustical conversion efficiency
(RACE) combining mentioned material parameters should be indicative of the acoustic quality of wood.

The subject of the presented study is a combination of measuring methods and modal analysis with
focus on relationships of common vibro-acoustic parameters and the connection of required tonal
intervals in the timbre of musical instruments and the natural frequency intervals of specimens made
from individual wood species. The goal is to find a more reliable correlation of parameters for a more
complex vibro-acoustic wood analysis, which helps in selecting suitable wood for the production of
musical instruments and determine the key parameters for evaluation of wood modifications aiming to
improving of acoustic properties.

Key worlds: Vibro-Acoustic Study, Acoustic Properties, Modal Analysis, Frequency Spectrum

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Triboelectric Activation of Sawdust During Cutting and Sanding Processes,

A New Approach to Lower Wood Fine-Dust Contamination

Luca Nüssel1
[email protected]
Lisa Doni1
[email protected]
Roman Myna2
[email protected]
Stephan Frömel-Frybort2
[email protected]
Rupert Wimmer1
[email protected]

1Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, Department of Material Sciences and Process
Engineering, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences

2 Wood K plus - Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry

Abstract
We have recently shown that triboelectric charging of wood particles occurs during collision and
separation of such particles, which is leading to either positive or negative particle charges. In this
research we particularly focused on the triboelectric activation of wood particles that occurs during
circular saw cutting and sanding, with the purpose of developing approaches that lower wood fine-dust
contamination. Wood samples from spruce, beech, as well as from particleboards and medium density
fiberboards were processed at various conditions. For the sawing we varied cutting depth, feeding
speed and the number of saw blade teeth. For the sanding we varied grain size and abrasion depth.
The interactions between wood species, wood density, the aforementioned cutting and sanding
parameters, and the triboelectric charge of the obtained wood particles were investigated. Data show
that medium-density fiberboard particles received the highest triboelectric activation, while spruce
obtained the lowest. The different electrical activations (charges) of wood particles can be explained
by the wood density, and the resin content. We have shown that different particle sizes emerge during
cutting and sanding, which is a major reason for extent of triboelectric activation. With the collected
data it was possible to expand the triboelectric series with spruce, beech, particleboards and medium-
density fiberboards. A well-directed triboelectric activation of wood particles during sawing and
sanding will greatly improve the efficiency of wood dust collection systems. Improved dust collection
reduces health risks at the workspace, lowering the workers exposure to wood fine-dust particles.

Keywords:

triboelectric charge, triboelectric series, sawdust, spruce, beech, particleboard, medium-density

fiberboard, wood machining

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

ABES and DMA Cure Monitoring of Tannin Adhesive

Jasa Sarazin1
[email protected]
Milan Sernek1
[email protected]
Antonio PIzzi2
[email protected]

1Universityof Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Slovenia

2 Universite de Lorraine LERMAB-ENSTIB, Nancy, France

Abstract
Determination of optimal pressing time and temperature is essential for economical production of
wood-based composites. Two useful and fast, laboratory-scale methods for determination of these
parameters are Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) using oscillatory test on rheometer and real time
shear test conducted on Automated bonding evaluation system (ABES).

The objective of this preliminary study was to examine curing process of pine tannin-hexamine
adhesive, which is one of the wood bio-based adhesives studied in the ongoing project WooBAdh.
Bond strength development of the bio-based adhesive was determined on rheometer and ABES at five
different press temperatures. Oscillatory test on rheometer was conducted using two aluminum discs
in parallel plate geometry, whereas ABES was using beech (Fagus sylvatica L) cut veneer for formation
of lap shear bonds.

It was found out that curing process of the tannin adhesive determined by rheometer resulted in
significantly longer pressing times compare to pressing times derived from ABES. This was ascribed
mainly to bigger amount of adhesive tested by rheometer (gap was 0.5 mm), absence of the pressure
and presence of aluminum discs instead of wood, which would absorb the water from the adhesive
during curing process.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Characterization of Raw Materials and Physical Properties of Particleboard

Made from Douglas fir Bark

Mathias Schuh1
[email protected]
Philipp Hüser2
[email protected]
Simon Redel2
[email protected]
Klaus Richter3
[email protected]

1Technical University of Munich, Holzforschung München, Germany

2 Hochschule Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Germany
3 Technical University of Munich, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Wood
Research Munic, Germany

Abstract
The objective of this research was to investigate the suitability of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
bark as a raw material for particle board production. A high percentage of the bark is used for energy
production. The material was chosen because of its availability and to achieve a higher added value.
Bark was obtained from two sawmills in south Germany, which used different debarking processes.
One sawmill used a router head debarker and the other a rotor debarker. A screening process was
carried out to characterize the particle size distribution of the raw material. Also, the mass percentage
of wood was measured. The debarking method significantly influences the particle size distribution and
the content of wood in the raw material. The bark was crushed in a wet state in a hammer mill to
reduce the number of fine particles (< 1 mm). The particles were kiln-dried at 70 °C. To separate the
roundish bark from the longish wood particles double layer sieves with perforated plates were
developed. The particles were separated in two fractions. In average the mass percentage of wood in
the raw material was 13 %. After separation the low wood fraction contained around 3 % of wood and
the high wood fraction around 21 %. Particles smaller than 1 mm were rejected. The boards were
manufactured with three layers. The fraction with the high wood content was used in the core layer
and the fraction with the low wood content was used in the surface layers for aesthetic reasons.

The study was designed to investigate the influence of three factors: adhesive type, adhesive amount
and board density. A commercial urea formaldehyde (UF) and a melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF)
adhesive was used in different concentration of 5, 8, 11, 14 and 17 % in the core layer. The boards
bonded with UF were produced with a target density of 650, 800 and 950 kg/m³, MUF bonded boards
only with a target density of 800 kg/m³. The amount of adhesive in the surface layers was always 3 %
higher than in the core layer. In total 60 boards of 380 x 340 x 14 mm were made with a laboratory
hot press at 200°C with a pressing time of 610 seconds. For the testing process all boards were
sanded to an equal thickness of 12 mm with a wide belt sander at grid 100. The evaluated physical
properties were modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), transverse tensile strength,
thickness swelling, indentation hardness (Brinell), abrasion resistance and thermal conductivity. The
results show that the requirements for particle boards for indoor use according to the standard DIN EN

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312 type P2 are met, when the adhesive content in the core layer is above 11 %. The boards bonded
with the MUF adhesive showed lower thickness swelling and higher transverse tensile strength after
immersion for 24 hours in water at 20°C. Producing boards with a density of 950 kg/m³ was not
possible due to steam burst.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Pulp and Paper Making Potential of Elephant and Thatching

Grasses Growing in Zambia
Kennedy Sichamba1* and Vanessa Chanda2

1
Lecturer, Copperbelt University, School of Natural Resources, Kitwe, Zambia.
*Corresponding author
[email protected]
2
Former student, Copperbelt University, School of Natural Resources, Kitwe,
Zambia
[email protected]

Abstract
Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and thatching grass (Hyparhenia rufa) are common
grass species in Zambia. Elephant grass is a perennial plant, growing in uncultivated wetlands
and is mainly used for making mats and baskets, while thatching grass grows in open
woodlands, and used for thatching houses in rural communities or burned out as a weed.
Chemical composition, kraft pulp yield, and burst strength of paper handsheets of the grasses
were determined in order to evaluate their suitability for pulp and paper making. The grasses
were first air dried for a week and then cut in 2cm pieces before analysis. Determination of
chemical composition was conducted following the standard ASTM procedures with minor
modifications. Kraft pulp was produced by cooking air dried grass material in 18% alkali solution
containing sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide, with 25% sulfidity. Pulp yield was expressed
as percentage of the ratio of dry pulp to dry grass material. The pulp was bleached using
hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite and sodium hydroxide to improve its brightness. The
Bursting strength of paper handsheets was determined following the standard TAPPI T403
procedure. The cellulose, hemicelluloses, acid insoluble lignin and ash content of elephant grass
and thatching grass were, respectively, 64.8%, 19.8%, 8.3%, 3.5% and 54.5%, 33.1%, 7.8, 2.9%.
The high holloceluloses and relatively lower lignin content suggest that both grasses can easily
be pulped. The Pulp yields (51% and 65%,) were comparable to commercial pulp species such as
switch grass and wood. The burst strength values were lower than other species previously
studied. The handsheets were able to hold ink and glue quiet well. The results of this study
suggest that both elephant and thatching grasses could be an alternative raw material for
making pulp, paper and paper products, though addition research would be required to
determine the optimal pulping conditions, to validate the findings of this study, and to
investigate other pulp and paper properties. Paper from these grasses could be used to
fabricate paper shopping bags to replace or reduce the use of environmentally harmful plastic
bags in the country.

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Key words: elephant grass, thatching grass, chemical composition, kraft pulp, handsheets
Introduction
Paper consists of a web of fibers obtained from plants, bonded together primarily by hydrogen
bonds. Any plant material can be used to make paper provided that it is readily available and
produces high amount of fibers which are conformable and able develop strong hydrogen
bonds (Smook 2002). Chemical content (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and ash) is also an
important yardstick of plant materials’ suitability for pulping and paper making. Usually, the
higher the amounts of celluloses and hemicelluloses in a plant material, the more the pulp yield
and the better the quality of fibers (Khali 2006). In addition, lower lignin content indicates that
fibers can be extracted from the plant material more easily. Wood from trees is the principle
raw material used in pulp and paper making since it is readily available and produces good
quality fibers. However, using trees has a lot of challenges. Because of its' complex structure,
wood requires a lot of chemicals to process; trees take long to mature; high deforestation rate
is threatening the future of wood raw materials; and wood faces competition from other uses
such as energy and construction. Because of these factors, recent research has focused on
identifying alternative non-wood raw materials for paper making.

Because of their availability, several grass species have been investigated for their potential for
pulp and paper making, and the results are promising. Work on suitability of elephant grass for
paper making in South Africa showed that is it suitable for making paper, because both the pulp
yield and paper strength properties were comparable to commercial plant species (Madakadze
et al. 2010). To extract the fibers, the grass materials were cooked in 14% alkali solution
containing sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide at 160oC for two hours. The pulp yield was
50% (compared to 48% for switch grass, a commercial species), while the burst index was above
5.85 KPa.m-2g-1, suggesting that the grass was suitable for making high strength paper. Similar
results were obtained from elephant grass growing in India (Reddy et.al. 2014). The pulp yield
was 58% while the burst index was 4.98 KPa m2g-1. An earlier study by Madakadze et al. (1999)
also found several warm seasonal grasses (switch grasses, big bluestem, cord grass, and sand
reed) in Canada to be suitable raw materials for paper making. The pulp yield ranged from 44%
- 51%, and the burst index was above 5.0. KPa.m-2g-1 for all species. Jahan (2016) also found
that umbrella palm grass (cyperus flabettiformic) is suitable for paper making. Both the pulp
yield (55%) and the burst index (4.4 kPa.m 2 /g ) were similar to other grass species, although
the α-cellulose content (32.2%) was lower, and the lignin content (24.0%) was higher than most
grasses.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the pulp and paper making properties of elephant grass
(Pennisetum purpureum) and thatching grass (Hyparhenia Rufa) growing in Zambia. The grasses
are readily available in the country. Elephant grass is a perennial plant, grows in uncultivated
wetlands and is sometimes used for making mats and baskets. Thatching grass on the other
hand grows in open woodlands, and it is also a common feature on roadsides in peri urban
roads in the country. It is mainly used for thatching houses in rural communities or burned out
as a weed. To our knowledge, no study has been done on the suitability of these grasses for
pulp and paper making.

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Materials & Methods

Chemical Composition
Subsamples of the raw materials were analyzed for ash, lignin, hemicelluloses and α-cellulose.
The air-dried grass materials were first grinded to pass through a 40-mesh screen according to
TAPPI T 257 (“Sampling and Preparing Wood for Analysis”). The Ash content was determined
according to ASTM D-1102 “Standard test method for ash content in wood and wood-based
materials” (ASTM International, 1984), while the acid insoluble lignin content was analyzed
according to ASTM D-1106 “Standard test method for lignin in wood” (ASTM International,
1984). Alpha cellulose and Hemicelluloses content were determined following the procedure by
Rowel (2005).

Pulping Procedure
To extract fibers, the grass materials were cooked in 18% alkali solution containing sodium
hydroxide and sodium sulfide at 25% sulphidity, with an initial liquid to material ratio of five.
About 180g (7.7% moisture content) of the grass material was weighed in a beaker, to which
25.3g of NaOH, 8.4g of Na2S and 937ml of water were added. The material was cooked for 8
hours at about 100oC while stirring with a glass rod. Additional water was added as required.
After cooking, the fibers were thoroughly washed with water to remove the excess chemicals
and then refined using a domestic blender for about five minutes. Refining collapses the fibers
to improve their conformability. Refined pulp was then screened to remove uncooked
materials. The fibers were then bleached to improve their brightness, by cooking in hydrogen
peroxide, sodium hypochlorite and sodium hydroxide in series. Bleaching conditions used for
each chemical followed those recommended by Biermann (1996), and are shown in table 1
below.

Table 1. Bleaching Conditions

Conditions Sodium Hypochlorite Hydrogen Peroxide Sodium hydroxide
Chemical addition 2% 2% 2%
Consistency 5% 10% 10%
Temperature 35oC 75 oC 95 oC
Time 1.5 hours 2 hours 1.5 hours
Ph 10 10 12

Hand sheet Making and Strength Test

To make paper handsheets, about 3.5g of air-dried pulp was thoroughly mixed with 1 liter of
water in a blender to make pulp slurry. To form the mat, the slurry was poured on a mould
which was placed in water and thereafter raised to allow the pulp settle on the mould as the
water drains. The mat was then consolidated by gently pressing it between a cloth. The mat
was then hot pressed under a cotton cloth using a hot-pressing iron to form the paper. Paper
hand sheets were then prepared for determination of burst strength. Bursting strength test was
performed using a Bursting tester (Mullen tester) according to TAPPI T403“Bursting Strength of
Paper” (Tappi International, 1997). Greeting cards, business cards, envelopes and miniature

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bags were then made from the handsheets to demonstrate the ink and glue holding capabilities
of the paper.

Results and Discussion

Chemical Composition
Cellulose, hemicelluloses, acid insoluble lignin and ash content of elephant and thatching
grasses are shown in the table 2 below. The cellulose content of elephant grass (64.8%) was
higher than that of thatching grass (54.5%), but the cellulose composition of both grasses were
however higher than that of most hardwoods and softwoods, which range from 45% to 50%
(Smook 2002), as well as that of switchgrass (41.2%), a commercial specie used for pulp
production, (Madakadze et al. 2010). Cellulose content of elephant grass observed in this study
was significantly higher than that of elephant grass growing in South Africa (45.6%) reported by
Madakadze et al. (2010). The difference could be explained by differences in species, age and
the harvesting season, as well as the extraction methods. The high cellulose content of the
grasses was consistent with the lower lignin content (7.8 – 8.3%), and it suggests that the
grasses can produce good quality pulp. The lignin content of the grasses was much lower than
that of both softwoods and hardwoods (20-35%) as well as switch grass (23.89%) as reported by
Madakadze et al. (2010). The low lignin content shows that fibers can be extracted from the
grass using less delignification chemicals with mild conditions. The average ash content was
lower than most grasses, suggesting that the grass could also be processed commercially with
less difficult. These figures suggest that elephant grass and thatching glass could potentially be
used for producing good quality pulp, but further research work is necessary to verify these
findings.

Table 2. Chemical Composition of elephant grass and thatching grass (% ± SD)

Elephant grass Thatching grass
Cellulose 64.8±0.75 54.5 ± 0.50
Hemicellulose 19.8±0.79 33.1 ± 0.83
Holocellulose 84.6±0.577 87.6 ± 0.58
Acid insoluble lignin 8.3±0.045 7.8 ± 0.15
Ash 3.52±0.03 2.96 ± 0.05

Pulp Yield
Pulp yield of elephant grass (51%) was lower than that of thatching grass (65%). Elephant pulp
yield was comparable to the yield of most of softwoods and hardwoods (45-50%), and other
grasses previously studied such as elephant grass (50%) and switchgrass (48%) as reported by
Madakadze et al. (2010). But Reddy et al. (2014) reported elephant grass pulp yield of 58%,
slightly higher than the yield obtained from the current study. The difference was probably due
to species, age, and difference pulping methods used. Kraft pulping was used in the current
study while soda pulping was applied in the latter study. The pulp yield of elephant grass was
also comparable to other grasses like umbrella palm grass from Bangladesh (55.0%) as reported
by Jahana (2016). The higher yield observed for thatching grass in the current study might be

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attributed to incomplete extraction and screening. Open air cooking was used to extract the
fibers, at much lower temperatures (below 110oC), and the pulp was not thoroughly screened
to remove uncooked materials due to limited equipment. However, the higher pulp yield was
consistent with high cellulose and hemicelluloses content of the grasses. Species chemical
composition is one of the principal factors that affect the chemical pulp yield. Results of this
study suggest that both elephant grass and thatching grass could potentially be used to
produce pulp. However, follow-up work should be done to extract fibers at optimum
conditions, followed by sufficient screening to verify these results. Further work should also be
done on several other species of elephant and thatching grasses growing in Zambia.

Burst strength
Paper hand sheets of elephant grass had an average burst index of 1.96 kPa.m 2.g-1 while that of
thatching grass had an average burst index of 1.94. kPa.m2.g-1. Both were much lower than
other grasses studied previously like elephant grass growing in Southern Africa (over 5.85
kPa.m2.g-1) (Madakadze et. al (2010), elephant grass growing in India (4.98 kPam2.g-1) (Reddy et
al. (2014) and switchgrass (Madakadze et al.2010). Incomplete defibration and screening
leading to weaker interbiber bonding due to uncooked materials in pulp, might have
contributed to the lower bursting strength of paper observed in this study. Bleaching improved
the paper brightness (Figure 1a), and elephant grass pulp was brighter than thatching grass
pulp, probably due to higher cellulose content of elephant grass. The paper was able to hold ink
and glue reasonably well, as seen from the products - shopping bags and envelope - which were
crafted (figure 1b), suggesting that paper from thatching grass could be used to manufacture
products like paper shopping bags and envelopes, where glue is applied.

a b
Figure 1. (a) Brightness changes during bleaching, (b) Paper hand sheets fabricated from thatching grass fibers, and
a shopping bag.

Summary and Conclusions

Results of this preliminary study suggest that elephant grass and thatching grass could
potentially be used for producing pulp and paper. The holocellulose content was high while
lignin content was relatively lower. The pulp yield was comparable to some of the species used
commercially. The low bursting strength could be improved by adding chemical additives.
Additional work would be needed to determine the optimal pulping conditions, and to test the
physical, mechanical and chemical properties of both pulp and paper from these grasses. The
abundance and fast growth are additional advantages these plant materials possess as

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alternative raw materials for making paper. Paper produced from the resources could be used
to make paper shopping bags (as illustrated in this study) or other fiber-based products.
References

ASTM International, 1984. ASTM Standards D 1106, “Standard test method for lignin in wood”.
ASTM International, 1984. ASTM Standards D 1102, “Standard test method for ash in wood and
wood based materials”.
Biermann,J.C (1996) Handbook of Pulping and Paper Making. Second eddition. Academic Press,
California, USA.
Enayati A. M (2009) Papermaking potential of Conola stalks. BioResources, 1(4), pp. 245-256.
Jahan S.M, Uddin N.M, Rahman A, Rahman M. M , and Amin, N.M (2016). Soda Pulping of
Umbrella Palm Grass (cyperus flabettiformic). Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts (2016) 1
(2):85-91.
Khali A.O (2006) Chemical composition ,anatomy,lignin distribution and cell wall structure of
Malaysia plant waste fibers. BioResources, 1(2), pp. 220-232.
Madakadze I. C, Masamvu T. M, Radiotis T et al. (201). Evaluation of pulp and paper making
characteristics of elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum) and switchgrass (Panicum
virgatum L.). African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology Vol. 4(7), pp. 465-470.
Madakadze I.C, Radiotis T, Li J. et al. (1999). Kraft pulping characteristics and pulp properties of
warm season grasses. Bioresource Technology 69 (1999) 75-85.
Reddy O.K, Maheswari U.C, Shukla M. et al. (2014). Preparation, Chemical Composition,
Characterization, and Properties of Napier Grass Paper Sheets. Separation Science and
Technology, Volume 49, pp. 1527-1534.
Rowell R. M (2005). Handbook of Wood Chemistry and Wood Composites. CRC Press, New York,
USA.
Smook G.A (2002). Handbook for pulp and paper technologists, 3rd ed., Vancouver, Canada,
Angus Wilde Publications.
TAPPI International, 1997. Tappi Standard T403. “Bursting Strength of Paper”.
TAPPI International. Tappi Standard T264. “Prepareation of Wood for Chemical Analysis”
TAPPI International. Tappi Standard T 257. “Sampling and Preparing Wood for Analysis”.

Biography

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Numerical Study of Sorption Behavior of Piano Soundboard

Pavlina Suchomelova1
[email protected]
Jakub Dömény1
[email protected]
Tadeáš Doskočil2
[email protected]
Petr Zatloukal1
[email protected]
Jan Tippner1
[email protected]

1 Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood

Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic
2 PETROF, spol. s r. o., Czech Republic

Abstract
Wooden musical instruments are strongly influenced by moisture content. Moisture induce the changes
of tuning, defects and resonance properties of pianos. Minimization of wood hygroscopicity ensures
the shape stability and stable acoustic properties of the soundboard during the changes of ambient
climatic conditions (relative air humidity, temperature). Complex physical model of piano soundboard
provides a reliable tool to describe the sorption properties of piano soundboard and possibilities to
improve the resistance to moisture influence by thermal modification of wood. The main goal of
modelling is shortening the development of the appropriate modification process.

The numerical model of thermally treated and untreated wood was designed, implemented into the
FEM based computational software and validated on small samples (44 × 450 × 12 mm). The sorption
properties of treated and untreated resonance spruce wood (Picea abies (L.) Karst) were
experimentally evaluated. All the samples were conditioned in the laboratory chamber to 7 states of
the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). The duration of attaining the EMC (sorption dynamics),
dimensional changes and the weight changes (density) were recorded and used for the validation of
numerical model.

The model of moisture diffusion is based on the partial differential equation which stems from the
transient form of Fick’s law. No significant influences of the temperature field on the diffusion were
found, so all the tasks were solved isothermally. Validated numerical model was applied on the
geometries of real piano soundboards with respect to the wood fiber deflection. The longitudinal, radial
and tangential diffusion coefficients were considered as a function of actual moisture content. The
results show that the thermally modified soundboard reaches the EMC 3 times slower than untreated
soundboard, what is caused mainly by the change of the diffusion coefficients. The influences of the
moisture transfer coefficient value were also investigated to detect the influence of the surface layer
varnishing. Its influence was found to be very significant – by reducing the coefficient in one order of
magnitude (from 1E-7 to 1E-8 m·s-1), the time of reaching the EMC is 3 times longer. The numerical
evaluation of piano soundboard showed the influence of individual parameters on its sorption behavior

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and helped to reveal the key factors that need to be addressed during the development of thermally
modified soundboards.
Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Papermaking Fines a Potential Wood-component for New Materials Outside

the Paper Industry

Armin Winter, University of Life Science, Vienna, Austria

[email protected]

Abstract
In times of climate change and the development of country-specific bio-economy strategies, the
demand for wood-based raw materials will rise. This research project aims to increase the utilization of
the individual wood components. For example, the paper industry produces different types of paper
fibres with different mechanical and chemical properties during the production process. Depending on
the paper product, different fibre fractions can have both positive and negative effects. One of these
fractions are the so-called primary fines and these fines have a great impact on the behaviour of pulp,
on its processing, and on the characteristics of the resulting products. This fraction is produced during
pulp digestion and is characterised by a short fibre length and a high lignin content. According to the
standard, these are fibres that can be separated through a 200 mesh screen (76 µm plate). In order
to make the subsequent bleaching process more efficient and cost-effective, this fraction should be
separated and used for products outside the paper industry. Here, alternative ways of utilization are
shown, such as oil-absorbing sponges, reinforcing fibers for biopolymers, high-density products for
boards and additionally as starting material for nanocellulose. In order to put the potential of the
primary fines into context, the resulting products will be compared with common reinforcing fibers
such as microfibrillated cellulose fibres (MFC). Can the primary fines bring the same improvements as
MFC fibers? In general, the energy consumption for fractionation is considerably lower compared to
mechanical defibrillation. Additionally, the major challenge of establishing alternative utilization
methods is shown, which is related to the processing properties of the resulting primary fines fraction.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Effect of lacquer decoration on VOCs and odor release from

P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble
Bin Zeng1– Jun She2,* – Qifan Wang3

1
Master student, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
[email protected]
2
Prof., Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China *Corresponding
author
[email protected]
3
Ph.D. candidates, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
[email protected]

Abstract
With the widespread use of lacquered solid wood materials in the interior, the problem of "odor"
caused by solid wood and its lacquer finish is becoming more and more serious. Studying the
VOCs and odor characteristic compounds released from lacquer wood can improve the
environmental protection level of products and help to solve the odor problem of furniture. The
VOCs and odor-active substances released from three kinds of lacquer-coated P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry /olfactometry (GC-
MS/O). It was found that the three kinds of lacquers had strong inhibitory effects on the release
of olefins from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, which could reduce the release of olefins by more
than 90%, however, the TVOC release of the Painted Panel increased. Among them, Polyurethane
lacquer (PU) could lead to a large number of ester compounds released, and at the same time
lead to a significant increase in the release of aromatic hydrocarbons. Waterborne lacquer also
released a large number of esters and lead to a sharp increase in the release of alcohol
compounds. UV curable lacquer had the best inhibition effect on olefins, alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones and other compounds in P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, and does not release esters or
other compounds, but the release of toluene will increase sharply. Benzaldehyde, Toluene, and
1,3-dimethyl-Benzene were identified as key odor characteristic compounds of P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble. PU lacquer has a completely closed effect on Benzaldehyde, but the 1,3-
dimethyl-Benzene odor strength is significantly enhanced. Waterborne lacquer had a good
inhibitory effect on 1,3-dimethyl-Benzene, but the VOCs released by waterborne lacquer can
enhance the odor intensity of Benzaldehyde. UV lacquer has good sealing effect on key odor
characteristic compounds released by P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble except Toluene. Aromatic
and fruity are the main odor characteristics of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble and three kinds of
lacquer-decorated P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. The amount of TVOC released and the overall
odor strength of the P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble will be increased by coating treatment,
especially PU lacquer. The overall odor intensity of UV lacquer is the lowest among the three
panels, but the toluene concentration released by UV lacquer itself is higher, which has certain

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side effects on indoor environment. Therefore, it is suggested to control toluene. Considering the
VOCs release level and the overall odor intensity, the waterborne lacquer is still the best one in
the three panels.

Key words: GC-MS/O; P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble; VOCs; Odor characteristics

Introduction

With the pursuit of high-quality life, the interior decoration industry has developed rapidly in
recent years. However, at the same time, the problem of indoor air pollution is also aggravated.
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is closely related to human health (Klepeis et al. 2001). Furniture products
as one of the main sources of indoor household pollution (Liu et al. 2017), the harmfulness of
furniture releasing substances to human living environment has been plaguing consumers and
production enterprises, and its impact mainly comes from the odor and harmful compounds
released by board and various decorative materials (Shen et al. 2018). Among many furniture,
solid wood furniture is popular because of its unique texture and comfortable texture. However,
it is unavoidable that furniture materials need to be coated with various coatings in order to
decorate and protect the wooden board. Painting can not only give wood color, improve gloss
and smoothness, but also enhance the three-dimensional and touch sense of wood texture. At
the same time, the properties of coated wood such as moisture resistance, water resistance and
oil resistance will also be improved to varying degrees.

At present, the odor of woods has been well investigated, but research is still not extensive. Yang
et al. (2017) proposed two feasible odor detection schemes for solid wood furniture, such as
sampling and tracking the production process of odor furniture on the spot according to
consumer complaints. At the same time, the composition of odor emitted from solid wood
bedside cabinet was studied (Yang et al. 2018). It was found that benzene series and a few low
molecular lipids, such as ortho-p-xylene, n-butyl acetate and sec-butyl acetate, were the main
components of odors. Liu et al. (2018) found that Ethanol-Toluene solution extraction could
reduce the intensity of some odors of poplar (Populus cathayana Rehd.) and rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis), but residual benzene was produced during extraction, which led to the increase of
benzene odor. Wang et al. (2017) studied the odor compounds released from poplar (Populus L.
spp.), pine (Pinus L. spp.) and linden (Tilia L. spp.), the key odorants were identified by GC-MS/O.
Schreiner et al (2018) studied odor-active compounds released from Pinus sylvestris L. in
Germany by gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) and aromatic extract dilution analysis
(AEDA), 44 kind of odorous compounds were identified. Ghadiriasli et al. (2018) found that the
odor of oak wood mainly came from fatty acid degradation products, terpenoids and lignin
degradation based on gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) and odor extraction dilution
analysis (OEDA) technology. It was found that most of the odor components of oak were
composed of a series of terpenoids, mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, acids
and lactones, and some polyphenols containing phenolic core components.

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However, in practical application, wood is mostly used indoors with lacquer decoration, but there
is few report on this aspects. Wang et al. (2018a, 2018b) investigated the effects of
environmental factors on particleboard with different lacquers, and found the temperature,
relative humidity and the ratio of the air exchange rate to the loading factor have different
influence to the lacquer boards during the release process, but the difference between
particleboard with different lacquers was not showed. There is also few report about the odor
emission from solid wood with lacquer.

In this study, the odor-active substances released from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, which is
widely used in the field of furniture material for the character of strong corrosion resistance,
compact wood, small size affected by external environment, and not easy to deform (Qi et al.
2015) were analyzed by GC-O technology. Also, the odor and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble with different commonly used lacquers, namely, polyurethane
coatings (PU), waterborne coatings, and UV curable coatings (UV) were investigated and
compared. P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble will release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
odors to the surrounding environment during production, display and use, which will affect
indoor air quality. P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble itself can release its unique aroma, so it has the
function of preventing insects and dispersing mosquitoes. However, the odor released by the
boards will change after lacquer decorations. Because the odor released from wood and surface
coating will have different interaction. Therefore, in order to better understand the odor release
from the coated P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble in real life, it is necessary to study the P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble with different lacquers.

Materials & Methods

Material

P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, produced in GuangYun Forest Farm of Guilin City, Guangxi, was
selected as the test material. The diameter of the disc was 60 mm, and the moisture content was
12%. The test base material was coated uniformly with lacquers of Polyurethane coatings (PU),
waterborne coatings and UV curable coatings (UV). Specific finishing parameters were showed
as follows: Polyurethane coatings (Huarun-transparent primer/semi-clear finish, main agent:
curing agent: diluent = 2:1:1). Paint two primers (10 m2/kg/time) and two topcoats (10
m2/kg/time), each paint 12 hours apart; Water-borne acrylic paint (Sankeshu 360 water-borne
wood paint- transparent primer / varnish, main agent: water = 10:1). Paint two primers (10
m2/kg/time) and two topcoats (10 m2/kg/time), each paint 12 hours apart; Ultraviolet curing
coatings (plain chemical-LED UV curing varnish, cleaning spray gun cleaning product surface
spraying UV coating 55 leveling for 3-10 minutes UV curing), a total of two coatings, 10
m2/kg/time. Construction environment conditions: indoor temperature 23±2℃ and relative
humidity 40±10%. The room is in a continuous ventilation state. The surface of solid wood is
polished with 150 mesh sandpaper, and 180 mesh sandpaper is used between the two paints.
After finishing the coating, the sample was cut into a circle with the diameter of 60 mm. The edge
of the sample is sealed with aluminum tape along the thickness direction to prevent high release

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from the edge of the material. After edge sealing, the material is vacuum sealed, label paper is
affixed, and stored in the refrigerator at – 30℃for reserve.
Equipment

Sampling equipment

Micro chamber Thermal Extractor Markes’s M-CTE250 model was used as the microchamber
thermal extractor which was produced by Markes International Company of UK. The nitrogen
was used as carrier gas, and the temperature could be adjusted in the range of 0 - 250℃.
Tenax-TA adsorption tube Tenax-TA tubes were produced by Markes International Company of
UK. The length is 89 mm, the outer diameter is 6.4mm, and it contains 2,6 diphenylfuran porous
polymer resin filler. The two ends are equipped with copper caps, which can effectively adsorb
VOCs volatilized from wood-based panels and store them in tubes.
Analysis and detection equipment
Thermal desorption instrument Thermal desorption instrument was produced by Markes
International Company of UK, the model is Unity. The cold trap adsorption temperature is -15℃,
the carrier gas is helium, the carrier gas flow rate is 30 ml/min, the analytical temperature is
300℃, the pipeline temperature is 180℃, the thermal desorption desorption sample is 10 min,
the pre-purging time is 1 min.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) DSQ single four-stage Gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry was produced by Thermo Company of USA. The instrument chromatographic
column type was DB-5, specifications of 3000mm×0.26mm×0.25um quartz capillary column; GC
inlet temperature 250℃; carrier gas flow rate 1.0ml/min (constant current); non-shunt injection;
heating procedure: start temperature 40℃, keep 2 ℃/min, rise to 50 ℃, keep 4 min, and then
rise to 150 ℃/min The temperature was kept for 4 minutes, and finally increased to 250 ℃ for 8
minutes at 10 ℃/min. Ionization mode is the ionization source (EI) with 70 eV energy, 230℃ ion
source temperature, 250 ℃ transmission line temperature, 50-450 amu scanning mode, 280
interface temperature and 150 ℃ four-stage rod temperature.
Olfactory Detector Sniffer 9100 Olfactory Detector came from Brechbühler AG (Echallens,
Switzerland). The transmission line temperature was 150°C, and nitrogen was used as the carrier
gas through a purge valve. Moist air was added to prevent dehydration of the nasal mucosa of
the odor assessors. Direct intensity methods were chosen for analysis of the compounds.
Thermal desorptioner TP-5000 universal thermal desorptioner was produced by Beifen Tianpu
Instrument Technology Co., Ltd. in Beijing. It can desorb and remove the residues in the tube of
Tenax after sample analysis.
Method

Sampling

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Before the experiment, the micro-chamber/thermal extractor was cleaned once with deionized
water and once with methanol. The samples were put in the micro-chamber extractor under the
specific sampling condition. Area of exposure was 5.65× 10−3 m3, the cell volume was 1.35 × 10−4
m3, and the loading rate was 41.85 m2·m−3. Four specimens were made for an identity condition
during a sampling cycle of 8 h. The environment condition was as follows: temperature 23 ± 5°C,
relative humidity 30 ±10%, the ratio of the air exchange rate to the loading factor 0.5 m3·m−2·h−1).
2 liter VOCs was collected by micro-chamber/thermal extractor. The adsorption tubes that
collected the samples were covered with copper caps, wrapped in PTFE plastic bags, labeled, and
stored in a freezer at − 30 °C. Four samples were made for a kind of board (three repetitions were
performed for each measurement).
GC-MS analysis method

External standard method was used in this experiment, and the data processing is completed by
Xcalibur software system. Qualitative volatile compounds were identified by NIST (08 standard
library) and Wiley library. and only the positive and negative matching degree was more than 750
(the maximum value was 1000). Through Excel data processing system, the relative percentage
content of each chemical component in wood odor substances was obtained by area
normalization method.
GC-O analysis method

GC-O analysis uses the time-intensity method (Sun et al. 2018). After the peak of the detected
substance determines the composition and concentration of the compound, the odor
characteristics and intensity of the odor emitted from the chromatographic column are recorded
by the evaluator's sniffing. Five grades of odor intensity were set, which ranged from 0 to 4: 0 to
denote no odor, 1 to denote weak odor, 2 to denote moderate odor intensity, 3 to denote strong
odor intensity, and 4 to denote the strongest odor intensity (Hou et al. 2018). Four smellers aged
between 20 and 30 years old, with good olfactory perception, smokeless and heavy-flavor
cosmetics, non-allergic constitution and chronic rhinitis were selected to carry out the
experiment. After screening and training, they were familiar with various odor compounds in
wood, including understanding the odor characteristics and odor of wood. Intensity evaluation
methods, while accumulating commonly used odor description vocabulary. Before the
experiment, all the olfactors were trained in smelling fragrance. The olfactory discrimination test
shall be conducted in a room with good ventilation conditions, temperature of 20-25 ℃ and
relative humidity of 40%. It is required that there is no peculiar smell in the room. Each sample
was sniffed twice by the evaluator. When the test results were collated and recorded, the same
odor characteristics descriptions obtained by at least two olfactors at the same time were
recorded in the results. The average odor intensity results of four olfactors were taken as the
intensity values. The compounds were identified by aroma odor recognition and odor
description.

Results and Discussion

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Analysis of TVOC and VOCs Components from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble with different
decorative materials
In this study, the release of VOCs from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble and three types of lacquers
board was analyzed. The TVOC emission of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble increased after
decorating with three kinds of lacquers (Fig. 1). The major constituents of P.neurantha (Hemsl.)
Gamble were aromatics and olefins, a few alkanes, alcohols, aldehydes and other compounds
were also found, the esters compounds were not detected. After decoration, the release of TVOC
and VOCs components from solid wood changed a lot. Aromatic hydrocarbons and esters were
the mainly constituents of PU lacquered P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, compared to the primary
compounds of esters from water-borne lacquer P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, and main
components of aromatic hydrocarbons (accounting for 87.7% of TVOC) from UV lacquered
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. It was remarkable that the VOCs concentration increased greatly
after the PU lacquer decoration, the TVOC emission increased by about 227.9%. Wang et al.
(2009) also came to the similar conclusion indirectly. They studied the volatile organic
compounds in the air of polyurethane synthetic leather factory using adsorption tube and
secondary thermal desorption GC-MSD, and found the PU would release a great quantity VOCs.

Figure 1: VOCs concentration and ratios from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble with three lacquer decorations

After being decorated with three different lacquer, the release of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) from the solid wood could be inhibited by the surface coating, however, the lacquer
material would release some other compounds at the same time. The inhibitory effects on VOCs
components released from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble varied between different lacquer
decorations. Table 1 showed the increase rate of TVOC and VOCs of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble
with three kinds of lacquer decorations. Research showed the olefins from P.neurantha (Hemsl.)
Gamble were well inhibited by these three kinds of lacquers (the inhibition rate was more than
90%).

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PU lacquer could inhibit aldehydes, ketones and other compounds, but the release of aromatic
hydrocarbons increased sharply with an increase rate of 553.74%, 436.13ug·m-3 esters was found
from the PU lacquer. Among them, 1,3-dimethylbenzene, o-xylene and butyl acetate increased
most significantly, the concentration reached 633.85 ug·m-3, 240.12 ug·m-3 and 273.71 ug·m-3,
respectively. These 3 kinds of compounds had different effects on human beings. The correlation
research indicated, 1,3-dimethylbenzene would be irritative to human eyes and the upper
respiratory tract, it also had anesthetic effect on central nervous system at high concentration.
The lowest toxic concentration of 1,3-dimethylbenzene (TCLo) inhaled in rats was 3000mg·m-3
(24h) (AIHA. 1962), which was much higher than the release amount in this experiment. For
residue and accumulation of this compounds were not serious, and the photolysis might happen
when it transferred to atmosphere (Archives of Toxicology. 1985), it belongs to slight toxicity,
however, long-term exposure would lead to neurasthenia syndrome, kin dry, chapped,
dermatitis., etc. As a low toxic compound, o-xylene could stimulate the skin and mucosa and
anesthetize the central nervous system. The lowest toxic concentration (TDL0) of inhalation in
rats was 1500 mg·m-3. Although the release detected in this experiment was far less than the
toxicity value, long-term exposure still would affect the function of liver and kidney, and severe
patients might even have hallucinations and unconsciousness (Archives of Andrology. 1983).
Butyl acetate belongs to slight toxicity, (Wang et al. 2005), but it could stimulate the eyes and
upper respiratory tract. Long-term inhalation of butyl acetate with high concentration might lead
to tear, sore throat, cough, chest tightness, shortness of breath and other symptoms. Serious
cases could cause conjunctivitis, keratitis, and skin contact can cause dry skin (Zhu et al. 2010).
Among these three lacquers, the TVOC released from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble varnished
with UV was the least (only increased about 10%). It had the best inhibitory effect on olefins,
alcohols, aldehydes and ketones, and did not release esters or other compounds. However, the
release of toluene from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble varnished with UV increased sharply,
reaching 403.36 ug·m-3, nearly 33.5 times that of unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble.
According to the relevant data, toluene was highly toxicity (Shen et al. 2013). At a certain
concentration, it can stimulate human skin and mucosa, and had anesthetic effect on human
central nervous system. Therefore, toluene should be the key limiting substance in VOCs released
from indoor wooden furniture. In China, the concentration limit of toluene released from wood-
based panels and their products for interior decoration was less than 100 ug·m-3. The US BIFMA
stipulated that the toluene released from seats should not higher than 250 ug·m -3. Japanese
industrial standards also set the limited that the toluene in indoor air should less than 260 ug·m -
3
. In this study, the mass concentration of toluene had exceeded the standard, therefore,
although UV paint has a good inhibitory effect on VOCs release, the concentration of toluene
released by itself is high, which would influence the indoor environment. Therefore, in order to
control the emission of VOCs more comprehensively, it is suggested to control the emission of
toluene in UV paint. Compared to UV, the concentration of waterborne lacquered board was
233.16 ug·m-3 higher than UV. It could inhibit the release of aromatic hydrocarbons, olefins,
alkanes, aldehydes and ketones, but the release of alcohols increased by 12.5 times, and it also
released 526.25 ug·m-3 esters. Among them, 2,2'-oxybis-1-propanol, 3,3'-oxybis-1-propanol and
2-methyl-Propanoic acid-1-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methyl-1,3-propanediyl ester increased most

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significantly, which had little impact on human beings. Above all, compared to PU and UV,
waterborne lacquer board was less harmful to human.

Table 1 The Release Increase Rate of TVOC and Components

The Release Increase Rate of TVOC and Components under Different Paints
TVOC/ Aromatic Olefins/ Alkanes/ alcohols/ Aldehydes/ others/
Types of Paints
% /% % % % % %
Polyurethane
227.9 553.74 -90.59 41.13 1.45 -7.79 -37.52
Coatings
Waterborne Acrylic
51.78 -47.7 -95.63 -42.75 1251.71 -9.88 -72.26
Coatings
UV coating 9.95 175.95 -95.53 37.1 -39.28 -26.49 -76.52

Characterization of odor-active compounds of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble with different

lacquers
Based on GC-MS library search, GC-O olfaction and retention index analysis, totally 19 kinds of
odor-active compounds were identified from four kinds of samples and were classified as
alcohols (2 substances), aromatic hydrocarbons (6 substances), aldehydes (5 substances), esters
(6 substances). The specific odor characteristic compounds were shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Characteristic odor Compounds and Concentrations Released from Four Plates
Mass Concentration of Odorant Compounds Released from Three Paint Finishes and solid wood
Mass Concentration /ug·m-3
Molecular Odor
Serial Compound Name Polyurethane Waterborne UV solid
Formula Characteristics
Coatings Acrylic Coatings coating wood
1 C6H6 benzene Aromatic - 18.29 23.2 12.82
Aromatic,
2 C7H8 toluene 16.32 12.34 403.36 11.68
sweety
Aromatic,
3 C8H10 ethylbenzene 176.57 16.54 26.56 25.38
sweety
1,3-dimethyl-
4 C8H10 Aromatic 633.85 49.65 74.61 93.34
benzene
5 C8H10 o-xylene Aromatic 240.12 - - -
1,2,3-trimethyl-
6 C9H12 Aromatic 73.07 - - -
benzene
2-ethyl-
7 C6H12O Cheese flavor 5.72 - - -
cyclobutanol
acetic acid, butyl
8 C6H12O2 Fruity 273.71
ester
Green grass
9 C6H12O hexanal 6.64 - - 9.23
scent
10 C7H6O benzaldehyde Almond - 5.16 - 4.93
Fruity sweet and
11 C8H16O octanal 5.25 5.67 5.45 4.52
sour
12 C8H18O 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, Sweet flower 5.97 8.75 6.99 11.52
13 C9H18O nonanal Fruity 9.09 8.67 5.93 6.24
14 C10H20O decanal Citrus smell 7.38 8.2 5.44 5.83

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3-methyl-2- Fruity, sweet

15 C7H14O2 6.87 - - -
butanol,acetate and sour
pentanedioic
16 C7H12O4 acid,dimethyl Light fragrance 17.53 - - -
ester
2-pentanol,
17 C7H14O2 Fruity aroma 17.78 - - -
acetate
acetic acid, 2-
18 C6H12O2 methylpropyl Aromatic 8.35 5.59 - -
ester
19 C16H22O4 dibutyl phthalate Light aromatic 7.41 4.75 - -

Aromatic hydrocarbons and aldehydes were the main characteristic odor compounds of
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, while aromatic was the main odor character according to the
results of olfactory identification, which played a major role in the overall odor formation of
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. The odor characteristics of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble were
identified as follows: benzene was reported as aromatic, same to the finding of aromatic odor by
the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, 2010a). Sax (1984) also
found its gasoline-like and rather pleasant aromatic odor in their research, and the burnt
character was reported by Wang et al (2019). Toluene was found to have aromatic and sweety
character, while the characteristic of sweet and pungent was reported by NIOSH (2010b). Our
testing found ethylbenzene to have sweet and pungent odor, similar to the sweet and gasoline-
like odor by NOAA (2016) and the pungent character by Infante et al. (2012). It was also found to
be aromatic odor by Larranaga et al. (2017). The hexanal detected in this experiment had a green
grass characteristic, same to the detection of Furia (1980), whereas its odor was also described
as fruity in Burdock (2010), sharp, aldehyde odor in Lewis (2007). The benzaldehyde in this
experiment was reported to have almond character, which could also be found in the research
of O'Neil (2013) and Larranaga et al (2016). In this experiment, octanal was reported to have
fruity sweet and sour smell, similar to the fruity odor by Larranaga et al (2016). Other researchers
found it to present a fatty, citrus and honey odor (Burdock, 2010) and a pungent odor (Panten et
al, 2018). The nonanal was found to be fruity in this research, which was also be found orange-
rose odor by Lewis (2007), and floral, waxy and green character by Nishimura (1995). Decanal
was reported as citrus smell in this study, similar with the orange peel of Kohlpaintner et al (2013),
whereas Lewis (2007) reported a slight Floral-fatty odor. The odor character of 2-ethyl-1-hexanol
(sweet flower) and 1,3-dimethyl-benzene (aromatic) were reported for the first time.

After varnished with PU lacquer, the odorous compounds increased to 14 species, including 9
kinds of new odor compounds. The odor compounds released from PU lacquer-coated
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble were the most species among these 3 kinds of lacquers, the
concentration of odor compounds was also significantly higher than other boards. Among them,
2-ethyl-Cyclobutanol (cheese flavor), butyl acetate Acetic acid (fruit flavor), 3-methyl-2-Butanol-
acetate (sweet and sour fruit flavor), 2- pentanol-acetate (fruit flavor), 1,2,3-methyl-Benzene
(aromatic) had an important contribution to the overall odor formation of board. Therefore,
compared to P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, the overall odor characteristics of PU lacquer-coated
board were significantly different. The odor intensity of PU lacquer-coated P.neurantha (Hemsl.)
Gamble was stronger than uncoated board. The odor compounds of waterborne lacquer-coated

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P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble were mostly similar to unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble,
only 1 kind of odorant (dibutyl phthalate, light aromatic) was added, and its odor intensity was
less than 1.5, which contributed little to the overall odor formation. UV lacquer-coated
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble released the least odor compounds. After coated with UV paint,
the concentration of most of compounds decreased, except for benzene and toluene. The
concentration of these two compounds increased 10.38 ug·m-3 and 391.68 ug·m-3, respectively.
As the main odor contributor, toluene increased most significantly, which greatly affect to the
formation of the overall odor. The odorous compounds of hexanal and benzaldehyde from
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble disappeared after painting with UV.

Effect of different lacquer decorations on the odor of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble

To explore the effect of three kinds of lacquer decorations on the overall odor of P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble, the characteristic odors were divided into four categories: aromatic, fruity,
sweety, others. Considering the complex interaction among various odorant compounds, the
effect of fusion on the total odor intensity was chosen for this experiment. The total relative
intensity of each type was calculated by adding the intensities of different odorants with similar
characters together. The changes of odor after lacquer decoration was analyzed in Fig. 2.
Aromatic was the dominant odor impression of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, with a rating of
7.6, followed by fruity (6.1). The attributes others (2.0) sweety (1.8) were rated with low
intensities. The total intensity of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble was 17.5.

Figure 2 Relation diagram of odor concentration and odor intensity of four boards

The overall odor intensity of PU lacquered P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble was the highest among
these three lacquered boards, with the total intensity of 32.7. Aromatic (12.4) and fruity (11.1)
was the main flavor. The intensity of sweety was 7.2, while the others was 2.0. Compared with
unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, the intensity of aromatic and fruity increased nearly 5,

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which became the decisive odor of the overall odor formation, while the intensity of sweety also
increased 5.4, and played an important role in modifying the overall odor. The overall odor
intensity of board was significantly enhanced after with PU lacquer decoration, and the overall
odor characteristics of PU lacquered P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble were also significantly
different.
The main character of waterborne lacquered P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble was aromatic with
the intensity was 9.1, the attributes of fruity, others and sweety were 5.0, 2.6 and 2.0,
respectively. Compared with unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, the overall odor intensity
increased slightly. Among them, the intensity of aromatic odor increased by 1.5, becoming the
main contributor to the overall odor. The intensity of fruity flavor decreased after decoration,
but it still played an important role in modifying the formation of the overall flavor. Sweety flavor
and other flavors increased, but the intensity of fruity flavor was still weak, which had little effect
on the overall flavor. The waterborne lacquer had little influence on the overall odor
characteristics of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, but the overall odor intensity was enhanced
slightly (18.7).
The aromatic was the key characteristic odor of the whole odor of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble
varnished by UV lacquer. Compared with unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, the intensity
of the other three types of odor characteristics decreased except for aromatic. Among them, the
other types of odor intensity had been reduced to 0, and the total sweety flavor intensity had
been reduced to 1.5, while the fruity flavor intensity still had some modification effect on the
overall odor. Among them, toluene was the main odor contributing compound. UV paint would
have a good effect on TVOC and odor inhibition when the release of toluene was reduced.
To further explore the effects of three kinds of lacquer on the odor compounds of P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble, The odor intensities of 10 odor compounds released by P.neurantha (Hemsl.)
Gamble before and after painting were compared (Fig. 3), and the effects of different kinds of
lacquer on specific odor compounds were analyzed.

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Figure 3: Contrast of odor profile from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble with three lacquer decorations

Benzaldehyde, toluene and 1,3-dimethyl-benzene had higher odor intensity among the odor-
contributing compounds of unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, which played a decisive role
in the formation of overall odor. Benzene and benzaldehyde had not been detected in the
compounds from P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble decorated with PU lacquer, indicating PU lacquer
had a good sealing effect on these two odors compounds. In addition, the emission of hexanal
and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol decreased to less than 1.5 compared with other odor compounds, these
two odor compounds had little effect on the formation of overall odor. In addition to these four
odor compounds, the odor intensity of other compounds has been strengthened. Among them,
the odor intensity of ethylbenzene and 1,3-dimethyl-Benzene was no less than 3, which played a
key role in the formation of overall odor. And, it also released many special odor compounds with
high odor intensity. As a result, the overall characteristic odor and odor intensity of P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble decorated with PU lacquer would change significantly. Hexanal, the odor
characteristic compound of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, was not detected after it was
decorated with waterborne lacquer. And the odor intensity of 1,3-dimethyl-benzene and
ethylbenzene decreased. Therefore, waterborne lacquer has a good inhibitory effect on the
release of these three odor characteristic compounds. However, the VOCs released by
waterborne lacquer will increase the concentration of benzene, benzaldehyde, 2-ethyl-1-
hexanol, decanal and nonanal, likewise the odor intensity would also increase. Therefore, the
overall odor intensity of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble after waterborne lacquer decoration
would be enhanced to some extent, but the overall odor characteristics showed little difference.

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UV lacquer had a certain inhibitory effect on the odor release of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble,
in addition UV lacquer itself did not release other types of odor compounds. After being
decorated with UV lacquer, Hexanal and benzaldehyde can no longer be detected. The odor
intensity of 1,3-dimethyl-benzene, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol and ethylbenzene also decreased. Decanal
and benzene had slightly increased odor intensity, while toluene's odor intensity increased
significantly, reaching 3.3, which became the main contributor to the overall odor formation.
From the point of view of overall odor formation, the overall odor characteristics of UV lacquer
tend to be aromatic, and the overall odor intensity changes slightly, and the main odor
characteristics and overall odor intensity were caused by the high concentration of toluene.

Summary and Conclusions

After being decorated with three different lacquer, the release of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) from the solid wood could be inhibited by the surface lacquer, however, the lacquer
material would release some other compounds at the same time. The TVOC release of
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble increased after three kinds of lacquer decoration, and the increase
of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble with PU lacquer decoration was the most significant. The VOCs
released from unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble mainly consist of aromatic hydrocarbons
and olefins. Aromatic hydrocarbons and esters were the main components of PU lacquer-coated
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. Esters are the main components of Waterborne lacquer-coated
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. The aromatic hydrocarbons are the main components of
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble decorated with UV lacquer.

The three kinds of lacquers have strong inhibitory effects on the release of olefins from
P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble, which can reduce the olefins by more than 90%. PU lacquer can
release a large number of esters and aromatic hydrocarbons, but it can inhibit aldehydes and
ketones. Waterborne lacquer itself also releases a large number of esters, resulting in a sharp
increase in the release of alcohols after lacquered. However, the aromatic hydrocarbons, olefins,
alkanes, aldehydes and ketones released by P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble were inhibited to some
extent. UV lacquer has the best inhibition effect on olefins, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and
other compounds in P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble and does not release esters or other
compounds, but its toluene release will increase sharply.
Ten characteristic odor compounds were released from unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble,
among which Benzaldehyde, Toluene and 1,3-dimethyl-Benzene played a decisive role in overall
odor formation. PU lacquer had a completely closed effect on Benzene and Benzaldehyde, but
enhanced the odor intensity of Ethylbenzene and 1,3-dimethyl-Benzene significantly.
Waterborne lacquer has a good inhibitory effect on Hexanal, 1,3-dimethyl-Benzene and
Ethylbenzene. But the VOCs released by itself will enhance the odor intensity of Benzene,
Benzaldehyde, 2-ethyl-1-Hexanol, Decanal and Nonanal. UV lacquer has good sealing effect on
odor compounds except decanal, benzene and toluene.

The overall odor composition of unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble was mainly aromatic.
After finishing with PU lacquer, the overall odor intensity of P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble was

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significantly enhanced, and the overall odor was mainly fruity and aromatic. The types of odor
compounds released by waterborne lacquer-coated P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble are similar to
those of unpainted P.neurantha (Hemsl.) Gamble. The overall odor characteristics are still mainly
aromatic, but the overall odor intensity is slightly enhanced. The overall odor of P.neurantha
(Hemsl.) Gamble with UV lacquer is basically aromatic.

Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the “Project of National Natural Science Foundation of China”
(grant no. 31971582).

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Ghadiriasli R, Wagenstaller M, Buettner A (2018) Identification of odorous compounds in oak
wood using odor extract dilution analysis and two–dimensional gas chromatography–
mass spectrometry/olfactometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 410, 6595–6607.
Hou L J, Yan C, Zhao H et al (2018) Headspace Solid Phase Microextraction-Gas
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-Sniffing Technique Analysis of the Main Aroma
Components of Jujube Brandy. Chinese Journal of Food Science, 18(08): 232-238.
Kohlpaintner C et al (2013) Aldehydes, Alphatic. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry.
7th ed. (1999-2015). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Klepeis NE, Nelson WC, Ott WR et al (2001) The National Human Activity Pattern
Survey(NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. Journal of
Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 11(3): 231–252.
Larranaga MD, Lewis RJ, Sr, Lewis, RA (2016) Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 16th
Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, p. 150.
Larranaga MD, Lewis RJ, Sr, Lewis, R.A (2016) Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 16th
Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, p. 1002.
Liu R, Wang C, Huang A (2018) Characterization of odors of wood by gas chromatography–
olfactometry with removal of extractives as attempt to control indoor air quality.
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New York, NY, p. 647.

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Lewis RJ (2007) Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York, NY, p. 904.
Lewis RJ (2007) Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York, NY, p. 371
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panel VOCs . Journal of Forestry Engineering 2 (04): 40-45.
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Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry, , p. 186.
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Wood Bedside Cabinet. Furniture 39 (02): 24-27.

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Zhu WG, Luo H (2010) Organic Chemistry Experiments: Xiangtan University Press:196.
Wang BG, Feng ZC, Zhou Y, Liu HX (2019) Composition spectrum of volatile organic compounds
in the air of polyurethane synthetic leather factory. China Environmental Science, 29 (09):
914-918.
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from veneered particleboards coated with water-based lacquer detected by gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry/olfactometry. European Journal of Wood and Wood
Products. doi:10.1007/s00107-019-01427-6
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Particleboard Coated with Nitrocellulose Lacquer under Different Environment
Conditions. FOREST PRODUCTS JOURNAL. 68(3):272-280
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from Alkyd Resin Enamel-coated Particleboard. BioResources 13(3): 6837-6849.

Biography

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Numerical Analysis of Tree Dynamic Response

Barbora Vojáčková
[email protected]
Jan Tippner
[email protected]

Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood

Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
The methods of tree stability assessment in practice mostly rely upon static testing, when the description of the mechanical
response to loading is based on observation of strain along the stem, root-plate inclination and change of stem deflection. Trees
have evolved, live and fail in a dynamic environment and current research of tree biomechanics is more and more based on the
description of dynamic mechanical response to loading. In general, the change of dynamic response (leading to defect
observation) can be influenced by the change of geometry, material stiffness, mass and damping distribution. Theoretical and
experimental dynamic analyses provide us mainly the frequencies, modes of vibrations or development of amplitudes of the tree
in time. The fundamental goal is to analyse the possibility of use of outputs in the frequency domain or time domain as a suitable
tool for observation of tree defects.

Modal, harmonic and transient finite-element analyses of tree response were carried out using ANSYS Mechanical APDL
software to describe the natural frequencies, mode shapes and development of amplitudes in frequency and time domain. The
parametric segmented finite-element model of the tree (simplified root plate, trunk with crown effect) with orthotropic material
was developed. The model was experimentally validated based on static response: tilt and deformation were compared with field
experiments. The parametric definition of the model enabled “what-if” analyses with the change of geometry and material
constants simulating different defects and trees state. The correlation between the dynamic response of model and internal tree
defects (stem, root plate) were found to be significant, which provide the possibility of application in non-destructive tree
assessment.

Biography

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Assessment of European Beech Timber Based on Non-destructive

Measurement

Jan Zlámal
[email protected]
Jan Tippner
[email protected]

Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood

Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
Grading stands at the beginning of the entire chain of wood processing. Although there are many
techniques used for wood selection, this study is focused on the grading of wood directly in the forest
on the standing trees and timber after logging. The main aim is to verify the accuracy of wood
properties assessment based on measurements by common devices for non-destructive (NDT) or
semi-destructive (SDT) testing methods. Three types of NDT and SDT were used on European beech
(Fagus sylvatica, L.). This species was selected as most planted hardwood in the Czech Republic with
great potential for use. The standing trees without signs of damage or rot were measured by device
for NDT and SDT. Then the examine trees were felled down and processed to logs with constant
length, which were measured by the same devices as the standing trees. The frequency-resonant
methods were also used for assessment of logs. Immediately after logs measurement, cross-sections
from every tree were cut off for laboratory testing.

The main evaluated properties were wood density, sound velocity, dynamic modulus of elasticity,
micro-drilling and indentation resistance, damping. Variability of values and relationships between
parameters from each method and forest stands were analyzed. These analyses were carried out to
find simple principles for determining production parameters assessment directly in the forest stand.
Significant relationships from this study will be used as a background for developing methods for
individual timber grading in forestry practice.

Keywords: European beech, Grading, Standing trees, Logging, Non-destructive testing methods

Biography

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Monday, July 13

Timber Engineering, Mass Timber & Sustainable Architecture

Chairs:
Bohumil Kasal, Farunhofer Institute for Wood Research, German
Mariapaola Riggio, Oregon State University, USA

Analysis of Half-Lap Joint of Full-Scale Unprotected CLT Floors and Walls

during ASTM E119 Fire Tests

Seung Hyun Claas, Oregon State University, USA

[email protected]

Abstract
The half-lap joint is one of the easiest and most convenient ways for in-plane assembly of CLT panels
in the construction field. However, in case of fire, it can become a channel for the flow of heated air
from the fire exposed side towards the unexposed side and spread the fire outside the burning
compartment. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the fire-resistance of the half-
lap joint of full-scale unprotected CLT. The independent variables in the experiment were two positions
of floors and walls (vertical and horizontal), two species groups (SPF and DF-L), and two adhesive
systems (PUR and MUF). The thickness of the CLT assemblies was 175 mm, and each layer was 35
mm. The temperature was measured using thermocouples at 3 locations along the half-lap joint, and
9 locations of each bonding lines in the CLT. All assemblies were tested following ASTM E119 in a
loaded condition. In the late stage of the ASTM E119 fire test, the formation of visible gaps at the half-
lap joints was observed and monitored in CLT walls. After the fire tests, panels were cut into 1 square-
foot blocks, on which the residual depth was measured in 8 perimeter locations. In addition, the
blocks including the half-lap joint were cut along the joint groove line to measure charring inside the
gap. The residual CLT depth along the half-lap joint were then compared with the average residual
depth in other locations of the panels. Data from TCs aligned along the joints were also analysed and
compared to TC data from other parts of the panels. Finally, the calculated char rates for material
along the joint were compared to these for the rest of the solid panels. The results will be available at
the time of presentation.

Biography

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Deconstructable Timber-Concrete Composite Connectors

Mohammad Derikvand1*– Gerhard Fink2

1 Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalto University,

02150 Espoo, Finland* Corresponding author
[email protected]

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalto University, 02150

Espoo, Finland
[email protected]

Abstract
The application of deconstructable connectors in timber-concrete composite (TCC) floors
enables the possibility of disassembly and reuse of timber materials at the end of building’s life.
This paper introduces the initial concept of a deconstructable TCC connector comprised of a self-
tapping screw embedded in a plug made of rigid polyvinyl chloride and a level adjuster made of
silicone rubber. This connection system is versatile and can be applied for prefabrication and in-
situ concrete casting of TCC floors in both wet-dry and dry-dry systems. The paper presents the
results of preliminary tests on the shear performance of four different configurations of the
connector system in T-section glulam-concrete composites. The shear performance is compared
to that of a permanent connector made with the same type of self-tapping screw. The failure
modes observed are also analyzed to provide technical information for further optimization of
the connector in the future.

Key words: deconstructable connector, timber-concrete composite, push-out test, shear strength,
slip modulus, failure mode.

Introduction
Timber-concrete composite (TCC) floors can be described as a slab-type engineered wood
product or a number of individual timber beams connected to a (thin) concrete slab through shear

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connectors. The concrete slab, placed on top of the timber component, predominantly resists
compression in the composite system, the timber component predominantly resists tension, and
the connectors transfer shear loads between the two components. When designed properly, TCC
floors can benefit from the high compressive strength of concrete and the high tensile strength of
timber (Dias et al. 2018). In previous research works, TCC floors have most commonly been
constructed using permanent connectors. Although structurally effective, the application of
permanent connectors in the construction of TCC floors can represent challenges for the
sustainability and disposal of such structures and result in waste management problems at the
end of building’s life (Khorsandnia et al. 2018). This is because most of the timber materials
used could not be easily recycled or reused due to the permanent connections between the timber
elements and the concrete slab. This problem can be addressed when a design for disassembly
approach is considered by making use of deconstructable connectors. The use of deconstructable
connectors can facilitate the process of dismantling and recycling of TCC structures
(Khorsandnia et al. 2016). However, while the structural capacities of various types of permanent
connectors have been investigated in numerous studies over the past two decades, little effort has
been put into developing and evaluating the performance of deconstructable connectors for TCC
floors.
With a focus on design for disassembly and reuse of timber materials at the end of building’s
life, the goal of this research is to develop a deconstructable connector that can be used for both
on-site concrete casting and offsite prefabrication of TCC floors in wet-dry and dry-dry systems.
The results of a series of preliminary tests on the shear performance and failures modes of the
initial prototype of the deconstructable connector are reported in this paper. The prototype of this
connector is comprised of a self-tapping screw embedded in a plug made of rigid polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and a lid and a level adjuster made of silicone rubber. The preliminary tests were
performed on five T-section glulam-concrete connections made with four different types of
the connector and a permanent screw connector of the same configuration under monotonic shear
loads.

Specification of the deconstructable connector and preliminary tests

The concept of the presented approach is that the self-tapping screw itself can directly be used as
a deconstructable connector. For this purpose, a solution is required that can prevent the screw
from coming into direct contact with the fresh concrete during the construction process. One of
the main challenges here, however, is to make sure that the structural properties of the resulting
deconstructable connection will be comparable to that of an equivalent permanent connection of
the same configuration. Another aim of this research project is that the connector can be used in
various construction procedures (i.e., wet-dry and dry-dry systems) and floor configurations.
This might be achievable by adding an extra protective layer to the screw itself instead of
producing a connector separately.

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Figure 1. Illustration of the connector (a) with level adjuster, (b) without level adjuster, (c) inserted at different
angles, and (c) inserted at different heights by compressing the level adjuster.

The extra protective layer could be in the form of a pipe or an internally threaded plug that can
fully cover the portion of the screw that is exposed to the fresh concrete. The resulting connector
will be a single deconstructable screw that can directly be driven into the timber component
without the need for any additional element or process. Based on this idea, a fully threaded self-
tapping screw is inserted into a plug made of rigid PVC. In addition, the connector had a lid and
a level adjuster made of silicone rubber. The level adjuster can easily deform and be compressed
while the connector is being inserted into the timber component. This enables the possibility of
using the same connector with the same dimensions at different insertion angles and concrete
slab heights without exposing any part of the screw to the fresh concrete (Fig. 1). The presence
of a level adjuster, however, may result in reduced shear performance as well. This effect was
studied as a variable during the preliminary tests. For this purpose, per each deconstructable
connector tested with level adjuster an equivalent of the same connector was also manufactured
and tested without level adjuster. Another important parameter that was considered for the
preliminary testing was the configuration of the inner side of the PVC plug. Two types of PVC
plugs with and without internal threads were tested for this purpose (Fig. 2). It was assumed that
the connector with internal threads would lead to a better shear behaviour as there will be no gap
between the screw and the PVC plug in such configuration resulting in a tight fit between the
two elements. The diameter of the hole inside the PVC plug with internal threads was equal to
the shank diameter of the screw. In the PVC plug without internal threads, however, the diameter
of the hole inside the plug was equal to the thread diameter of the screw. This resulted in some
unfilled gaps between the inner sides of the hole in the plug and the shank of the screw.

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Internal No internal
threads threads

Figure 2. PVC plugs with internal threads (left) and without internal threads (right).

Table 1: Compilation of the experimental tests.

Test variables
Connector Level adjuster Insertion Embedment
Symbol Internal Level height (mm) angle (˚) depth (mm)
Connector type
threads adjuster
P Permanent - - - 90 80
DTL Deconstructable Yes Yes 20 90 80
DTN Deconstructable Yes No 20 90 80
DNL Deconstructable No Yes 20 90 80
DNN Deconstructable No No 20 90 80

In total, four groups of deconstructable connectors and a permanent screw connector with the
same configuration were constructed as given in Table 1. The permanent screw connector served
as a control specimen. The fully threaded self-tapping screw was made of high resistance
galvanized carbon steel with a length of 150 mm, a shank diameter of 6.6 mm, and a thread
diameter of 11 mm. The timber component in the T-section connection specimens in this study
were cut from a 5-layer glulam beam (Nordic whitewood) with b × h × l = 90 × 200 × 300 mm3.
A low-shrinking concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 16 mm was used for preparing the
specimens. The density and compressive strength of the concrete used were 2388 kg/m3 and 55.3
MPa, respectively. The concrete properties were measured by testing six cubic specimens with
the dimensions of b × h × l = 100 × 100 × 100 mm3.
To prepare the glulam-concrete connection specimens for the preliminary testing, the connectors
were driven into the glulam component to a penetration depth of 80 mm. Before casting the
concrete, the top surface of the glulam in each specimen was covered by a layer of waterproof
paint to prevent the glulam from absorbing moisture from the wet concrete. A plywood
formwork was then fixed around the specimens and a steel reinforcement wire mesh was
installed to maintain the integrity of the concrete and minimize any crack development (Fig. 3).
The concrete was then poured onto the formwork to a height of 75 mm. The test specimens were
left to cure for 28 days. The formwork was removed prior to testing.

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Figure 3. A T-section glulam-concrete deconstructable connection. (a): the prepared formwork,

(b): concrete cast onto the formwork, (c): the resulting T-section connection, and (d): the screw head inside the
connector after removing the rubber lid.

Figure 4. (a) The push-out test set-up used and (b) the side-view of a specimen under loading.

The specimens were tested under monotonic shear load in accordance with the procedures
described in EN 26891 (1991) using the test set-up depicted in Figure 4. The slip between the
concrete and glulam components was recorded from both sides of the test specimens using two
linear variable differential transformers (LVDT). The shear strength of the connections was
quantified as the peak load (Fmax) obtained at u = 15 mm slip. The stiffness of the permanent
connector was quantified by calculating the slip modulus (Ks) of the connector at 40% of its
estimated peak load (Fest). An accurate Fest is vital for a realistic slip modulus calculation of
connectors (Dias 2012). However, in the absence of a reliable Fest for the deconstructable
connectors in this study, the slip modulus of these connectors was calculated based on their
individual Fmax. The Fmax values will then be used as Fest for the subsequent experiments on these
connectors in the future.

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22 P
20 DTN
18 DTL
DNN
16
DNL
14

F (kN)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
u (mm)

Figure 5. The load-slip curves of the connections. The vertical bar indicates the point where Fest is taken for the
subsequent testing.

Table 2: Fmax and Ks of the connectors.

Connector symbol Fmax (kN) Ks (kN/mm)
P 22.0 6.00
DTN 17.1 4.30
DTL 15.8 1.53
DNN 17.4 2.21
DNL 11.7 1.39

Results
The load-slip curves of the test connectors are illustrated in Figure 5. As expected, the permanent
screw connector exhibited higher Fmax and Ks under loading than the deconstructable ones (Table
2). In the group of deconstructable connectors, the two connectors with internal threads in the
PVC plug (DTN and DTL) showed a higher Ks value than the identical connectors without
internal threads (DNN and DNL). The existence of the level adjuster also appeared to negatively
influence both Fmax and Ks of the deconstructable connectors.
The failure modes of the connectors can be seen in Figure 6. In all the test connectors, some
slight crushing of the concrete was observed at the interface of the slab and glulam.
Despite this, the concrete section in the permanent connector exhibited a rigid behavior and all
the deformation took place in the glulam and the screw itself. The plastic hinge was observed in
the timber concrete interface. The DTN and DNN connectors also showed a failure mode almost
similar to that observed in the permanent connector together with some plastic deformation at the
bottom of the PVC plug. For the DTL and DNL connectors, plastic hinge was above the timber
concrete interface due to the level adjuster.

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Figure 6. Failure modes of the test connections.

From the failure modes of the test connectors, it can be seen that the deformation and crushing of
the glulam occurred all the way through the length of the self-tapping screw in the glulam
section. However, in all cases almost only one major plastic hinge was formed in the screw itself.
This might suggest that the 80 mm embedment depth of the self-tapping screw should be larger
for alpha = 90˚. Nevertheless, in the present study the focus lies on the behavior near the timber-
concrete interface.

Conclusions and Outlook

In this paper, the initial concept of a deconstructable connector for TCC floors was introduced.
The results of some preliminary tests on the shear behaviour of five glulam-concrete connections
were presented and compared. Four different configurations of the deconstructable connector
were examined: with or without the presence of a level adjuster and with or without internal
threads in the connector plug. The relevant failure modes under monotonic load exposure were
analyzed. In all samples the screws were inserted at 90˚ angle, and accordingly the slip modulus
and load-carrying capacity were low. Even though the number of tests was limited, some
differences were observed between the slip modulus and load-carrying capacity of the

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deconstructable connectors and those of the permanent screw connector of the same
configuration.
Based on the results of this preliminary project, ongoing research is underway in order to
optimize and characterize the properties of deconstructable connector systems under different
insertion angles and connection arrangements. The subsequent experimental steps also include
some modification on the geometry and material type of the protective layer around the self-
tapping screw in order to replace PVC with a more sophisticated material. Some structural and
practical aspects of the deconstructable connector introduced in this paper will also be addressed
in the future experiments that have been planned for this research.

References
Dias A, Fragiacomo M, Gramatikov K, Kreis B, Kupferle F, Monteiro S, Sandanus J, Schänzlin J,
Schober K, Sebastian W (2018) Design of timber-concrete composite structures. A State-of-the-Art
Report by COST Action FP1402/WG, 4.
Dias A.M.P.G (2012) Analysis of the nonlinear behavior of timber-concrete connections. Journal of
structural engineering 138(9): 1128-1137.
EN 26891 (1991) Timber structures—Joints made with mechanical fasteners—General principles for the
determination of strength and deformation characteristic. European Committee for Standardization,
Brussels, Belgium.
Khorsandnia N, Valipour H, Bradford M (2018) Deconstructable timber-concrete composite beams with
panelised slabs: Finite element analysis. Construction and Building Materials 163: 798-811.
Khorsandnia N, Valipour H, Schänzlin J, Crews K (2016) Experimental investigations of deconstructable
timber–concrete composite beams. Journal of Structural Engineering 142(12): 04016130.

Biography

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CLT Panels from Below-Grade Yellow-Poplar Sorted by Nondestructive

Proof Loading

Rafael Azambuja1
[email protected]
David Devallance2
[email protected]
Joseph McNeel1
[email protected]
Curt Hassler1
[email protected]
Gregory Dahle1
[email protected]

1West Virginia University, USA

2Innorenew CoE, Slovenia

Abstract
To manufacture and market a uniform and consistent quality product, the US lumber industry
developed grading rules to classify the produced lumber. Given most hardwood lumber in the US is
used in appearance applications, a common practice is to grade them following National Hardwood
Lumber Association (NHLA) visual grading rules that are based on clear of defect area. However, this
kind of visual grading evaluation does not effectively reflect the modulus of elasticity in the flatwise
orientation which can be quickly determined using non-destructive testing methods (e.g., proof
loading or stress wave evaluation). Additionally, when lumber is purposed for producing composites,
such as cross-laminated timber panels, there is potential to use lower grades that do not meet visual
structural grades, as these grades are based largely on lumber used alone and in a edgewise bending
orientations (e.g., in a floor joist application). Given the potential of using lower grade lumber, the
objective of this research was to mechanically evaluate CLT panels produced from yellow-poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera) lumber that did not achieve structural grades (i.e., below-grade) as
determined by NELMA rules. To achieve an optimized layout for the panel, the population distribution
of MOE was assessed and divided into subgroups. To maximize the CLT panel resistance the layout
consisted of boards with MOE values equal or above 1.65x10 6 psi in external layers. Inner layers (at or
near the neutral axis) consisted of MOE values between 1.2x10 6 psi and 1.65x106 psi. The MOE of
1.65x106 psi and higher represent the top 40% of the population, so it was chosen for use in external
layers of a 5-layer panel (2 layers out of 5). In total, ten panels were produced that had dimensions of
3.75” thick x18” wide x120” long. To evaluate the adhesion between layers in the panel, bond quality
was evaluated using shear block and cyclic delamination tests in accordance to ANSI A190.1 (2017).
These evaluations were performed as recommended in PRG 320 (2018) in three positions of within the
panel, at both ends and at the central region. The different positions for evaluation was to insure
homogeneity throughout the panel. Flatwise bending in accordance to ANSI/PRG 320 (2018) was used
to evaluate the CLT panel modulus of rupture (MOR) and MOE. Also, strain patterns during bending
tests was collected by a digital image correlation (DIC) system. The DIC system was also used to
provide information on failure development patterns within the specimens. Results from the bond
quality and mechanical testing will be presented to provide information regarding the potential for

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using visually graded, below-grade yellow-poplar lumber to produce CLT panels. Additional information
will be presented on the correlation between NDE values and placement within the panels to the
resulting CLT panels’ mechanical properties.

Biography

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Development of a Simplified Method for Prediction of

Acoustic Behaviour of CLT with Facing Layers
Franz Dolezal1*– Niko Kumer 2 – Alexander Baranyai 1 – Armin Wilfling3

1 Key Researcher, Research Assistent, IBO – Austrian Institute for Building and
Ecology GmbH, Vienna, Austria *Corresponding author
[email protected], [email protected]
2 Research Manager, Stora Enso Wood Products, Bad St. Leonhard, Austria
[email protected]
3 Audio Engineer, Vienna, Austria
[email protected]

Abstract

Since there is no standardised prediction method for acoustic behaviour of Cross Laminated
Timber (CLT) building elements with facing layers, evidence that they fulfil certain properties
have to be verified by acoustic measurements in laboratories instead of simple calculations. This
leads to higher expenses for this building material compared to concrete or bricks and related
disadvantages concerning competitiveness. The aim of this project is, inter alia, to develop a
simple method to predict the weighted sound reduction index of CLT with facing layers with
satisfying accuracy, in the early design stage of the building, by using as little input parameters
as possible.
In a first step small test specimen are developed to analyse the resonant behaviour of CLT in
combination with different facing layers by means of vibration measurements. These
investigations are carried out at small concrete slabs with the mass equivalent of CLT and the
facing layer as well as with different suspending bracket types. Further on, a mock up made of
CLT with suspending brackets and varying types of gypsum plasterboards in plasterboard panel
size, is analyzed by use of conventional vibration measurement technique as well as a self-
developed digital method with MEMs (surface micromachined capacitive accelerometers) and
subsequent data processing over the relevant frequency spectrum from 20 Hz to at least 2000 Hz.
Finally sound pressure level measurements of whole walls are carried out in an accredited test
facility to verify the results of the small specimen and the simplified model. Standardized 1/3
octave frequency band measurements and time signal recording with subsequent FFT analysis
enable precise definition of the resonant frequency of the vibrant system. Results of the resonant
frequency, gathered from mentioned vibration measurements are the basis for the simplified
model to calculate the weighted sound reduction index.

Key words: CLT, sound insulation, facing layers, vibration, resonance frequency
Introduction

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Several types of facing layers are applied, already for decades, to improve minor sound
insulation of building components like walls or floors. Accordingly, reliable and precise
prediction methods for enhanced components have been developed and even standardized in EN
ISO 12354-1. These standardized methods, unfortunately, are limited to heavy, homogeneous
basic structural elements. In general, improvement of sound reduction index (ΔR), caused by the
facing layer, is added to the sound reduction index (R) of the basic element. But, this depends on
the acoustic behavior of the basic element as well, and this leads to the need of more information
of the interrelation between facing layers and Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) slabs since CLT
can neither be assigned as heavy nor as a homogenous element. The essential parameter, but not
the only one, to define acoustic behavior and sound insulation of a combined element, is its
resonant frequency fR, defined by the dynamic stiffness s´ and the area related masses m´ of the
involved materials. Though, dynamic stiffness of a facing layer not only depends on the
properties of the gap (filled with air or insulation material) but also on the dynamic stiffness of
the hangers or bearing structure of the facing layer in general. Considering the different types of
facing layer designs and materials (flexible, fixed, wood, metal, damping profiles, detached,
etc.), it does not seem to be appropriate, only to take the dynamic stiffness of the gap (filled with
air or damping material) into account.

Materials & Methods

In this research project the focus is on the improvement of CLT walls with facing layers made of
plasterboard by using hangers (with and without resilient material), as shown in Figure 1, and
wooden slats (60 mm x 40 mm) which are screwed into the hangers and serve as the supporting
structure of the plasterboard.

Figure 1. Hangers for wall (and ceiling) mounting of wooden slats with and without resilient layers under the
mounting screw and a schematic view of the investigated building element made of CLT slab with hangers, wooden
slats and plasterboard.

The acoustic improvement of the sound reduction index ΔR of a facing layer is defined
according to EN ISO 12354-1 as the difference between the sound reduction index R of the
building element with and without facing layer.

In general, ΔR can be determined easily by sound measurement in a test facility. It can also be
calculated according to EN ISO 12354-1 as well, as far as the base structure is a homogeneous
mineral structure, based on the resonant frequency of the mass-spring system, taking the sound
reduction index of the basic element into account. This simple mass-spring-mass system is
calculated according to Equation 1, when the insulation layer is fixed directly on the basic
construction.

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1 1 1
𝑓𝑅 = 2𝜋 √𝑠′ (𝑚′ + 𝑚′′) (1)

For lightweight structures, when the mass difference is small (like usually for CLT with facing
layers) Equation 1 has to be applied as well, where m’ and m’’ are the coupled masses of CLT
and the plasterboard(s). Therefore, it is not only necessary to know both involved masses, but the
dynamic stiffness of the coupling hangers as well. Furthermore, s’ is not only defined by the
hangers, it is a combination of the elastic property of the hangers (most likely also depending on
the mass of the carrying plasterboard(s)) and the air or insulation material in the gap between the
wooden slats (Rabold 2019).
This combined dynamic stiffness is the sum of the one from the air (s’air) between the masses
(with or without insulation material) and the one of the hangers (s’hanger), according to Equation
2. This is the reason why s’ is hard to define and usually not known for wooden lightweight
structures. Therefore, sound insulation and improvement of sound reduction index of (wooden)
lightweight and mass timber structures with facing layers, usually are measured in laboratories in
transmission suites.

𝑠 ′ = 𝑠 ′ 𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑠 ′ ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 (2)

From Small to Large Scale Measurement Setups

With the final goal to avoid large scale test situations, two small scale test specimen have been
developed with the aim to verify their comparability with the laboratory test results. At the
following test settings, measurements are carried out:

1) Vibration measurements on mass-equivalent, cheap concrete paving slabs

2) Vibration measurements on a 1:1 scale mock up in the size of a standard gypsum
plasterboard (1250 x 2000 mm)
3) Sound pressure measurements with subsequent FFT (1 Hz steps) in the laboratory
4) Vibration measurements on the specimen used in the laboratory
5) Standardized one third octave band sound pressure measurement in an accredited
laboratory

The purpose of these five different experimental settings is to compare the results and find the
easiest way with the lowest efforts and investments to generate satisfying results of the acoustic
behaviour of CLT with different facing layers.
In general, vibration measurements are carried out with a two channel analyser and piezo
accelerometers with shaker excitation of the specimen. In Hopkins (2007), it is advised to prefer
the measurement of the phase of the driving point mobility, since it is more accurate to identify
the resonance frequency in high damped systems where it can be difficult to discern the peak.
Unfortunately, the available equipment does not include neither phase nor force measurement.
Thus, as a compromise, frequency spectra of the accelerations are measured and peaks in the
magnitudes evaluated by comparing characteristics on sending and receiving side.
Hereinafter, test settings 1 to 3 are described, results are given for setting 1 and 3.

Vibration measurements on mass-equivalent, cheap concrete paving slabs

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The idea of the first setting is to connect mass-equivalent concrete slabs with hangers and excite
with the hammer and with a shaker with white noise in order to find the resonant frequency of
this reverberant system representing CLT and plasterboard connected with the hangers. So
Masses where created with paving slabs 400 x 400 x 40 mm with a mass of 15 kg each and
connected with 4 hangers and wooden slats. On the sending side, 1 to 3 and on the receiving side
1 to 6 slabs are varied. So mass combinations in 15 kg steps from 15 to 15 kg until 30 to 90 kg
can be investigated by varying concrete slabs on both sides as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Schematic view of the measurement setup (left) and real picture from the workshop with accelerometer
and shaker for excitation.

In this setting, several vibration measurements are carried out. Transient excitation with a
hammer is applied, as well as stationary excitation with white noise and sinus sweep by using a
shaker, which is connected to the concrete slab with a stinger made of a threaded rod. The whole
setting is partly following EN 29052-1 for the determination of the dynamic stiffness s’ of
materials below floating floors. Calibration is realised by exciting with several pure sine wave
signals. The time signals of the acceleration of the receiving and the sending side are taken to a
dual channel FFT analyser to calculate the frequency response function.

Vibration measurements on a 1:1 scale mock up in gypsum plasterboard size

In the second setting, a 2000 x 1250 x 100 mm 3-layer CLT slab is the basic structure to sustain
the plasterboard(s) via the same type of hangers (distance horizontally 625 mm and 1500 mm
vertically) and wooden slats (Fig. 3). The entire multi-layer wall element is assembled in a
workshop, placed on resilient interlayers to decouple the wall from the floor, and since there are
no transmission suits available, vibration measurements have to be carried out. In order to gain
as much information as possible, several parts of the assembly are varied during measurement:
hangers with and without resilient layers, distance d between CLT and plasterboard (50, 75 and
100 mm), 1 or 2 layers of plasterboards, different types of plasterboards with different mass and
bending stiffness. Additionally, each measurement is carried out with and without 50 mm
mineral wool in the cavities. A cross section of the assembly is shown in Figure 3 and real
pictures in Figure 4.

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Figure 3. Schematic mock up wall element with 100 mm CLT slab and variation of 1 or 2 plasterboards, type of
plasterboard, type of hanger, cavity filling and distance d between the coupled masses.

Excitation is conducted with white noise by the use of a shaker on two positions (in the centre -
on a slat - and between two slats in the cavity). At each excitation position, four accelerometer
positions are measured on the CLT slab (sending side) and on the same position on the opposite
plasterboard (receiving side) in the frequency range from 0 to 20.000 Hz. Base measurement was
the plain CLT slab with 2 excitation points and 10 sensor points each.

Figure 4. Test setting CLT and plasterboard on resilient layer with plasterboard (left) and without plasterboard
(right). The shaker is hidden behind the structure and excites the CLT slab.

Sound pressure measurements with subsequent FFT (1 Hz steps) in the lab

Sound pressure measurements in an accredited test facility are carried out in order to get data for
the sound reduction index R of CLT with facing layers. The size of the opening between the
reverberation chambers is 4000 x 2700 mm, so the CLT slab is slightly smaller to fit into the
concrete frame and is sealed afterwards. On one hand standardised 1/3 octave band
measurements were carried out, on the other hand, time signal is recorded by use of a rotating
microphone and converted into the frequency spectrum by FFT analyses. Calculation of sound
insulation requires the reverberation time T as well, but there is no method for measuring T in 1
Hz steps. Thus, calculation is approximated by using the 1/3 octave band results for the
reverberation time according to Equation 3. R1Hz is the sound reduction index in 1 Hz steps, LS is
the sum of the sound pressure levels in the sending room, LR is the sum of the sound pressure
levels in the receiving room. Furthermore, S is the surface area of the wall and T the
reverberation time measured in 1/3 octave bands.

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𝑆∗𝑇
𝑅1𝐻𝑧 = 𝐿𝑆 − 𝐿𝑅 + 10 ∗ lg⁡ (0,16∗𝑉) (3)

Results and Discussion

Data from all above mentioned test settings already has been gathered, but still has to be
analysed and needs to be interpreted and integrated into the whole picture. So in the following
only results from settings 1 (small) and 3 (transmission suite) are discussed.

Vibration measurements on mass equivalent, cheap concrete paving slabs

Mass-equivalent vibration measurement with concrete paving slabs, carried out with transient
and stationary excitation led to already expected results: the higher the resonant masses, the
lower the resonance frequency. Furthermore, it could be shown, that with a resilient layer,
resonance frequency decreases significantly (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. fR of concrete representing the mass of different plasterboards connected with CLT 100 mm with vertical
distance of hangers of 800 mm and hangers without resilient layer (left). Hangers with resilient layer (right).

The 10 kg situation without resilient layer (2 concrete paving slabs on the sending side) seems to
be an outlier. This can be originated in a mistake in the test setting. Therefore, it does not appear
in the left hand chart of Figure 5.

Sound pressure measurements with subsequent FFT (1 Hz steps) in the lab

The resulting time signal from the sound pressure measurements is converted into the frequency
spectrum by FFT analyses. Results are gathered from the same extensive variation of materials
as in the 1:1 mock up. Only a small extract can be shown and discussed in this paper. Figure 6
shows exemplarily results for the situation with 50 mm plasterboard and the one with 100 mm
gap between CLT and plasterboard and double layer plasterboard as well as the plain CLT slab.
It is always indicated the 1/3 octave band result, starting from 50 Hz, and the one in 1 Hz steps,
starting from 20 Hz.

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The three, for the low frequency range relevant modes at 68, 136 and 200 Hz are marked in
Figure 6 with “M” as well as the resonance frequencies, indicated with arrows. These modes can
be detected in the results of the structural reverberation time of the CLT slab, installed into the
concrete frame of the transmission suite, as well. Measurements in 1 Hz steps reveal that these
modes of the CLT slab and their insufficient covering by the facing layers seem to be reliable for
the minor sound insulation in the lower frequency range as well as the position of the resonance
frequency.

Figure 6. Sound reduction index R and R1Hz for CLT (black) and CLT + plasterboard (PB) – 50 mm gap in red, 100
mm and 2 PB in blue and in green results for CLT + 1PB with hangers with resilient material (EI) and mineral wool
(wool). Resonance frequencies are indicated with arrows and eigenmodes of the CLT slab with “M”.
Summary and Conclusions

It seems to be obvious that the usually applied facing layers do not cover the resonant modes of
the CLT slab. At least in these two modes, the plasterboard oscillates jointly, instead. This effect
has already been described by Josse (1964) who states that, below the resonance frequency, the
two layers of a double wall oscillate as a single plate with the mass of both layers. Dependent on
the size of the gap and the decoupling with or without resonant material, higher modes can be
concerned as well. This decoupling begins with the frequency of the kink, when the 18 dB
increase, as stated in Sharp (1978) and indicated as resonance frequency, starts. This confirms
also the finding of Rabold (2010) that the 18 dB increase is only developed, if the first
eigenmode of the CLT slab is below the resonance frequency.
This leads to the conclusion that for an efficient sound insulation in the low building acoustic
frequency range, the system has to be detuned in a more intense way with higher differences of
the oscillating masses or a spring with minor stiffness properties.

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Data from the other test setups already has been generated, but still has to be analysed and needs
to be interpreted and integrated into the whole picture.
Furthermore, already promising results have been generated from the self developed digital
method with MEMs (surface micromachined capacitive accelerometers), but repeatability of the
measurements still is not satisfying, so work still has to continue.

Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledge Stora Enso Wood Products Austria and Knauf GmbH for
financing and supporting the project with knowledge, material and equipment. Furthermore
sincere thanks to the TGM acoustic measurement team who carried out the sound measurements
in their transmission suite at Akustik Center Austria in the usual comprehensive way.

References

Rabold A, Schödel B, Schanda U (2019) Schalltechnische Optimierung von Unter-

deckenabhängern. Proceedings DAGA, Rostock

Hopkins C (2007) Sound Insulation. Elsevier Ltd.

Josse R, Lamure J (1964) Transmission du son par une paroi simple. Acustica 14: 266-280.

Sharp B H (1978) Prediction methods for the sound transmission of building elements. Noise
control Engineering Journal 11: 53-63.

Rabold A, Wissel C, Schanda U, Hessinger J (2010) Prognose der Schalldämmung von leichten
Trennwänden. Proceedings DAGA, Berlin

Biography

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A Knowledge Management System to Support the US Cross Laminated

Timber Industry

Omar Espinoza, University of Minnesota, USA

[email protected] .
Ed Thomas. US Forest Service, USA
[email protected]
Urs Buehlmann, Virginia Tech, USA
[email protected]
Rahul Bora, Dell, USA
[email protected]

Abstract
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) is a product that offers numerous benefits, including a lighter environmental footprint, structural
simplicity, and design versatility. Due to these advantages, the CLT industry is growing rapidly. However, CLT also faces
challenges such as, for example, low levels of awareness among construction professionals or difficulties with building code
compliance. To overcome such challenges, the number of research projects concerning the use of CLT as a building material has
increased dramatically during the last few year and with it the number of people involved in CLT production, use and research.
For the market success of CLT, a product in the early stages of market adoption, it is critically important for stakeholders (i.e.,
researchers, manufacturers, design/construction professionals, developers, government agencies, and the public in general) to
have access to knowledge about past, present, and future research pertaining to CLT in the U.S. and the world. The ultimate goal
of this project is to help sustain and improve the health of U.S. forests while supporting the forest products industry. The main
objective of this research was to build and maintain a self-updating and user-focused Knowledge Management System (KMS) for
research and market information for Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). Currently, the resulting CLT KMS has over 2,800 records –
with more added continuously - including peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, reports, theses and dissertations,
news and magazine articles, and others. The information is categorized into 20 topics, including seismic, mechanical, and fire,
performance, tall buildings, and others. The creation of an easily accessible, free knowledge database fosters collaboration
between parties, prevents duplication of efforts, raises awareness, and reassures investors and construction professionals about
the merits of CLT-based construction projects.

Biography

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Recovered Wood as Raw Material for Structural Timber

Products. Characteristics, Situation and Study Cases:
Ireland and Spain

Daniel F. Llana1,2* – Guillermo Íñiguez-González1,2 –Marina de Arana-Fernández1

–Caitríona Uí Chúláin3–Annette M. Harte3

1Department of Foresty and Enviromental Engineering and Management,

MONTES (School of Forest Engineering and Natural Resources), Universidad
Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
[email protected]*
[email protected]
[email protected]
2Timber Construction Research Group, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
3College of Science and Engineering, National University of Ireland Galway,
Galway, Ireland
[email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract

The circular economy is an efficient system to reuse materials reducing the amount of waste
generated. In order to implement it in the timber sector, the InFutUReWood (Innovative Design
for the Future – Use and Reuse of Wood (Building) Components) is a European project studying
the possibilities for reuse and recycling of timber from demolition for structural applications.
Nowadays in Ireland and Spain, most of the wood waste is reduced to chips. In Ireland, chips are
mainly used for energy production, pallet blocks, and composting, while in Spain are used for
energy production and particleboard manufacture.

Possible structural applications depend on the amount, dimensions, and condition of recovered
timber. Most of the recovered timber in Ireland has medium size cross-sections, while in Spain it
is mainly large cross-section. Cross laminated timber (CLT) is a good option for reuse and
experimental tests are ongoing in Ireland on CLT manufactured from old timber trusses.
However, for large cross-sections, direct reuse for rehabilitation works will be a more efficient
use of the material.

Key words: Circular economy, classification system, construction and demolition waste, mass
timber products, timber recycling, reclaimed wood, wood waste management

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Introduction

The circular economy is a sustainable system to reduce the amount of waste by reusing it as a
new resource with the consequent environmental and value-added benefits. Ever increasing
timber demand for construction purposes in Europe will lead to a deficiency of new timber
resources in the future. Therefore, the implementation of a circular economy system in the timber
sector is strongly recommended. InFutUReWood (Innovative Design for the Future – Use and
Reuse of Wood (Building) Components) is a 3-year European project that focuses on the reuse
and recycling of current reclaimed wood in the circular economy as structural material
(InFutUReWood 2020).The National University of Ireland Galway (NUIG) from Ireland and the
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) from Spain are two of the eight European institutional
partners of the project.

The Construction and Demolition (C&D) sector creates a large amount of wood waste, generally
now used for energy recovery and wood panel production (Irle et al. 2015). Much of that wood
could be salvaged to be reused or recycled for structural purposes. Potential end-use structural
applications include high quality Engineered Wood Products (EWP) such as Glue-laminated
(Glulam) timber, solid wood panels and Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) (Hafner et al. 2014).
Previous tests on CLT from recovered timber showed higher stiffness capacity and lower
strength than CLT from new sawn timber (Rose et al. 2018). However, this was a small scale
study and it doesn´t appear to taken into account the natural variability of timber quality. The
CaReWood project studied the possibilities to recycle recovered wood in laminated products
(Irle et al. 2019).

In the present work, the term "recovered timber" includes structural and sawn timber from
demolition, while "recovered wood" includes recovered timber, plus doors, windows, door and
window frames, furniture, pallets, and packaging. Finally, "wood" also includes carpentry waste,
forest pruning and thinning.

The main objective of this paper is to show the particularities of the current situation of
recovered wood in Ireland and Spain and to explore structural applications for recovered timber.

Current situation of recovered wood in Ireland and Spain

The information presented from Ireland and Spain was mainly obtained by surveys, interviews
and technical visits to demolition companies and wood waste management facilities.

Most recovered timber in Ireland comprises medium size cross-section timber (Fig. 1a) including
joists and roof rafters from buildings from the 1960s-70s. The timber is usually sourced from the
roof structure. Building typologies at that time were mainly composed of concrete structures with
roof timber trusses.

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Figure
1. Recovered timber a) from Ireland, b) from Spain

Irish demolition companies remove timber in the easiest and cheapest way as there is not an
established market in Ireland for long and good quality recovered timber pieces. Some
companies segregate the timber in-situ in order to reduce skip cost, but most of the recovered
timber arrives in the waste management facilities mixed with other materials. A very small
amount of wood waste goes to landfill.

Recovered wood is managed in wood waste facilities where it is segregated and reduced to chips,
60 mm size or smaller. This includes timber from demolition, furniture, broken pallets, and
packaging. The end-uses for the chips include energy production (exported to the UK), the
manufacture of pallet blocks, composting, animal bedding, garden mulch, and playground
surfacing. A preliminary study estimates slightly more than 100,000 t per year of wood waste is
processed into chips. Furthermore, some companies use wood waste as boiler fuel.

The classification system for wood waste used in Ireland is dependent on whether it is to be
exported or used locally. If the wood waste is to be exported to the UK, a classification system
developed by Wood Recyclers’ Association in 2009 and published as an informative annex in
PAS 111 (2012) is used (Table 1). However, if the final use is in Ireland, the European
classification system (OJEU 2018), implemented by the Irish Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA 2018), is used (Table 2).

Table 1: UK wood waste classification system according to annex A of PAS 111 (2012)
Grade Materials
A Solid wood, pallets, packing cases and cable drums
Untreated
B Grade A plus building and demolition materials and furniture made from solid wood
Limits on treated and coated materials
C Grades A and B plus panel products (chipboard, MDF, plywood, OSB and fiberboard)
Mix wood including painted timber and glues. Coated and treated timber

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D* Hazardous material (fencing, transmission poles, railway sleepers, cooling towers)

Treated with Copper/Chrome/Arsenic (CCA) and creosote
*The European Commission is concerned about the UK classification system because the
amount of wood waste classified as “D” hazardous is around 0.5% of the total wood waste,
while in other European countries like Germany is around 15% (Perchard 2017)

Table 2: European waste classification system according to OJEU (2018)

Most common Materials
used codes
170201 Wood non-hazardous
(when wood waste is segregated in-situ, skips containing only wood)
170903 C&D wastes containing hazardous substances
(mixed or segregated wood waste in the skips)
170904 Mixed C&D wastes non-hazardous
(when wood waste is mixed in the skips with other materials)
191206 Wood containing hazardous substances

191207 Wood other than that mentioned in 191206

(this code is assigned to 170201 skips arriving at waste management facilities
or is assigned to wood from 170904 skips after it is segregated from other
materials in the facilities)
Codes starting with 17 are assigned by C&D companies when skips are filled in-situ
Codes starting with 19 are assigned by waste management facilities for wood waste
processing

In the case of Spain, most of the recovered timber from demolition comprises large cross-
sections (Fig. 1b) from buildings over 100 years old. This is due to a scarcity of timber
construction after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).

In general, big C&D companies do not care about recovering timber from demolition, because
there is not a consolidated recovered timber market. However, there are small C&D companies
deconstructing small buildings and also purchasing timber from big demolitions sites. These
small companies reuse it for their own refurnishing works or sell it for restoration purposes.
Typical markets include refurbishment of heritage buildings, carpentries for vintage furniture,
and private domestic construction. The market price of large cross-section 5-meter length
recovered timber from pine is approximately double the equivalent new sawn timber, because of
the great amount of labour needed during deconstruction, removing nails and cleaning pieces,
and the perception that old timber is of better quality than new timber due to different forest
management.

A significant amount of wood is reduced to chips in wood waste management facilities for two
final end-uses: energy production and particleboards. Not all processed wood is recovered wood.
In the case of energy production, most of it is from pruning, thinning, or undermanaged forest.
For particleboards, recovered timber, furniture from demolition, broken pallets, and carpentry
waste are processed together. A small amount of demolition timber processed in the north of
Spain comes from France, while the final uses are always in Spain. Furthermore, there is a well-
established network to collect furniture from individual owners and packaging and this recovered
wood is used in the manufacture of particleboards.

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There is no national classification system for wood waste or recovered timber in Spain. Wood
waste management facilities usually classify it according to the European List of Waste (OJEU
2018) (Table 2).

Possible structural applications for recovered timber

The main issue for reuse or recycling of recovered timber is its separation from other materials
during demolition or in the wood waste management facility. The newer the demolished building
the more difficult it is to segregate different materials. Buildings that are more than 100-year old
have mainly large cross-section timber (heavy beams, joist, rafters…), which is easy to segregate.
Modern buildings (from the 1950s) have a lot of nails and glue in the timber members.

Important also is the quantity of recovered timber, its dimensions and condition. As a
preliminary estimation from a 5-storey building in an Irish urban area from the 1960s (timber
mainly in the roof), around 30 t of wood were recovered (including furniture and doors). In the
case of Spain, a 5-storey building in an urban area from the 1890s (large cross-section timber)
around 120t of timber were recovered (only sawn timber).

The end-uses of reclaimed structural timber are determined by the timber length and the cross-
section of the recovered timber together with the structural capacity.

Medium size cross-section timber is suitable for EWP manufacturing. Timber trusses (commonly
available in Ireland) provide similar cross-sections to boards used for CLT panels and the
amount of waste generated during manufacturing will be minimum. In this case, medium length
pieces (circa 2 m) are suitable as finger joints can be used. A testing program of CLT panels
from recovered timber is currently ongoing in the NUIG laboratories (Fig. 2).

Large cross-section timber (commonly available in Spain) can be also used for CLT panels,
however, a reduction of the section to CLT board dimensions implies a significant amount of
wood waste and energy consumption and restricts a possible further life of the timber following
the cascading principle of sequential reuse (Sirkin and Houten 1994). Therefore, it is deemed
better to reuse it in restoration works on heritage buildings where long recovered timber pieces
are available (more than 5 m length).

Furthermore, in renovation works, mainly due to energy efficiency regulations, roof decking
boards are usually removed. Sometimes, floor boards are also removed. The common thickness
of these planks is 25 mm, so, this recovered timber could be suitable for EWP.

Demolition techniques should be adapted in order to maximize the yield of good condition and
length of recovered timber for the potential uses described above. Furthermore, the development
of a classification system that combines non-destructive testing and visual grading for recovered
wood is necessary.

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Figure 2. CLT panels from recovered timber in the NUIG laboratory

Summary and Conclusions

Circular economy implementation in the timber sector is necessary. InFutUReWood, including

institutional partners from Ireland and Spain, is a European project that focuses on the reuse and
recycling of current reclaimed wood as structural material.

In Ireland, most of the recovered timber has medium size cross-section from buildings from the
1960s-70s. At present, all timber is reduced to chips mainly for use in energy production, pallet
blocks manufacturing, and composting.

In Spain, most of the recovered timber has large cross-sections from structural elements salvaged
from buildings more than 100 years old. Currently, a small amount is reused in construction
while most of it is reduced to chips for energy production and particleboards.

The potential use of recovered timber is influenced by several factors: the segregation of timber
from other materials, the amount of timber recovered, its condition and dimensions. Medium size
cross-sections are suitable for CLT manufacturing, while large cross-sections are better suited for
reuse in restoration and renovation works. CLT panels manufactured from recovered and new
timber have been manufactured in Ireland and are soon to be tested in the NUIG laboratories.

Acknowledgements

ProjectInFutUReWood is funded in Spain by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y

Universidades (MICIU). Project reference PCI2019-103544. Diseño innovador para el futuro –
uso y reutilización de componentes de edificación de madera.

Project InFutUReWood is funded in Ireland by the Department of Agriculture, Food and the
Marine under the DAFM research funding program. Project reference 18CENForestValue1.

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Project InFutUReWood is supported under the umbrella of ERA-NET Cofund Forest Value by
Vinnova – Sweden´s Innovation Agency, Formas– Swedish Research Council for Sustainable
Development, Swedish Energy Agency, the Forestry Commissioners for the UK, the Department
of Agriculture, Food and the Marine for Ireland, the Ministry of the Environment for Finland, the
Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture through the Agency for Renewable Resources for
Germany, the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for Spain, the Ministry of
Education, Science and Sport for Slovenia. Forest Value has received funding from the European
Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement N° 773324.

The authors would like to thank Mr. Paul Hogan from Hegarty Demolition (InFutUReWood Irish
industrial partner), and demolition and waste management companies from Ireland and Spain for
kindly supplying information.

References

EPA (2018) Waste Classification. List of Waste & Determining if Waste is Hazardous or Non-
hazardous. Environmental Protection Agency. 52
p.https://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/waste/stats/wasteclassification/ (Accessed 17.03.2020)
Hafner A, Ott S, Winter S (2014) Recycling and End-of-Life Scenarios for Timber Structures. In
the book: Materials and Joints in Timber Structures, RILEM Bookseries 9, 89-98
InFutUReWood European Project website https://www.infuturewood.info/(Accessed
15.05.2020)
Irle M, Privat F, Deroubaix G, Belloncle C (2015) Intelligent recycling of solid wood. Pro Ligno
11(4):14-20
Irle M, Privat F, Couret L, Deroubaix G, Belloncle C, Déroubaix G, Bonnin E, Cathala
B (2019) Advanced recycling of post-consumer solid wood and MDF, Wood Mater
SciEng14(1):19-23
Official Journal of the European Union (2018) Commission notice on technical guidance on the
classification of waste 2018/C 124/01. Published 9.4.2018. 134 p.
PAS 111 (2012) Specifications for the requirements and test methods for processing waste wood
(BSI). 32 p.
Perchard E (2017) Waste wood classification change could be “catastrophic” for UK recycling.
https://resource.co/article/waste-wood-classification-change-could-be-catastrophic-uk-
recycling-12072 (Accessed 17.03.2020)
Rose CM, Bergsagel D, Dufresne T, Unubreme E, Lyu T, Duffour P, Stegemann JA (2018)
Cross-Laminated Secondary Timber: Experimental testing and modelling the effect of
defects and reduced feedstock properties. Suistanability 10(11):4118
Sirkin T, Houten M ten (1994) The cascade chain. A theory and tool for achieving resource
sustainability with applications for product design. Resour Conserv Recy 10(3):213-276

Biography

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Connection Ductility Demand for Different Ductility Levels

in Capacity Design of Multi-Storey CLT Buildings
Igor Gavric1* – Iztok Sustersic2 – Mislav Stepinac3

1 InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia * Corresponding author;

[email protected]
2 InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia
[email protected]
3 University of Zagreb, Croatia
[email protected]

Abstract

Key words: cross-laminated timber, ductility, capacity design, shear walls, seismic design

Current European building codes Eurocode 8 provide no information on the ductile behaviour and
failure mechanisms of cross-laminated timber (CLT) structures. Structural ductility is a key
property to ensure good seismic behavior of buildings, as it allows yielding of dissipative zones
along the building height which consequently reduces the seismic actions in comparison to a case
of a brittle non-dissipative structure where little or no reduction of seismic actions is present. The
development of a ductile global failure mechanism must be ensured by identifying the ductile
connections in a suitable location within the structure and designing all the remaining connections
and structural elements with sufficient overstrength in order to achieve plasticization in the ductile
elements.
This study investigates the ductility demand for CLT connections in capacity design of multi-
storey CLT buildings for different ductility levels. To make the capacity design fully applicable
for a new structural system, information and understanding of ductile failure mechanisms of this
system is necessary along with the values of overstrength factors and a suitable calculation
procedure which considers the capacity design principles.
Non-linear static (pushover) analyses are performed on CLT walls numerical models, with prior
application of capacity design method, calibrated based on experimental data on CLT metal
connections (hold-downs, angle brackets) and CLT screwed connections. To ensure sufficient
deformation capacity of ductile components, variables that influence CLT walls stiffness, strength
and ductility are considered in parametric analyses: wall geometry (aspect ratio), monolithic walls
vs. segmented (coupled) walls, position of connections, type and number of connections, vertical
load on CLT wall panels. Failure mechanisms are studied together with global ductility levels
based on different local ductility levels of dissipative connections.

Biography

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Environmental Impacts and Carbon Offset of Mass Timber Construction – A

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment Study

Marilia Hellmeister1
[email protected]
Stephen Shaler
[email protected]
Hongmei Gu2
[email protected]
Shaobo Liang2
[email protected]
1 University of Maine, USA
2USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, USA
Abstract
Anthropic actions greatly increased the normal levels of carbon in the atmosphere which had never been higher since the
industrial revolution (Joshi et al. 2011). High levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere produce impacts such as greenhouse
effect, land surface air temperature increase, biodiversity loss and food security (IPCC 2019). To maintain and adapt to the
current and foreseeable climate changes, it is necessary to identify the responsible sectors to prepare and address mitigation
measures in order to reduce carbon emission levels.

According to the Global Alliances for Buildings and Construction 2018 report, buildings construction and operations are
accounted for over a third of the global final energy use and almost 40% of energy‐related carbon emissions. It is important to
state that we are considering “carbon emission” as all global warming responsible gases, and not only carbon dioxide. Being the
largest contributor to the shares of energy and emissions, the building sector has the potential to lead the transition towards a
more sustainable future. Choosing wood as the primary structural material over the conventional steel and concrete system
conceptualizes the so-called mass timber construction process (Kremer & Symmons 2015). Wood buildings are the best option to
substitute fossil fuel-dependent materials because it is a renewable-based material, it does not only sequester carbon while
growing, it also stores the sequestered carbon for the whole life cycle of the building and in the case of repurposing or reusing a
wood product warrants longer life spam, storing the carbon for more years ahead.

A study by Colorado School of Mines have found evidence that CLT buildings can be more energy efficient in regions where
more heating is required for user comfort, therefore the U.S northeast region presents a great potential to lead the demand for new
mass timber buildings in the nation(Khavari et al. 2016). In addition to the climate advantage, the region is also favored regarding
its proximity to large urban and industrial centers due to the geographical position and logistic flow modalities (Duveneck et al.
2017, Thompson et al. 2013) and has great forest regeneration potential especially in the “New England” region, composed by
the six following states: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

The goal of the present report is to determine if mass timber buildings can reduce carbon emissions over their entire life cycle
when compared with steel and concrete structural system. The impacts will be measured in terms of embodied carbon quantified
as Global Warming Potential [kg CO2 eq] using the Life Cycle Assessment open-source software ATHENA® Impact Estimator
for Buildings (IE4B). This project it provides scientific data to support the choice of sustainable and renewable building materials
that can reduce carbon emissions, operational energy expenditure and consequently mitigate climate change. The increasing use
of mass timber buildings will result in a growing demand for timber products, fostering the growth of regional markets and
consequently promoting economic, social and environmental development, when responsibly managed.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

VOC Emission Optimized Cross Laminated Timber

Marko Kovacevic, Wood K Plus, Austria

[email protected]

Abstract
Cross laminated timber (CLT) is one of the most popular engineered wood products. The main species
used for this product is spruce. To respond to the strongly increasing demand of CLT, it will become
necessary to also investigate additional raw material resources for its production. Pine – having in
mind its availability, mechanical properties and ability to grow even in regions with poor growth
conditions – could offer a high potential to serve as a new material for CLT in the future.

The first phase of the study comprises the characterization and quantitative evaluation of VOC
emissions from spruce and pine in order to draw conclusions about the variability of VOC emissions. A
comparison of kiln-dried and green wood provided a sound basis for further investigations.
Furthermore, different CLT variants were tested in order to compare their emission levels.

The second phase covers the optimization of the CLT manufacturing process regarding VOC emissions.
Based on findings from the first phase, process parameters such as drying and gluing, as well as
storage time were modified.

In the final project phase, long-term tests in model rooms constructed of different types of CLT are
being carried out, enabling evaluate the influence of various building materials regarding indoor air
quality in reality-close scenarios.

Results showed a significant influence of drying temperature and drying time on VOC-emission from
pine. Additionally, the gluing step in CLT production as well as a combination of wood species (pine,
spruce) used, resulted in a considerable VOC-reduction in the final product.

Biography

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What is the Best Timber for Construction? Available Forest Resources,

Mechanical Efficiency, Carbon Storage

Jean-Michel Leban, INRAE, France

[email protected]
Gilles Duchanois, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Nancy, France
[email protected]
Jean-Denis Lanvin, FCBA, France
[email protected]

Abstract
The wooden products are used since centuries by human being for construction purposes. During the last decades grading rules
have been established in order to sort the timber on the basis of estimates of its structural properties such as the modulus of
rupture and the modulus of elasticity. For softwoods that are commonly used for construction, these estimates or proxies are the
wood density, the knot size and the ring width. The timber structural properties are known to vary with these proxies. For
instance, the modulus of elasticity of Norway spruce wood can vary from 4000 Mpa until 20000 Mpa when wood density varies
from 300 kg/m3 up to 550 kg/m3. Similar ratio of variation can be observed for the modulus of rupture.

Therefore, when architects and engineers are dimensioning wooden structures they need to define the geometry of the wooden
structure, identify the levels of loads to be supported and, given a grading class of wood properties, they compute the sections of
the different timber sections to be used for building the wooden structure. More recently there is an increasing interest of both (i)
increasing the use of wood in the construction sector and (ii) maximize the amount of carbon stored in the wooden buildings,
knowing that the carbon content of wood is 50% of the dry mass. In this context the question that arises is: what are the timber
mechanical properties that (i) minimizes the amount of carbon removed from the forests stands when harvesting the trees for
producing timber, (ii) maximize the amount of carbon stored into a wooden structure, and of course (iii) fulfils the mechanical
constructions codes.

For answering these questions we will consider wooden roof trusses built with Norway spruce by comparing two contrasted
solutions, the first being the use of fast growing trees with low wood density and low mechanical properties, i.e. with higher
timber sections (trees from plantations with rotation age of 30 years), the second being the use of high wood density timber from
slow growing trees and high mechanical properties, i.e. with lower timber sections (trees from plantations with rotation age of 60
years). Considering the whole forestry wood chain by the mean of models from the tree growth until the wooden roof trusses will
permit to better quantify the best mechanical range of properties that minimize the amount of carbon removed from the forests
and maximize the carbon storage in the construction sector.

References

Leban, J. M., & Haines, D. W. (1999). The modulus of elasticity of hybrid larch predicted by density, rings per centimeter, and
age. Wood and Fiber Science, 31, 394–402.

Ramage, M. H., Burridge, H., Busse-wicher, M., Fereday, G., Reynolds, T., Shah, D. U., Scherman, O. (2017). The wood from
the trees : The use of timber in construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 68(October 2016), 333–359.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.107

Biography

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Comparative Assessment of Energy Efficiency and Environmental Impact

between Bamboo and Polyvinyl Chloride-based Packing in Cooling Towers

Xinxin Ma
Dept of Biomaterials, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan China
[email protected]

Abstract
Bamboo can be used to perfectly replace for many traditional construction materials owning to its
numerous physical, mechanical and environmental advantages. The increased environmental concerns
in the world has caused high demand for different bamboo products. In this study, the bamboo-based
packing were utilized to replace traditional polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-based packing in cooling towers.
The cooling capacity, energy efficiency and environmental impact of bamboo packing were evaluated.
The energy efficiency and environmental impact of bamboo packing were studied and compared with
the PVC packing through life cycle assessment (LCA) in terms of the cumulative energy demand (CED)
and the technology of Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES). The results
showed that the thermal performance of the PVC packing was better than that of the bamboo grid
packing. The resistance characteristic of the bamboo grid packing was better than that of the PVC
packing. In a real thermal power generation practice (Dongfeng Motor Thermal Power Plant in Hubei,
China), the total saving of standard coal was about 540t in six months after using the bamboo grid
packing. The LCA results indicated that the utilization of bamboo-based packing to replace PVC
packing in cooling towers reduced total CED from 3420 MJ to 561 MJ per functional unit, counting a
reduction of 6.10 times. The major environmental impacts (BEES indices), i.e., the total Global
warming potential, Acidification, HH-cancer, HH-noncancer, HH criteria air pollutants, Eutrophication
and Smog, were reduced by 1.48-10.52 times.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Monitoring Mass Timber Buildings: A Case Study of the InnoRenew CoE

Building

Eva Prelovšek Niemelä1

[email protected] AArne N
Aarne Niemelä1
[email protected]
Andreja Kutnar2
[email protected]
Anna Sandak2
[email protected]
Jan Vcelak3
[email protected]
Jakub Sandak2
[email protected]
Iztok Sustersic2
[email protected]

1 Innorenew CoE
2InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska
3 Innorenew CoE & Czech Technical University in Prague, UCEEB

Abstract
The increased demand for mass timber and the increased use of timber in facades has led to new
innovative solutions and applications in architecture. The new InnoRenew CoE building applies some of
these innovations. To verify how timber structures and exposed timber surfaces behave in the long
term, it is necessary to collect long-term data in-situ. The institute’s buildings (8,200 m2) that are
currently under construction in Izola, Slovenia, will consist of a hybrid of timber, concrete, and steel
structure. The upper part of the complex (1st-3rd floors) will be completely made of mass timber,
mainly Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). The building will be equipped with an expansive monitoring
system during and after construction. The main goal of monitoring is to provide insight into timber
performance and ageing in the long term. This will allow comparing the actual behaviour to
mathematical models and will facilitate improved construction with wood in the future.

The building is designed with different materials on each façade (stone, plaster, wooden ventilated
façade, wooden lamellas), and with various separated volumes and architectural shapes (arcades,
covered balconies, small atriums) that will create diverse microclimatic conditions. The diversity of
architecture makes it possible to assess a wide range of parameters that influence the long-term
appearance and performance of the measured façades. These parameters are temperature, relative
humidity, illumination, wind speed, and dust (particulate matter). Additional monitored parameters
include the hygrothermal attributes of several façade layers (stone and wooden façade) on mass
timber walls and of roof layers (balconies, green roof) on mass timber roof structures.

A prototype sensor for determining the ageing dynamics of a building’s exterior elements and its
facade will be installed in various locations. The sensor allows detailed monitoring microclimate
affecting materials in different positions on and in the building, including all exposure sides and
different shading configurations. The collected data will be used to improve dose-response models for

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the determination of appearance changes along the building’s service-life. The same data will be used
to validate Finite Element (FE) simulation tools used for the building’s design. The appearance of the
building will be continuously monitored by high-resolution colour and thermal vision cameras installed
in selected spots around the building.

Structural monitoring of the building will be performed with accelerometers at the roof level, in the
middle of the largest plate spans, with LVDTs at the corner and middle of selected CLT walls and at
selected support points. Global and local vibrations of the building will be evaluated in terms of seismic
safety and the wind serviceability evaluation of mass timber buildings.

Keywords: sustainable architecture, mass timber buildings, CLT, structural monitoring, hygrothermal
monitoring, timber façade, microclimate

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the European Commission for funding InnoRenew CoE (grant agreement
#739574), under the H2020 Widespread-Teaming programme and Republic of Slovenia (investment
funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European Union’s European Regional Development Fund).

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The case for mass timber tall buildings using a net zero carbon
framework

Azzeddine Oudjehane
SAIT – Southern Alberta Institute of Technology
[email protected]

Abstract
The recent introduction of CLT - cross laminated timber in North America has been
followed by a surge in projects for tall wood mass buildings. Hence, wood mass timber
construction in North America is expected to grow with the recent surge in the
manufacturing of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) accompanied with changes to the
International Building Code.
In North America, the use of wood products has up until recently been limited to mid-
rise residential construction using wood frame construction. Mass timber on the other
hand has the potential to become the core structure for almost every type of building,
across all industry segments commercial buildings in particular.
This presentation will focus on a construction project management approach to using
CLT. A 10 storey building design is considered and a 3D model is designed with two
alternatives for the superstructure: reinforced concrete and CLT. Several impact
analyses for energy consumption, cost, life cycle analysis and carbon impact of both
alternatives are developed, and a value management approach is used to benchmark
the two designs. The following learning objectives will be addressed
Identify the trends for global mass timber construction
• Define the net zero carbon framework
• Review the construction methodology for tall wood mass buildings
• Identify the energy, cost and environmental impacts for a 10 storey mass timber
building

Introduction
As climate change continues to grow in prominence, the carbon impact of buildings is
increasingly becoming part of a global strategy to reduce the overall GHG emissions
from the built environment. Indeed, emissions from buildings account for 30 to 40
percent of global carbon and GHG emissions.
Whilst much of the focus has primarily been around operational energy in the built
environment,
there is a growing emphasis on the significant impacts of embodied carbon – the
emissions associated with earlier building life cycle stages, such as manufacturing and
construction.
Hence, increasing numbers of countries, cities and organizations committing to carbon
neutrality by mid-century, zero carbon buildings are finally getting the attention they
deserve as a critical solution to climate change. From an innovation in construction
perspective, the Zero-carbon building (ZCB) framework is also regarded as an

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innovative and important approach to reducing both carbon emissions and energy
consumption.
Another trendy innovative construction approach has encompassed an increasing
interest for modular construction of tall buildings using mass timber.
Hence, the past 10 years have seen numerous construction projects use mass timber
engineered wood products to erect tall buildings 10 storey and up. Modern tall wood
buildings are the result of the convergence of three key drivers:
• Environmental pressure to use sustainable building materials
• Tight tolerance, high-quality, low site-impact construction
• Prefabrication and short duration construction cycles
In Canada, several provinces have moved to allow for mass timber high rises up to 12
storeys. The up coming national building code changes that will come into effect in
2020, allowing for the construction of taller wood buildings up to 12 storeys an increase
from the current height limit across Canada for wood buildings to 6 storeys.
Market expansion for the use of CLT in the construction of high rises, i.e. 10 storey and
higher, is also dependant on changes to building regulations, standards and codes.
However, most studies concur that the concern and issue revolved less about CLT’s
structural performance and more about its perceived flammability. Hence, to set fire
safety requirements and allowable heights, areas and number of stroreys for tall mass
timber buildings, the newly proposed building code to be included in the 2021 edition of
the International Building Code identified three new types of construction (Wood
Business 2018)
• Type IV-A: Maximum 18 stories, with gypsum wallboard on all mass timber
elements.
• Type IV-B: Maximum 12 stories, with a limited area of exposed mass timber walls
and ceilings allowed.
• Type IV-C: Maximum nine stories, with all exposed mass timber designed for
two- hour fire resistance.
All of the above building types of construction are essentially driven by ensuring the fire
rating of the building is maintained, despite the fact that CLT has a strong fire resistance
through charring. Indeed pending on the panel thickness, CLT can be manufactured
with fire resistance up to 90minutes (GreenSpec.com 2018) whilst the race to build
wood mass buildings taller continues as Norway hosts the tallest 18-storey wood mass
building in the world at 85.4 meters (Construction Canada 2019).
To use a value engineering process for the design and construction of any project, the
consideration of alternatives often compares wood and concrete for the building
materials.
A case study (Mallo 2016) evaluated the economic performance of various construction
systems, for a 40,000 square feet performing arts building. The study illustrated that in
terms of cost of material, labour and speed of construction, a CLT walls and roof with
glulam beams and wood frame system would cost up to 20% less per square foot when
compared to the building system option of concrete walls, roof and light steel frame
steel. Construction time for CLT systems was also estimated to last up 4 months
shorter.
As mass timber is found to nearly offset all upfront embodied carbon in the building,
making the case for mass timber tall buildings with a zero carbon framework as outlined

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in this shirt paper subscribes to the foundations of value analysis principles without the
function analysis of a 10-storey building. A benchmark comparison of the alternative
designs for a 10-storey building with concrete and a full CLT is conducted in order to
evaluate the benefits of CLT from the perspective of construction project management.

What is Zero Carbon Building?

The Canada Green Building Council CaGBC defines a zero-carbon building as: “a
highly energy efficient building that produces onsite, or procures, carbon-free renewable
energy or high-quality carbon offsets to offset the annual carbon emissions associated
with building materials and operations.” Zero carbon buildings represent the industry’s
best opportunity for cost-effective emissions reductions that spur innovation in design,
building materials and technology, creating jobs and business opportunities.”
From a global perspective, the International Organization for Standardisation “(ISO)
16745 framework provides a set of methods to calculate, report, communicate and
verify carbon metrics for emissions arising from the measured energy use during the
activity of an existing building. The simplicity of its approach means it is applicable at all
scales, from cities and building portfolios to individual buildings”.
Within the ZCB (zero carbon building) framework, the measurement of the building’s
actual impact is measured by 3 factors related to CO emissions: embodied carbon,
operation carbon and offset carbon.
Hence:
• Embodied carbon of buildings refers to the GHG emissions associated with the
manufacturing, maintenance, and decommissioning of a structure. It is directly
associated with the building materials.
• Operational carbon of buildings is the carbon load created by the use of energy to heat,
cool and power a building
• Offset carbon is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse
gases made in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere

The first component of the Zero Carbon Balance is the quantification of the embodied
carbon, which is the emissions from the manufacturing, transport, installation, use, and
end of life of building materials.
Embodied carbon emissions represent approximately 11 per cent of all energy-related
carbon emissions globally. Furthermore, emissions that occur during the production and
construction phases, referred to as upfront carbon, are already released into the
atmosphere before the building is operational or the retrofit is complete. Given the
timeframe for meaningful climate action is shrinking, there is a growing awareness of
the critical importance of addressing embodied carbon.
To account for emissions through the life cycle of building materials, embodies carbon is
measured using LCA – life cycle assessments. The figure below illustrates the energy
levels required for the manufacturing of various building materials including CLT.

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Energy consumption during production

GJ/m2
Series1

0.8
0.5

CLT STEEL CONCRETE ALUMINUM

-0.5

Figure. 1. Energy consumption during production in GJ/m2

Operational carbon emissions are associated with energy use and releases of
refrigerants during regular building operations. One simple method to assess the
operational impact of a design would consider the energy model of the building.
The first element of consideration to make the case for mass timber tall buildings in this
paper will be made using a 10-storey structure for which 2 alternatives will be
considered: traditional concrete with steel and a mass timber construction system using
CLT
The Construction of mass timber tall buildings

There is currently a widespread enthusiasm for mass timber as a building material.

Around the world, designers are leveraging the strength, stability, and design flexibility
of engineered products (EWPs) such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glue
laminated timber to push beyond wood’s perceived boundaries, achieving building
heights and spans that would have once required concrete, steel, or masonry for
structural support.
In North America, the residential market for structural framing and sheathing is mainly
dominated by wood products such as dimensional lumber, plywood, OSB, defining light
wood frame construction. In Canada, up until 2015, light frame construction was limited
to mid rise buildings up to 6 storey.
Mass timber construction systems on the other hand are a complement to light wood-
frame and post-and-beam construction. As shown in Fig.2, MTC – mass timber
construction framing systems use solid wood panels as wall, floor and roof elements.

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Figure. 2. Three wood building construction systems (WW-WSP 12)

Amongst the wood products used for MTC systems, Cross laminated timber CLT is the
most recent engineered wood product to enter the construction market in Canada and
the US. Up until the construction of what was the tallest wood mass building in the
world, Brock Commons building at the University of BC (NaturallyWood 2017) , CLT
applications in Canada were limited to heavy duty platform oil rigs and some showcase
demo buildings. (NRCan 2019). According to the definition by the American Panel
Association - APA: “A CLT panel consists of several layers of kiln- dried lumber boards
stacked in alternating directions, bonded with structural adhesives, and pressed to form
a solid, straight, rectangular panel.

CLT panels consist of an odd number of layers (usually, three to seven,) and may be
sanded before shipping. While at the mill, CLT panels are cut to size, including door and
window openings, with state-of- the art CNC (Computer Numerical Controlled) routers,
capable of making complex cuts with high precision. Finished CLT pan el s are
exceptionally stiff, strong, and stable, handling load transfer on all sides.”(APA 2016).
CLT panels be produced in large sizes (up to 0.5 metres (18”) thick, 4 metres (12’) wide
and 24 metres (72’) long) into which door, window and service openings can be
machined. An odd number of layers is normally used (to decrease warping), and nails
or screws may be used for added strength. Alternatives to CLT include a variety of other
panels such as NLT – Nail laminated timber or DLT – dowel laminated timber.

Because of its strength and dimensional stability, mass timber offers a low-carbon
alternative to steel, concrete, and masonry for many applications. With a very high
strength to weight ratio particularly compared to concrete, MTC can be used in
conjunction with other wood systems such as post-and- beam, or in hybrid structures
with steel or concrete. On the other hand, mass timber is not necessarily a good
alternative to light wood-frame construction systems because dimension lumber framing
provides a compelling combination of performance and cost where permitted by code.
In fact, building types where traditionally designers typically default to forms of
construction other than light wood-frame, including offices, public/institutional buildings,
schools, and taller mixed-use occupancies, may offer greater appeal and suitability for

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mass timber than low- rise commercial or residential building. This paper however will
only address the case of a 10-storey residential building.

The 10-storey building framework

For the purpose of this case study, the following performance properties were used
(StructurLam 2017)
▪ CLT Wall panels
o Density: 485 kg/m3(SPF)
o SpecificHeat Capacity: 1.6kJ/kg K (dependent on moisture content)
o Thermal Conductivity: RSI Value: 0.84 per 100mm (K·m2/W),
o R Value: 1.2 per inch (h·ft2·°F/Btu)
To convert from (BTU*in)/(hr*ft2* ̊F) to W/(m*K) value must divide by 6.933 o (1.2/6.933)
=0.17307 per inch of thickness
o Exterior wall thermal conductivity = 0.17307*18 = 3.115 W/(m*K)
o Interior wall thermal conductivity= 0.17307*6=1.0384
▪ CLT Floors panels
o Same thickness acting as two way systems.
o Deflection integrated in long term creep factors associated with wood
o design in Canadian design standards.
The 3D design for the 10-storey building is shown below with the 2 alternatives for the
super- structure consisting of either reinforced concrete or CLT floors and walls raised
over foundations.

Figure 3. Two alternatives for design: Concrete (left) and CLT (right).

In order to undertake a benchmark study, an old existing low income housing 10-storey
building was used for this case study. One basic design was made on Autodesk REVIT
and the instance properties for materials were then altered afterwards. This allowed for
an identical building to be analyzed using the different alternatives of building materials.
Below is some basic information about which building material is used for each specific
model. Given the emphasis on the superstructure, the building envelope, cladding, the
accessories and glazing in this building were identical. Figure 3 illustrates the 2 main
alternatives discussed in this paper: one using concrete and steel frame walls; one

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using CLT over concrete foundation.In this paper, two types of superstructures of the
10-storey building will be emphasized: full CLT and concrete with steel frame interior
walls.

Cost and Energy performance comparison

Cost performance of each building alternative was estimated on the basis of quantity
take-off obtained from the REVIT 3D models.. For most material prices, an average unit
price of the material was used. Labour costs were normalized to Alberta’s average labor
rates assuming the mobilization of just 1 crane and a crew of 10 specialized trades for
CLT assembly. As a result, and despite the high premium cost of the CLT panels in
addition to transportation from the closest plant, the unit price construction costs for a

Construction Costs
($/m2)
Construction Costs ($/m2)

81

77

CLT Concrete

10-storey CLT building were ~5% lower

Figure 4. Unit price construction costs for a 10-storey building CLT vs. Concrete

Costs for the concrete building primarily because the CLT alternative did not include drywall to increase
the fire rating. The charts below illustrated the cost breakdown estimated on the basis of material take-
ooff and associated labor costs.

CLT 10-storey Concrete 10-storey

5% Labor Labor
33%
67%
95% Building Building
materials materials

Figure 5. construction costs breakdown for a 10-storey building CLT vs. Concrete

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Given the zero carbon framework considerations, a tabulation of operational energy requirements was
simulated directly from the outputs of the 3D model. An energy analysis was first performed based on the
industry standards of each materials. It is based on the quantity and area of material as estimated from
the quantity take-off. The BTU, electrical kWh, and natural gas GJ energy equivalent were calculated to
illustrate two energy sources such as gas and natural gas. Overall energy costs could also be considered
using average constant rates of 0.11$/kWh and 6.00$/GJ (ATCO 2019) to conduct a full life cycle cost
analysis. The results of the energy performance are listed below.

Building Type BTU Require Per Energy in kWh Energy in GJ

Hour
Concrete 2,067,167.49 605.85 2.19
Full CLT 1,269,818.21 372.16 1.35
Table 1. Energy performance comparison.

Energy performance was analyzed using the heating degree day (HDD) method where the demand for
energy needed to heat a building incorporates the heating degree days, based on Calgary data, the
seasonal efficiency of the fuel, heat combustion value and approximate cost of the energy.

In addition to the above calculation solely based on material performances, an energy model of the
building design of the 2 alternatives was performed against a NetZero energy benchmarking. The results
are shown below. It is to be noted however, that the building design did not include any electrical and
mechanical systems.The 2 alternatives used the same type of building envelope and exterior cladding
and the EUI is simulated for heating and cooling the building for a Calgary based location.

Figure 6. Energy use intensity simulation of the 2 alternatives of the 10-storey building

The benchmark comparison of two alternatives for a 10-storey building using concrete
and CLT has indicated limited differences in terms of impacts of cost and energy
performances. Nevertheless, we believe that CLT provides slightly more flexibility in
terms or energy requirements and thereby a lesser carbon footprint when it comes
down to construction.

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Conclusion

Despite some limitations, the case study presented in this paper may indicates the
followings:
▪ The construction of a 10-storey tall wood mass building using CLT is more
economical than a traditional concrete with steel construction method of
construction
▪ The EUI of the superstructure of a CLT 10-storey building for a northern
hemisphere climate zone such as Calgary Alberta on average indicate a similar
energy performance to concrete 10 storey building. However, the heating degree
day HDD Method clearly favours CLT as a building material with nearly 50%
lower energy requirements.

From a Construction Project Management perspective and a value analysis requirement

for decision making, a life cycle analysis for embodied energy as well as a life cycle cost
analysis may differentiate more the 2 alternatives.

Within the ZCB framework towards environmental impacts, operation carbon that would
result from the EUI would indicate the same carbon impact for both alternatives to the
10-storey building. In addition to converting the EUI into carbon impacts, a building LCA
life cycle analysis to measure the embodied carbon would make the case for using CLT
and MTC as a carbin sink.

Acknowledgments
This project has been supported by an Applied Research Fund grant -ARF 2017-03,
from Applied Research Industry Services at the Southern Alberta Institute of
Technology.
This study is now part of an ERASMU KnoWood project on “mass timber sustainable
design and construction”.

References

APA, 2016, CLT Form No S500, retrieved February 28 2019 from from
https://www.apawood.org/cross-laminated-timber

ATCO Energy 2019, Fuel comparison fact card, retrieved from

http://www.atcoenergysense.com/Documents/Fuel_Comparison_Fact_Card_2015_web
_final.pdf

Barnes. S, 2019, Code Changes Pave Way for CLT in Tall Buildings and Spark
Flammability Debate, in CE Construction Executive, March 4 2019,

Construction Canada, 2019, B.C. first to allow 12-storey tall wood buildings, retrieved
from https://www.constructioncanada.net/b-c-first-to-allow-12-storey-tall-wood-buildings/

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Churkina G, et al, 2020, Buildings as a carbon sink, in Nature Sustainability, 3, pages

269–276 (2020)

Dezeen, 2019; Mijostarnet becomes world’s tallest timber toeer, retrieved from
https://www.dezeen.com/2019/03/19/mjostarne-worlds-tallest-timber-tower-voll-
arkitekter-norway/

GreenSpec.com, 2018, Crosslam timber / CLT- Fire resistance and rating, retrieved
from http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-timber-fire-resistance-and-
rating/

Ibn- Mohammed, et al., 2013,, Operational vs. embodied emissions in buildings—A

review of current trends, in Energyand Buildings Volume 66, November 2013, Pages
232-245

Mallo M and Espinoza O, 2016, Cross Laminated Timber VS. Concrete/Steel: Cost
comparison using a case study, WCTE 2016, World Conference on Timber
Engineering, August 2016 Vienna,

Naturally Wood 2017, Brock commons Time lapse, UBC Tall wood building, retrieved
from https://youtu.be/GHtdnY_gnmE

Natural Resources Canada 2019, Cross-Laminated Timber, retrieved from

https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/industry/products-applications/15829

StructurLam 2017, CLT Design guide, retrieved from http://www.structurlam.com/wp-

content/uploads/2017/04/CLT-US-Design-Guide-Sept-2015.pdf

The B1M, 2019, The world’s tallest timber buildings, retrieved from
https://youtu.be/v3JqSsc8ZKk

Tranchard S., 2017, Measuring the carbon footprint of buildings in a simple way,
ISO.org
Wei Pan and Nin Y., 2015, A socio-technical framework of zero-carbon building policies,
in Building Research, Volume 43, 2015 - Issue 1: Net-zero and net-positive design

WoodBusiness 2018, Tall mass timber code change approved, retrieved from
https://www.woodbusiness.ca/tall-mass-timber-code-changes-approved-5408/

WW-WSP-12 , 2019, Tall Wood Buildings and the 2021 IBC: Up to 18 Stories of Mass
Timber © 2019 WoodWorks

Biography

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Regenerative wooden buildings in Europe: comparing Spain to other

countries

A. Quintana1, Erwin M. Schau2, Eva Prelovšek Niemelä2, Michael D. Burnard2,3

1 Center for Physics Technologies (CTFAMA), Universitat Politècnica de València,
Spain
2 InnoRenew CoE, Livade 6, 6310-Izola, Slovenia
3 University of Primorska, Andrej Marušič Institute, Muzejski trg 2, 6000-Koper,
Slovenia
Abstract
Climate change is currently one of the biggest threats to humanity. Buildings generate around 40% of
the total carbon emissions in the world, considering contributions from the production process of the
materials, the construction of the building, and its operational phase. Besides carbon emissions, the
building sector is also responsible for many other environmental impacts such as land transformation
and waste generation. It is therefore urgent to carefully analyze those impacts, to determine how to
optimize them while considering the local situation of the building. For this study, a wooden single-
family model house was compared in different locations in Europe using Life Cycle Assessment. The
main purpose is to analyze how the impacts over the entire life cycle of the house vary depending on
the location. Initial results indicated that heating was the major impact source (air, water) in cool
climates, as expected. In warmer climates, heating water was the most significant impact. Based on
these initial findings, additional steps to reduce the buildings impacts were considered and compared
using local alternative renewable materials in Valencia, Spain and Portorož, Slovenia as they have
reasonably comparable climates. For the Spanish context, a compressed rice-straw and wood
structural panel system was considered as an alternative to light wood framing, and in Slovenia, the
rock-wool insulation materials were exchanged for wood-fiber insulation, while the light wood frame
was kept. The results demonstrate the advantages of optimization with local materials but highlight
the difficulties of using limited resources as a widespread solution. Nonetheless, local alternative
materials often have other environmental impacts and support a more circular economy.

Acknowledgements

Authors EMS, EPN, and MDB gratefully acknowledge the European Commission for funding InnoRenew
CoE (grant agreement #739574), under the H2020 Widespread-Teaming programme and Republic of
Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European Union’s European Regional
Development Fund). Author AQG was supported in part by a STSM grant from COST Action CA16114 -
RESTORE.

Biography

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ClickDesign project approach to model aesthetic performance of buildings

Jakub Sandak1
[email protected]
Anna Sandak1
[email protected]
Lone ross Gobakken2
[email protected]

1InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

2 Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Norway

Abstract
Today’s bio-based building materials, even if well-characterized from the technical point of view, are
often lacking reliable models describing their aesthetical performance during service life. Appearance
changes of materials are related to several deterioration processes, caused by biotic and abiotic
factors. The kinetic and/or intensity of such changes is varying due to structure, location,
microclimate, architectural design and the materials used for construction. The goal of this research is
to characterize and model selected aesthetical aspects of building materials, combined with a
numerical simulation of its visual changes as a function of deterioration processes. A novel method for
fusion of multi-sensor data (including color, texture, gloss, roughness) into a single indicator
expressing “satisfaction with appearance” or customer perception is recently tested in a frame of
CLICKdesign (Delivering fingertip knowledge to enable service life performance specification of wood)
project. It will allow the design of procedures for the definition of the limit states (aesthetical and
functional), as well as optimal scheduling of maintenance and/or replacement actions. The tool,
dedicated to investors, architects, construction engineers, professional builders, suppliers and other
relevant parties, including final customers will be validated and integrated with BIM software.

Acknowledgments: Project CLICKdesign is supported under the umbrella of ERA-NET Cofund

ForestValue by the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (MIZS) - Slovenia; The Ministry of the
Environment (YM) - Finland; The Forestry Commissioners (FC) - UK; Research Council of Norway
(RCN) -Norway; The French Environment & Energy Management Agency (ADEME) and The French
National Research Agency (ANR) - France; The Swedish Research Council for Environment,
Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (FORMAS), Swedish Energy Agency (SWEA), Swedish
Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (Vinnova) - Sweden; Federal Ministry of Food and
Agriculture (BMEL) and Agency for Renewable Resources (FNR) - Germany. ForestValue has received
funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant
agreement N° 773324.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the European Commission for funding the InnoRenew project
[Grant Agreement # 739574] under the Horizon 2020 Widespread-Teaming program and the Republic
of Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

PARAMETERS TO MINIMIZE THE ENVIRONMENTAL

FOOTPRINT OF WOOD AND ENGINEERED WOOD
PRODUCTS

Erwin M. Schau*
Researcher (PhD)
InnoRenew Centre of Excellence (CoE), Izola - Isola (Slovenia)
* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Reducing the environmental impacts of products and activities becomes more and more important
as the world’s population grows and limits of the earth’s carrying capacity are closing in or already
exceeded. Wood and engineered wood products, coming from a natural source, are generally seen
as more environmentally sound than alternative products and materials. However, to keep up with
the general development of environmental efficiency (i.e., less environmental impact per produced
unit), wood and engineered wood products should also improve their environmental footprint. In
this contribution, the standardized method of life cycle assessment is used to investigate a range
of wood and wood products with a focus on building materials, like glued-laminated timber
(glulam) and oriented strand boards. Where data permits, the Environmental Footprint indicators
as recommended by the European Union, are applied. The results are used to highlight fields of
improvement and strategies for an even lower environmental profile for wood materials and
products and could be of interest for producers as well as purchasers and users of materials and
products based on wood materials. By combining all strategies, a reduction of the overall
environmental footprint by up to ca 60 % was achieved.

Key words: environmental impact, engineered wood products, optimization, oriented strand board
(OSB), glued-laminated timber (glulam)

Introduction

Wood products have been used for centuries, have a natural origin and are generally seen as an
environmentally sound material (Obućina et al, 2017). However, as the world’s population grows
(United Nations, 2019), so does also the use of materials and products and their accompanying
environmental impact (Crippa, 2019). The carrying capacity of our one and only world is limited;
therefore, environmental efficiency (i.e., less environmental impact per produced unit) strategies
are needed to cope with larger demand from a growing world population. This is also valid for
wood products, especially in the building sector where engineered wood products could play a
significant role as the core for high rise mass timbered buildings (Ramage et al. 2017). As
competing products to wood, like concrete, steel and glass, are not sleeping but working to

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continuously improve the environmental footprint of their product, so should the wood industry in
order to not be left behind.

This contribution applies the standardized method of life cycle assessment (LCA) (ISO14040/44
(2012), cradle-to-gate, to investigate a range of wood and wood products with a focus on building
materials like glued-laminated timber (gluelam) and oriented strand boards (OSB). Where data
permits, 13 different Environmental Footprint (EF) indicators, as recommended by the European
Union (2020), are applied. The results are used to highlight fields of improvement and strategies
for an even lower environmental profile for wood materials and products that could be of interest
for producers as well as purchasers and users of materials and products based on wood materials.

Materials and Methods

EcoInvent database v 3.5 (Ecoinvent, 2018), as implemented in the LCA software SimaPro v 9.0
(Pré Consultants 2019), is used for this analysis. This database includes a range of different life
cycle inventories for building materials and wood products. The cut-off system modelling and
global (or rest of the world) geographical data has been used as a reference. The cradle-to-gate
system boundary, including forestry operations, transport and manufacturing, has been chosen. For
the life cycle impact assessment, the EU Environmental Footprint indicators are applied, except
the toxicology impact categories, which are replaced by newer ones not yet implemented in the
software used.

The starting point for different strategies (or parameters) of influence has been chosen with the
background that the production itself is to a large extent already optimized. This might be more or
less the case. Then, environmental impact reducing potential also outside the direct control of the
producing company, but still under some control (for example, buying decisions), has been
investigated. Seven strategies to reduce the environmental footprint of OSB and glulam products
are investigated. These are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Description of strategies reported

Strategy
No. Name Description
1 Reduce the amount of glue Resins are reduced by 20 % (amount, but
(low glue) similar effect if the environmental impact of
the resin is reduced by 20 %)
2 Modal shift to train Transport by ship and heavy-duty vehicle is
performed by train (200 km) instead
3 Local supply of wood raw The production site is located near the wood
material source, such that local sourcing (50 km
lorry) is possible
4 Clean electricity All electricity is coming from renewable
sources (100 % waterpower from river)

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5 Biomass heat only (not glulam) Fossil energy sources (natural

gas and oil) for heat production is replaced
with biomass (wood chips)
6 Reduced wood input Wood need is reduced by 10 % (amount, but
same effect if the environmental impact of
the wood raw material is reduced by 10 %)
7 Combined Combination of several strategies (see
above; Glulam: no. 1,3,4 and 6; OSB: no.
1,3-6)

No. 5, Biomass heat only, is applied only in the OSB case, as heat from biomass is already
implemented in glulam reference production. The different strategies are combined in no. 7, with
the exception of no. 2, Modal shift to train, as this is not realistic for local (50 km) supply of wood
(where no. 3 is applied to reduce the impact from transport of raw materials).

Results and Discussion

Results are presented in Figure 1 (glulam) and Figure 2 (OSB) and show the reduction for each
strategy adjusted for each of the investigated environmental footprint impact categories (measured
in percentage). The characterized results are reported in Annex I and II for better transparency.
The results show that the combined strategy, as expected, leads to the highest reduction, up to 60
% for climate change (glulam). Clean electricity is a very promising single strategy for both glulam
and OSB.

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Climate change (CC)

Resource use, mineral 60%
Ozone depletion
and metals 50%
40%
Resource use, energy
30% Ionising radiation, HH
carriers
20%
10%
0%
Photochemical ozone
Water scarcity
formation, HH
-10%

Land use Respiratory inorganics

Acidification terrestrial
Eutrophication terrestrial
and freshwater
Eutrophication
Eutrophication marine
freshwater

Low Glue Modal shift to train Local supply

Clean electricity Wood reduction Combined

Figure 1. Reduction potentials for different strategies in relation to no action-reference for glued-laminated timber
(glulam), depicted for different environmental impacts.

Investigated strategies optimization for glulam lead to a reduction of 0 % for low glue in the land
use impact indicator and up to 50 % for clean electricity in the eutrophication freshwater impact
category, followed by 45 % in climate change and ionizing radiation impact categories. The
respiratory inorganics impact category is difficult to reduce; in total for the combined strategy,
only 10 % reduction is achieved.

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Climate change
Resource use, mineral 60%
Ozone depletion
and metals 50%
Resource use, energy 40% Ionising radiation,
30%
carriers Human Health (HH)
20%
10%
0%
Photochemical ozone
Water scarcity
-10% formation, HH

Land use Respiratory inorganics

Eutrophication Acidification terrestrial

terrestrial and freshwater
Eutrophication
Eutrophication marine
freshwater

Low Glue Modal shift to train Local supply

Clean electricity Biomass heat only Reduced logs input
Combined

Figure 2. Reduction potentials for different strategies in relation to no action-reference for oriented strand board
(OSB), depicted for different environmental impacts.

The results for OSB show that, overall, even with also targeting heat supply, the reduction in
environmental impact was not as large as with glulam. The exception was in the category of
respiratory inorganics, where OSB had a satisfactory reduction of 33 % for the combination
strategy, while glulam had only a 10 % reduction. The most promising strategy for OSB was a
shift to clean energy, both electricity (from waterpower) and heat (from biomass).

Strategy no. 1 Reduce the amount of glue (low glue) leads to a larger reduction of environmental
impact for OSB than for glulam. The reason for this can partially be explained by OSB’s use of
much more glue than glulam per m3, such that a 20 % reduction leads to 3.6 kg reduction in glue
for OSB but “only” 2.3 kg of glue for glulam.

No. 2, modal shift from heavy-duty vehicle to train, makes sense only for land transport and long
distances. A further reduction of the modal shift to train might be reached if all train transport is
electrified. This scenario applies the same ratio of diesel train to electric train (ca 50/50) as in the
reference situation.

Other strategies to further reduce the environmental impact of OSB and glulam are upstream in
forestry, where the building of forest roads and use of wood harvesting machines are believed to
have potential. However, this is left for future research.

Even though the percentage reduction is not directly transferable, as the amount of glue, transport
length and mode, energy source and wood by-products (cutoffs) are different, the results for OSB

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and glulam are believed to point in the same direction for other similar engineered products, like
particleboard and cross laminated timber.

Downstream, in the production of buildings and furniture, to optimize the use and reuse of
materials (minimize waste), material recycling and energy recovery strategies at end of life are
believed to be of importance for the life cycle environmental impact of engineered wood products.

The economical cost of different strategies investigated are believed to be responsible; some could
even bring a higher profit or cost savings as more environmentally sound wood products goes hand
in hand with more efficient transport and production processes and might even be higher priced in
the market. However, a financial cost analysis has not been part of this study.

Summary and Conclusions

Different strategies were applied and adjusted in order to improve the environmental profile of
engineered wood products, specifically glulam and OSB. With relatively small (e.g., 10 %
reduction of wood in production) adjustment, considerable reduction of the environmental impacts
of wood products are possible, especially if several strategies are applied and adjusted in
combination.

Shifting to clean energy (electricity for glulam and both heat and electricity for OSB) could
considerably lower environmental impacts. By combining different strategies, a total reduction of
10 – 61 % for glulam and 10 – 52 % for OSB was achieved. This shows that producers of
engineered wood products have a range of strategies available to easily further reduce the life cycle
environmental impact of their products. This should be pursued by the wood industry to ease
competition with other materials.

Similar research could be done on products from specific geographical regions, as these can be
quite different from the global reference made in this contribution. Also, further up in the value
chain (e.g. forestry) and further down the life cycle to end of life should be investigated to find
further strategies (or parameters) to optimize with the aim of reducing the overall environmental
footprint of engineered wood components and their final products.

The results presented here will be used to optimize wooden buildings, for example, to make an
environmentally optimized single-family house and compare it to the average European nearly
zero-energy building (nZEB) (Schau et al 2019).

Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges the European Commission for funding InnoRenew CoE (grant
agreement #739574), under the H2020 Widespread-Teaming programme, and Republic of
Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European Union’s European
Regional Development Fund).

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References

Crippa, M., Oreggioni, G., Guizzardi, D., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Lo Vullo, E., Solazzo, E.,
Monforti-Ferrario, F., Olivier, J.G.J., Vignati, E., Fossil CO2 and GHG emissions of all
world countries - 2019 Report Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg,
2019, ISBN 978-92-76-11100-9, doi:10.2760/687800, JRC117610.

Ecoinvent Centre, 2018, Ecoinvent Life Cycle Inventory Database, v 3.5

European Union (2020) European platform on LCA; Retrieved 27 April 2020 from
https://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/

ISO 14040. (2006). Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Principles and
framework. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.

ISO 14044. (2006). Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements and
guidelines. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.

Obućina, M., Kitek Kuzman, M., & Sandbeg, D. (2017). Use of sustainable wood building
materials in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia and Sweden. Retrieved 29 May 2020 from
http://ltu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1140697/FULLTEXT01.pdf

Pré Consultants, 2019, SimaPro Analyst, v. 9.0

Ramage, M. H., Burridge, H., Busse-Wicher, M., Fereday, G., Reynolds, T., et al. (2017). The
wood from the trees: The use of timber in construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 68(Oct. 2015), 333–359. Doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.107

Schau EM, Prelovšek Niemelä E, Niemelä AJ, Alencar Gavric TA and Iztok Šušteršič I (2019)
Life cycle assessment benchmark for wooden buildings in Europe: Single family house - nearly
zero-energy building (nZEB) in The 9th International Conference on Life Cycle Management
(LCM2019). Poznan 1-4 Sep 2019 (platform presentation)

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019): World
Population Prospect: The 2019 Revision. New York: United Nations.

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Impact category Glulam Glulam Glulam Glulam Glulam Glulam Glulam

Unit No action Low glue Modal shift Local Clean Wood Combined
(Reference) to train supply electricity reduction

Climate change kg CO2 eq 2.68E+02 2.57E+02 2.66E+02 2.49E+02 1.47E+02 2.60E+02 1.12E+02

Climate change - fossil kg CO2 eq 2.66E+02 2.55E+02 2.64E+02 2.47E+02 1.46E+02 2.57E+02 1.11E+02
Annex 1: Characterized results for glued-laminated timber (glulam)

Climate change - biogenic kg CO2 eq -1.64E+03 -1.64E+03 -1.64E+03 -1.64E+03 -1.58E+03 -1.48E+03 -1.42E+03

Climate change - biogenic, emissions kg CO2 eq 3.26E+02 3.25E+02 3.26E+02 3.25E+02 3.25E+02 3.26E+02 3.24E+02

Climate change - biogenic, uptake kg CO2 eq -1.97E+03 -1.97E+03 -1.97E+03 -1.97E+03 -1.90E+03 -1.80E+03 -1.74E+03

Climate change - land use and transform. kg CO2 eq 8.99E-01 8.95E-01 8.94E-01 8.89E-01 6.80E-01 8.40E-01 6.13E-01

150
Ozone depletion kg CFC11 eq 2.97E-05 2.80E-05 2.98E-05 2.58E-05 2.43E-05 2.83E-05 1.78E-05

Ionizing radiation, HH kBq U-235 eq 1.29E+01 1.25E+01 1.28E+01 1.17E+01 7.12E+00 1.23E+01 5.25E+00

Photochemical ozone formation, HH kg NMVOC 1.63E+00 1.60E+00 1.60E+00 1.49E+00 1.29E+00 1.57E+00 1.08E+00
eq
Respiratory inorganics disease inc. 8.38E-05 8.26E-05 8.37E-05 8.21E-05 7.86E-05 8.31E-05 7.53E-05

Acidification terrestrial and freshwater mol H+ eq 1.96E+00 1.88E+00 1.91E+00 1.81E+00 1.33E+00 1.90E+00 1.07E+00

Eutrophication freshwater kg P eq 1.34E-02 1.28E-02 1.30E-02 1.28E-02 6.68E-03 1.31E-02 5.28E-03

Eutrophication marine kg N eq 4.99E-01 4.90E-01 4.88E-01 4.54E-01 3.87E-01 4.81E-01 3.23E-01

Eutrophication terrestrial mol N eq 6.37E+00 6.14E+00 6.25E+00 5.87E+00 5.07E+00 6.17E+00 4.21E+00

Land use Pt 3.41E+05 3.41E+05 3.41E+05 3.40E+05 2.89E+05 3.10E+05 2.63E+05

Water scarcity m3 depriv. 1.29E+02 1.10E+02 1.29E+02 1.27E+02 1.11E+02 1.28E+02 8.85E+01

Resource use, energy carriers MJ 3.67E+03 3.48E+03 3.65E+03 3.39E+03 2.18E+03 3.55E+03 1.64E+03

Resource use, mineral and metals kg Sb eq 7.06E-04 6.44E-04 7.01E-04 6.53E-04 6.72E-04 6.83E-04 5.41E-04
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

OSB OSB OSB OSB OSB OSB OSB OSB

Unit No action Low glue Modal shift Local Clean Biomass Reduced Combined
Impact category
(Reference to train supply electricity heat only logs input
)
Climate change (CC) kg CO2 eq 3.82E+02 3.53E+02 3.55E+02 3.49E+02 2.86E+02 2.65E+02 3.76E+02 1.99E+02

CC - fossil kg CO2 eq 3.81E+02 3.52E+02 3.53E+02 3.47E+02 2.85E+02 2.64E+02 3.74E+02 1.98E+02

CC - biogenic kg CO2 eq -1.21E+03 -1.21E+03 -1.21E+03 -1.21E+03 -1.21E+03 -1.17E+03 -1.06E+03 -1.01E+03

CC - biogenic, emissions kg CO2 eq 3.70E+02 3.70E+02 3.70E+02 3.70E+02 3.69E+02 4.16E+02 3.70E+02 4.15E+02
Annex 2: Characterized results for oriented strand board (OSB)

CC - biogenic, uptake kg CO2 eq -1.58E+03 -1.58E+03 -1.58E+03 -1.58E+03 -1.58E+03 -1.58E+03 -1.43E+03 -1.42E+03

CC - land use and transform. kg CO2 eq 8.06E-01 7.84E-01 7.94E-01 7.81E-01 6.61E-01 6.63E-01 7.53E-01 5.66E-01

Ozone depletion kg CFC11 eq 4.85E-05 4.33E-05 4.23E-05 4.27E-05 4.49E-05 4.26E-05 4.73E-05 3.09E-05

151
Ionizing radiation, HH kBq U-235 eq 1.43E+01 1.34E+01 1.25E+01 1.23E+01 1.00E+01 1.00E+01 1.39E+01 6.91E+00

Photochemical ozone formation, kg NMVOC 2.51E+00 2.39E+00 2.34E+00 2.23E+00 2.27E+00 2.29E+00 2.45E+00 1.85E+00
HH eq
Respiratory inorganics disease inc. 2.28E-05 2.15E-05 2.04E-05 1.99E-05 1.92E-05 1.98E-05 2.23E-05 1.53E-05

Acidification terrestrial and mol H+ eq 2.59E+00 2.41E+00 2.38E+00 2.28E+00 2.11E+00 2.12E+00 2.54E+00 1.62E+00
freshwater

Eutrophication freshwater kg P eq 2.36E-02 2.16E-02 2.26E-02 2.19E-02 1.82E-02 1.84E-02 2.34E-02 1.45E-02

Eutrophication marine kg N eq 7.19E-01 6.71E-01 6.70E-01 6.32E-01 6.38E-01 6.49E-01 7.03E-01 5.06E-01

Eutrophication terrestrial mol N eq 7.24E+00 6.88E+00 6.68E+00 6.25E+00 6.30E+00 6.44E+00 7.06E+00 5.02E+00

Land use Pt 2.51E+05 2.50E+05 2.50E+05 2.50E+05 2.50E+05 2.50E+05 2.26E+05 2.25E+05

Water scarcity m3 depriv. 1.48E+02 1.32E+02 1.45E+02 1.44E+02 1.34E+02 1.34E+02 1.47E+02 1.14E+02

Biography
Resource use, energy carriers MJ 6.00E+03 5.53E+03 5.58E+03 5.54E+03 4.84E+03 4.52E+03 5.91E+03 3.54E+03

Resource use, mineral and metals kg Sb eq 1.68E-03 1.47E-03 1.58E-03 1.59E-03 1.66E-03 1.66E-03 1.66E-03 1.35E-03
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

TallWood Design Institute:

Latest Resilient Design and Seismic Engineering Research

Evan Schmidt, TallWood Design Institute, USA

Abstract
TallWood Design Institute (TDI) represents an interdisciplinary collaboration between three colleges at
two US universities and is tasked with overseeing a program of applied research aiming to
characterize and improve advanced timber products and building systems for adoption in US
construction.

Research is carried out by a network of affiliated faculty members and industry partners in the
architecture, engineering and construction communities. Areas of investigation range from
seismic/structural performance to moisture/durability, acoustic, fire, manufacturing and
human/environmental health.

In addition to highlighting key aspects of TDI's applied research program and industry testing
consortium, this presentation will outline two new interdisciplinary projects of particular interest in the
realm of resilient timber design for seismically active regions.

The first project, "Design, Construction and Maintenance of Mass Timber Post-Tensioned Shear Walls"
will characterize and validate the long-term performance of cross-laminated timber (CLT) and veneer-
based (LVL and mass plywood) post-tensioned rocking shear wall systems, in terms of anchorage
detailing, and system response to climate, moisture, dimension changes and tension loss. Additionally,
a related project engaged in construction and post-occupancy monitoring of the Oregon Forest Science
Center will be discussed in context.

The second project, "Innovative Lateral Systems for Mass Timber," will generate benchmark data
characterizing the performance of multiple innovative mass-timber shear wall systems from the scale
of connectors to full-scale building systems up to three stories tall. This work is intended to lay
groundwork for upcoming full-scale NHERI shake table tests that are part of a multi-organization
research initiative looking at seismic performance of mass timber building systems.

Biography

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Are wood and sustainability-related terms emphasized more nowadays

than 20 years ago? Corpora-based study in Czech and Slovenian languages

Vaclav Sebera, Innorenew CoE, Slovenia

[email protected]
Julija Ursic, Innorenew CoE, Slovenia
[email protected]

Abstract
It is well known that wood, despite its morphological and property complexity, is a material that
makes a great sense to be used in constructions for many reasons such as thermal and structural
benefits and sustainable aspects. If we acknowledge these facts, then one would expect that “wood”
has been pronounced (i.e. it was written and spoken about wood) with an increasing trend in last two
decades during which a call for sustainability and sustainable materials has been increasing in our
society. But is it really truth, do we really promote, speak, write and publish about wood more now
than 20 years ago? This work would like to try to answer such questions by language analysis using
linguistic tool such as Czech National Corpus that comprises about 4.5 billions of words, and Slovenian
corpus Gigafida that has about 1.8 billions of words, both containing data for nearly two last decades.
The further research questions were: who pronounce wood more, women or men?; what degree of
education is the most frequent for people who speak about wood?; what are the most frequent
collocations to word “wood”?; what kind of material people pronounce the most? In conclusion, we
would like to outline whether statistical analysis of the language can help us to understand whether
people have changed their approach to sustainability, wood and related terms in last two decades.

Biography

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Options for Climate Change Performance Indicators for Cross-laminated

Timber

Lars G.F. Tellnes, Ostfold Research , Norway

[email protected]
Kristine Nore, Splitkon AS, Norway
[email protected]
Anne R. Ronning, Ostfold Research, Norway
[email protected]

Abstract
Cross-laminated timber is a structural building material increasingly used in larger buildings substituting concrete and steel
materials. Often, climate change mitigation is a motivation and wood products have benefits from typically lower fossil fuel use,
carbon sink in the material and potential for secondary use with reuse, recycling or energy recovery. The standard EN 15804 is
commonly applied to document the environmental impacts of individual materials, but some aspects such as carbon storage and
benefits beyond life cycle often left out when comparing to other materials in practice. There has been a wide focus on such
issues in research, but the implementation of these aspects in environmental criteria applied in procurement and buildings design
guidelines are more limited. The objective of the paper is to assess different approaches to a more holistic modelling of the
climate change mitigation potential of wood products and how the aspects can be applied in industry used criteria for materials in
sustainable constructions. The study focusses on practice in Norway, while the research is linked to the international agenda.

From research, how to deal with temporary carbon storage has had a large focus within life cycle assessment (LCA) in the last 10
years. Most studies assume zero contribution as it is assumed that the carbon sequestration is equalled by the carbon released at
end-of-life. However, there has been several methods developed for time-adjusting of biogenic carbon in LCA, but these have not
been included in standards so far and seems too complicated for industrial widespread use. Outside the LCA framework, carbon
storage in products has also been increasingly focused in the national greenhouse gas inventories where it is called “Harvested
wood products” (HWP). Besides, carbon storage, wood products has the benefit after end use in potential for secondary use. In
many LCA these benefits are left out to avoid double counting, but increased focus on consequential LCA has challenged this
practice.

To make more holistic approaches to climate change mitigation potential to be applied by decisions for material choice in
buildings, there is a need for common frameworks, but there is also a potential by individual organisation to set more specific
requirements. In Norway, there has been developed a standard for greenhouse gas calculation of buildings (NS3720), so this
should be used as a framework, but there would be a need for further specification when used in green public procurement or
other green building classification schemes such as BREEAM-NOR. In public procurement, there is also possible for projects to
apply environmental cost of carbon emissions to weight the reduced climate change impact to an increased cost. These many
approaches can give quite different results, but it can be challenging to defines on approach as the right. Further research and
development should therefore focus on how these approaches can be applied in practice and facilitate the use through guidelines
and best practice case studies.

Biography

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Monday, July 13

Business, Marketing, Digitalization, and Regulations

Chairs:
Eric Hansen,Oregon State University, USA
Rob Kozak, University of British Columbia, Canada

CONTRIBUTION AND POTENTIAL OF THE WOOD INDUSTRY AND

ITS PRODUCTS TO THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY: CASE EXAMPLES
FROM THE US AND CENTRAL-SOUTHEAST EUROPE

Andreja Pirc Barčić1* – Eric Hansen2

1Assistant professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, CROATIA
[email protected]; [email protected]
2ProfessorOregon State University, College of Forestry, Oregon, USAh Scientist,
USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station, Princeton, WV, USA
[email protected]

ABSTRACT: Sharing and collaborative value-delivery models are aspects of the circular
economy. Currently, renew and repair schemes for durable, wood-based (bio-based) products, such
as furniture, are still rare. A combination of shifting consumer behaviour and rapidly-evolving
digital technologies is disrupting long-established business models across many industries and
putting increasing pressure on traditional growth models. For example, sharing and collaborative
principles applied to products and/or services will give the potential to increase product longevity,
reusability and the sharing of materials. Product sharing can also facilitate the sharing of
overcapacity or underutilization, improving the efficiency of resource use. Given that the level of
wood used in residential and public construction, interior design, and outdoor design continues to
expand, results and information conducted during this work can help in the process of
implementing sharing and collaborative economy principles in the wood-based sector. Perhaps the
hardest part will be convincing consumers/customers, but also other stakeholders to change their
use/behavior and way of thinking. An improved understanding of the sharing and collaborative
economies is therefore needed to inspire more thoughtful and appropriate responses to these
variegated realities, in terms of policy, regulation and institutional support. However, there hasn’t
been an opportunity thus far to consolidate this body of work for wood sector communities and to
collaboratively shape a future agenda on the topic. The aim of this work is to present a contribution
of the wood-based industry to the concepts of sharing and collaborative economies as components
of the circular economy based the U.S. and Central-South-Eastern European countries.
Key words: circular economy, sharing and collaborative models; wood-based products

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A THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE SHARING & COLLABORATIVE

CONCEPTS AS ASPECTS OF THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Bioeconomy and circular economy (CE) are concepts which complement each other.
Furthermore, the wood-based sector together with forest sector play a central role in a bioeconomy,
because they provide material, bioenergy and a wealth. More precisely, bio-based industries have
a long history of discussing and partly realizing cascade use of wood. On the other hand, the
circular and sharing economy concepts are related. Sharing and collaborative models are aspects
of the circular economy. Currently, renew and repair schemes for durable, wood-based (bio-based)
products, such as furniture, are rare. Their effect on material demand will in any case largely
depend on consumer response and rebound effects. One example that highlights sharing and
collaborative economy principles in the field of wood furniture comes from IKEA. IKEA has been
piloting various initiatives across its European stores to see how they can build circularity into
their offer to customers with an aim to support customers to care and repair, rent, share, bring back
and resell their IKEA products to prolong product life.
Accoridng to Sposato et al. (2017) the development of a sharing economy can bring new
opportunities in economic terms, but sharing models also are able to bring interesting
environmental advantages in terms of resource savings and avoided waste. For this reason, the
sharing economy within the wood-based sector can be considered connected to circular economy
issues. Circular economy is a term to define an economic system that foresees restorative and
regenerative mechanisms (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2012). It is representative of a broad
number of interpretations that have in common an increased efficiency of resources by minimizing
waste and resource extraction (Chertow, 2000). Its main objective is to oppose the linear economy
by closing the loops in terms of resources and materials (Sposato et. al. 2017). As the European
communication “Towards a circular economy: A zero waste programme for Europe”
(COM/2014/0398 final/2) states: “These are based on experience of successful initiatives that
could be scaled up and applied more widely, and include among others, in the consumption phase,
collaborative consumption models based on lending, swapping, bartering and renting products,
and product service systems to get more value out of underutilized assets or resources (e.g., cars,
tools, lodging)” (European Commission (EC), 2015a). What do cars, printers, clothing, and
furniture have in common? Or perhaps better, what will they have in common. Some expect that
in the future many of these products will no longer be owned. Instead, consumers will access them
via some form of renting. Sposato et al. (2017) noted results from the French Agency for
Environment and Energy Management (2014) that one third of domestic waste may turn into
potential sharing goods and the 33% of the total environmental impacts can be avoided through
collaborative economy models. A report of the study office of the European Parliament (2016)
concludes (according to results from Italian Statsitical Yearbook 2015) that more than 46% of
domestic consumption in Italy is recoverable/reusable through sharing economy models.
In the past ten years, technology has dramatically changed our lives and social media have
revolutionized the way we communicate and collaborate with each other in ways that weren’t
earlier possible (Smith et al. 2015). Nesta (2014) observed that the sharing economy has become
a popular term to describe a range of various business models, activities and organizations in order
to get a new perspective on the social, environmental, and economic value that can be created from
a number of assets and skills, in innovative ways. According to Codagnone and Martens (2016)
there is no ‘shared’ consensus on what activities comprise the ‘sharing economy’. Furthermore,
the activities and organizations that are today commonly referred to as the 'sharing economy' have
also been labelled as ‘collaborative consumption’ (Botsman, 2013; Botsman and Rogers, 2010a;

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Botsman and Rogers, 2010b). The sharing economy represents a fundamental shift in how
consumers value products. In the current commercial economy, consumers value ownership which
contributes to conspicuous consumption and waste resulting in artificially high demand for natural
resources. Collaborative consumption can mitigate these negative effects, but poor communication
and small social networks constrain the concept (Smith et al. 2015). According to Coyle (2016)
the sharing economy offers a quick and cheap way of matching supply with demand for goods and
services. The main innovation in the business model of the sharing economy lies in the
technological platforms and mobile apps which bring demand and supply together and group them
in a way which was not possible before (quicker, cheaper and on a larger scale), including in
geographical areas or services sectors where the concentration of players is lower and where new
commercial opportunities are now arising (Basselier 2018). Veleva and Bodkin (2018) noted that
according to World Economic Forum (2016) it is estimated that the circular economy will provide
an economic opportunity of over $1 trillion as well as significant social and environmental
benefits. On the other hand, according to a European Commission Report (2018a) on the
collaborative economy, the overall size of the collaborative economy in the EU-28 in 2016 is
estimated to be EUR 26.5 billion. Additionally, the collaborative economy offers about 394,000
jobs across the EU, representing about 0.15% of total EU-28 employment. The largest markets for
the collaborative economy can be found in France (25% from total collaborative EU-28 market),
UK (17%), Poland (10%) and Spain (10%). These top four countries also offered the most jobs in
the collaborative economy (approx. 74,600, 69,400, 65,400 and 39,700, respectively) in 2016. In
general, the seven largest collaborative economy markets in the EU (France, UK, Poland, Spain,
Germany, Italy and Denmark) represent about 80% of total collaborative revenues in the EU-28 in
2016.
Developments around the sharing economy are also taking place in North America. Many
platforms started originally in the United States and are beginning to have a significant impact in
many European countries. While these platforms have the technical capacity to work globally, they
often need to be adapted to local contexts and their usage differs across regions in line with local
customs and regulations. Remarkably little research has been done using a side-by-side
comparison of types of platforms (monetary, non-monetary) for different purposes (labour, spaces,
goods). From lighting-as-a-service to the rise of clothing rental, more companies are beginning to
catch on to the potential of providing products-as-a-service (PaaS) through rental, pay-per-use and
pay-per-service models for items that traditionally have been purchased outright (and usually
landfilled when no longer needed). In February 2019, the Swedish furniture company IKEA
announced a furniture leasing trial to explore "scalable subscription services" for everything from
couches to kitchens. Yet while some already have dubbed IKEA’s pilot, which will roll out only
in Sweden for now, the "Netflix of furniture," the details of access over ownership become
increasingly more complicated with physical things than with digital. Many more companies—not
just social enterprises—are including matters of sustainability in their strategic decision-making
and choose to include circular economy practices in their business models. However, many circular
economy-minded businesses have a narrow definition of what it means. For example, the report,
called Opportunity and Disruption: How Circular Thinking Could Change U.S. Business Models,
surveyed 300 U.S. based executives in companies of various sizes across four sectors—
automotive, consumer electronics/telecoms, food/agriculture and healthcare showed some
interesting figures about the circular economy. The report looked at whether U.S. companies were
including sustainability issues in their growth strategies and, as part of that, what role circular
economy goals were playing in those considerations. The study showed that managing ongoing

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product maintenance, adapting sales and distribution models and rethinking product pricing were
the three most challenging changes a company would have to make. The report also found that
62% of American companies are planning to move toward circularity and that almost twice as
many U.S. firms are embedding sustainability in strategic decision-making compared to the year
before (from 48% to 85%). In the February 2019 issie of Forbes, Van Rial notes that that there is
still work to be done to get the full benefits out of circular economic thinking, it’s all about a
comprehensive approach to transforming a company’s business model with the goal of creating
and retaining value across all processes in their organizations. That means rethinking everything
from product design to financing to recycling.
According Codagnone et al. (2016) regarding sharing there are different new business
models that are being developed: (1) P2P (Peer-to-Peer) where the exchange happens among
individuals intended as "private"; (2) B2P (Business-to-Peer), where the change happens among
companies and single consumers and consumers become now individuals linked in virtual
communities; (3) P2B (Peer-to-Business) among single consumer to companies; and (4)- B2B
(Business-to-Business) among companies themselves. Additionally, according to the EC (2016a),
there are three categories of collaborative actors: service suppliers that share goods, resources,
time and/or competencies; the users of these services; and the mediators that act through
collaborative platforms. Vaughan and Hawksworth (2014) interpret that ‘sharing economy’
concepts are seen as closely related to the ‘circular economy’ and/or the ‘collaborative economy’,
but with no clear distinction between consumption and production activities. Several core
elements of the sharing economy, such as promoting access over ownership, enabling peer-to-peer
connections, and accelerating the use of digital platforms, have the potential to foster greater
inclusivity. According to the study regarding sharing economy and business opportunities
conducted by Pluess et al. (2016), maximizing the potential of the sharing economy will depend
not only on innovation by individual businesses, but also on collaboration among companies,
policymakers, and civil society organizations;
Sharing economy platforms have experienced a meteoric rise in recent years, and are
projected to grow rapidly in the near future. The rapid growth of some of these platforms has
stirred considerable debate over application of state and local regulations to these platforms and
the suppliers who use them. For example, the Internet and social media are enabling individuals to
more easily connect and share ideas. The maker economy is creating the possibilities to create
new streams of income, both for individual artisan sellers as well as for local family-based makers
(European Commission 2015a). Digital platforms generally placed under the ‘sharing economy’
and various other labels match different groups of users and providers and increase the scale and
speed of traditional transactions such as selling, renting, lending, labor trade, and provision of
services. In many cases, these platform-mediated activities involve peer-to-peer or peer-to-
business transactions that occur in a regulatory vacuum.

Documents supporting sharing & collaborative economy

The labels ‘sharing economy’ and 'collaborative economy' are used in official documents
of the European Commission (EC, 2015b); the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC,
2014); the European Parliament (European Parliament, 2014); and the US Federal Trade
Commission (FTC 2015).

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European identity is strongly characterized by inclusivity and social solidarity, thus the
collaborative economy represents an opportunity for social innovation in these terms. In recent
years, a European network has focused on articulating a European perspective and an appropriate
research agenda to study the realities of the collaborative economy. There has been a series of EU-
supported initiatives aimed at examining new social and economic models for achieving
sustainable growth. For example, the EU Innovate project investigates the creative, innovative and
entrepreneurial roles of users in developing sustainable novel products, services and systems
(http://www.euinnovate.com/en/sustainable-enterprises). National initiatives have also emerged
and innovation and growth value of the collaborative economy has also been recognized widely
outside of Europe. The collaborative economy offers greater choice to consumers and new
opportunities to entrepreneurs, but citizens and businesses must be aware of existing rules and
obligations. In its Communication on “A European Agenda for Collaborative Economy”, issued
in June 2016, the European Commission announced that it would continuously review
developments in the European collaborative economy. According to the communication, the EU
provides clarity on applicable EU rules and policy recommendations to help citizens, businesses
and EU countries fully benefit from new business models and promote the balanced development
of the collaborative economy. In October 2018, the Commission organized the high-level
conference, 'Collaborative economy: opportunities, challenges, policies' in Brussels to take stock
of policy, regulatory and market developments since the adoption of the Communication on the
collaborative economy in June 2016. During the conference the Commission published the results
of research about the use of the collaborative economy. The results indicated that one in four EU
citizens have used services offered via collaborative platforms and one in five say they either have
offered such services or can imagine doing so (European Commission, 2018b). According to the
EC (2016), the role of the platforms is essential because they link suppliers with users and allow
transactions among them and have grown rapidly thanks to digital progress like internet,
applications, and social networks.
To better understand the economic activity generated and issues raised by emerging
internet peer-to-peer platforms, the US Federal Trade Commission held a workshop in June 2015
entitled The “Sharing” Economy which has brought together economic, legal, stakeholders, and
business experts with an aim to examine competition, consumer protection, and economic issues
arising from sharing economy activity. Workshop results show some of the factors underlying the
growth of the sharing economy such as how platforms can facilitate entry by small suppliers by
providing them with the means to efficiently reach customers on a large scale; and how small
suppliers can offer goods and services at attractive prices because they can employ underutilized
assets (FTC 2015).
The global economy is rapidly becoming digital and ICT is no longer a specific sector but
the foundation of all modern innovative economic systems. The Internet and digital technologies
are transforming the lives we lead, the way we work – as individuals, in business, and in our
communities as they become more integrated across all sectors of our economy and society.
According to a Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe (European Commission, 2015b), a
digital single market is one in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital is
ensured and where individuals and businesses can seamlessly access and exercise online activities
under conditions of fair competition, and a high level of consumer and personal data protection,
irrespective of their nationality or place of residence. The same document states that, platforms
generate, accumulate and control an enormous amount of data about their customers and use
algorithms to turn this into usable information. The growth of such data is exponential – 90% of

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all data circulating on the Internet were created less than 2 years ago. Moreover, platforms have
proven to be innovators in the digital economy, helping smaller businesses to move online and
reach new markets. New platforms in mobility services, tourism, music, audiovisual, education,
finance, accommodation and recruitment have rapidly and profoundly challenged traditional
business models and have grown exponentially. The rise of the sharing economy also offers
opportunities for increased efficiency, growth and jobs, through improved consumer choice, but
also potentially raises new regulatory questions.

Case examples from the US and Central-Southeast Europe

Business-to-business and business-to-peer connections – Example of IKEA

IKEA recently launched a furniture rental offering as part of it shift towards the circular economy.
The world's largest furniture retailer has unveiled plans to rent its products to consumers for the
first time, as it strives to become a 'net-positive' business by 2030. The launch of the scheme came
after IKEA UK’s sustainability manager Hege Sæbjørnsen said that building a circular economy
into IKEA’s business model developing a closed-loop solution will be “fundamental” to the
retailer’s ability to grow and remain relevant with customers in the future
(https://www.dezeen.com/2019/02/20/ikea-rental-furniture-circular-economy-design, 2018). The
company’s 2017 sustainability report (Ingka holding B.V. and its controlled entities,
2017) highlighted that these processes were delivering tangible results. The report outlined a 5.8%
increase in total sales for the financial year. Globally, IKEA has already trebled the sales from its
'sustainable life at home' products. According to Torbjourn Loof, IKEA’s chief executive, IKEA
is working towards an ongoing target of becoming “a truly circular retailer” trialing furniture
leasing across its Swedish stores firstly focusing on office furniture for business owners. Under
the proposed scheme, businesses will rent their furniture for a set period before it is taken back by
IKEA for either refurbishment, upcycling, resale or recycling. In that way they will prolong the
furniture lifecycle. If the proposed business concept trial is successful, IKEA may roll the concept
out across other markets and to add kitchens for the consumer market. The most important thing
is that if the proposed business concept will be successful it will be fundamental to the company’s
ability to grow, remain relevant with customers, and survive long-term. In 2017, IKEA last
launched its first kitchen incorporating 100% post-consumer recycled (PCR) plastics and PCR
wood. All products are now being designed using its ‘democratic design’ principles, which are
founded on circular values and focused on making products accessible to all (IKEA Sustainability
Report, 2018).

Business-to-peer & busines-to-business sharing

More than 40 years ago, CORT (Chantilly, VA, US) began with a single goal in mind: to
deliver unparalleled customer service to people and businesses. They began with residential
furniture rental in five regions across the United States and have grown to become the nation’s
leading provider of transition services, including furniture rental for home and office, event
furnishings, students and the military communities, and other services. In addition to their 100+
offices, showrooms and clearance centers across the United States, it has operations in the United

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Kingdom and partners in more than 80 countries around the globe.'We believe that our customers,
colleagues and partners deserve great. And we believe that great things come from an authentic
commitment to delivering our very best, every time, everywhere' - Jeff Pederson, President and
CEO.
The company SOFRINNOV (Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France) is involved with the
construction of shelters that can be used in emergency situations (e.g., refugee camps) and in
construction of bungalows and houses compliant with high level thermal needs and low carbon
emissions. Both products are developed by recycling woods pallets and using them as building
blocks. By creating a piece of wood that acts as a cement between the pallets, they can be
assembled as needed. As an example, construction time for a 25m2 space takes one day for one
person and everything can be assembled by hand without power tools.

The company Feather (New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, US) believes that furniture
ownership is a thing of the past. Through their circular model, they allow members to use the
furniture items they need today and when their life or tastes change, they pick it up and give them
a second (and third and fourth) life. Furthermore, the company points out that being a flexible
subscription service is what makes it possible for their customers to live more conveniently. That's
why Feather offers furniture changes to all subscribers. A furniture change is any trip that Feather
team makes to someone’s home. During these trips consumers may swap items for different ones
and/or return items to the Feather ecosystem if they don't want or need them anymore. Members
qualify for one free change every year; all other furniture changes are flat-rate and cost $99
regardless of the number of items being swapped, picked up, or added. Delivery and assembly are
included in this price. Most of the items have been previously used by another Feather subscriber.
After each deployment, every Feather item undergoes a quality check and extensive sanitation
process before it arrives to be assembled in new consumer home. We believe that when life
changes, your things should be able to change with you — without spending a fortune or hurting
the planet in the process!
Since 1935 more than one and a half million Aalto stools have been sold. In 2006, Artek
(Helsinki, Finland) began collecting used Aalto furniture, searching them out from flea markets
and old factories, schools and shipyards. This led to the founding of the Artek 2nd Cycle initiative,
which offers these re-discovered pieces for sale, beginning a second cycle in their lives. Artek 2nd
Cycle not only showcases the longevity of Artek furniture, it also promotes conscious consumption
– the idea that what we buy should be carefully chosen, cherished rather than disposed – and seeks
to honour the natural materials that have gone into producing these enduring designs. Gaining
character and beauty through everyday use, each Artek 2nd Cycle piece of furniture ages with
grace, becoming unique with time. “Nothing is ever reborn, but neither does it totally disappear.
And that which has once been, will always reappear in a new form.” Circular thinking?
The Dutch wood working company Herso (Loosbroek, the Netherlands) uses reclaimed
wood to make new products, from furniture to floors. Herso uses wood from old floors, furniture,
cut offs from carpenters and of course their own. They select good pieces of wood, even small
ones, to use in their designs. Iron pieces, such as nails, are also reused, while sawdust is use to
make bio-alcohol, cat litter, and compost. In the rare case they need to use new wood, it is always
FSC certified. Rather than just selling their products, Herso has a sort of deposit money
arrangement. In essence, you rent the products. During its use, the product keeps a value that is
determined beforehand. At the end of use the product can be handed in, so that Herso can use it
again to make new furniture and floors. All Herso’s tables are solid and made by hand. They only

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use biodegradable glue. The company also takes on various projects, such as the no-waste floor of
Circl, a circular pavilion in the Netherlands. The floor is the size of a football field and made from
wood from all sorts of sources, such as a villa from the 50s, old furniture, a hardwood terras,
window frames, and an old door. All this waste wood is turned into a beautiful wooden floor. And
Herso promises that when the pavilion is deconstructed in 25 years, that they will make new
products from the floor.
For Nnof (Vilvoorde, Belgium), office furniture that needs replacing is no longer simply
waste. It provides the raw material for Nnof interior designers to design new furnishings which
dovetail perfectly with trendy new office design concepts. This design service fits in seamlessly
with the principle of the circular economy. Instead of simply dumping existing office furniture,
Nnof creates a new cycle that gives it a second or even third life. Nnof stands for 'nearly new office
facilities': office furniture that is almost new. The Vilvoorde company designs offices with mostly
recycled material, which usually comes from the customer's previous interior. Chairs are re-
upholstered, tables are given a new top layer, cupboards are disassembled and transformed into
new furniture. The end result does not look like a thrift store, but simply as a new interior. In the
last two years they have committed the company to re-working, e.g., they use tablets from old
tables to make seating furniture, or they design a rack system made from used table bases. If
customers leave them somewhat free in their ideas, they can reuse a very large part of their interior.
How did they get there? “Around the turn of the century I started to read a lot about climate
change, our handling of raw materials and all the problems that awaited us”, managing director
Didier Pierre. 'That was not fun!

Summary
A combination of shifting consumer behaviour and rapidly-evolving digital technologies is
disrupting long-established business models across many industries and putting increasing
pressure on traditional growth models. For example, sharing and collaborative principles applied
to products and/or services will give the potential to increase product longevity, reusability and
the sharing of materials. Product sharing can also facilitate the sharing of overcapacity or
underutilization, improving the efficiency of resource use.
In this study, scientific papers, professional study documents, and policies regarding the sharing
and collaborative economies in the U.S. and Europe (economy in general, but also within the
wood-based sector) were reviewed and summarized, all relative to sharing and collaborative
models as aspects of the circular economy. A theoretical background of the circular economy and
sharing and collabrative models as aspects of the circulary economy were developed with an
example of IKEA, one of the best-known examples of sharing economy in the wood-based sector.
Also, documents and policies supporting sharing and collaborative principles related to the U.S.
and European markets were examined. Based primarily on the work of Codagnone and Martens
(2016), Botsman (2013), Botsman and Rogers (2010a); Botsman and Rogers (2010b); and
Codagnone et al. (2016) examples of the sharing economy and/or collaborative economies related
to the U.S. and Central-Southeastern European market were traced. Examples were categorized
based on different business models - P2P (Peer-to-Peer); B2P (Business-to-Peer), P2B (Peer-to-
Business); B2B (Business-to-Business). Further, data analysis about perceptions of the sharing and
collaborative economies within the wood-based sector was conducted using data from a survey of
the Slovenian wood-based sector stakeholders. Given that the level of wood used in residential and
public construction, interior design, and outdoor design continues to expand, results and
information conducted during this work can help in the process of implementing sharing and

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collaborative economy principles in the the wood-based sector. Perhaps the hardest part will be
convincing consumers/customers, but also other stakeholders to change their consumption
behavior and way of thinking. An improved understanding of the sharing and collaborative
economies is therefore needed to inspire more thoughtful and appropriate responses to these
variegated realities, in terms of policy, regulation and institutional support. However, there has not
been an opportunity thus far to consolidate this body of work for wood sector communities and to
collaboratively shape a future agenda on the topic. Also, we hope that this study will bring a
definite value to European and US initiatives on business innovation within the wood-based
industry. The information and knowledge from this study will also be valuable for other
researchers and scholars examining the collaborative economy in the wood-based sector.
More importantly, this study is giving wood industry stakeholders information and extends
knowledge regarding the circular economy and sharing economy which should be used in the
development of the actions needed for the cascade use of wood, wood products and utilization of
wood following ‘circular’, ‘sharing’, and/or ‘caring’ principles in the wood-based sector.
Cascading use of wood is the smart way to use a natural resource – putting it to good use before it
is reused, recycled and finally burnt for energy. It strongly overlaps with circular economy ideas.
Acknowledgement: The authors would like to thank the Socoety of Wood Science and
Technology for Short Term Scientific Mission Scholarship support for Andreja Pirc Barčić .

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Biography

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Digitalization Rate of SMEs Involved in the Wood Fibers

Value Chains in the Alpine Region
Tina Beranič 1*– Martina Šestak 1 – Katja Kerman 1 – Špela Pečnik 1 – Aida
Kamišalić 1

1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Maribor,

Slovenia
* Corresponding author
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
Digitalization is an increasingly important topic in various business domains, regardless of its size.
Despite all the benefits that digitalization brings, the introduction and use of digital technologies
in business processes could bring certain challenges and obstacles, especially in subsectors with a
low digitalization level. In European countries, the rate of digitalization is measured with a
plurality of indicators, among which is also the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI). In
2019, Slovenia was ranked as 16th among 28-member states, while other Alpine region countries,
i.e., Austria, Italy, and Germany, were ranked on the 13th, 24th, and 12th places, respectively.
Although available digitalization measures cover a large spectrum of domains and views, the
analysis revealing the digitalization level of the Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs),
limited only to the natural fiber domain, cannot be detected. In order to overcome the identified
gap, analysis was made measuring the current digitalization level of SMEs operating in the wood
fiber value chains. The paper presents the preliminary results of the gathered data, acquired using
a survey questionnaire gathering the information from the identified SMEs from Slovenia and
Italy. As the results indicate, the level of digitalization in the respondent SMEs is rather low.
Although digitalized areas and departments can be detected, a lot of space for possible
improvements is still open, allowing multiple possibilities for digitalization development.

Keywords: SMEs, digitalization, tools, wood fiber, Alpine Region, Slovenia, Italy, obstacles

Introduction

Technological development is becoming an indispensable constant, regardless of the business

domain in which companies operate. Daily, we are witnessing the technological changes, making
the work easier, processes more straightforward and faster, and providing support for different
business tasks. Nowadays, digitalization also penetrates extensively into the domains whose
primary orientation is not related to IT. According to the definition, digitalization is the use and
integration of digital technologies aiming to change the business model, reorganize the work
within an organization and upgrade processes within a company [1], [2]. The European Union
supports digitalization strongly, to the extent that increasing the usage of ICT technologies and
their potential for economic growth is one of the main pillars of the Europe 2020 Strategy and the
Industry 4.0 revolution [3], [4]. Regardless of all the benefits that digitalization brings, the process

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can be very challenging for SMEs. According to the European Commission, SMEs are companies
with less than 250 employees and less than a 50 million EUR turnover or 43 million EUR Balance
Sheet in total [5]. According to the 2018/2019 Annual Report on European SMEs published by the
European Commission [6], over 25 million SMEs were registered in the European Union (EU-
28) in 2018, which made up 99.8% of all EU-28 enterprises operating in the non-financial business
sector.

In recent years, a lot of attention has been paid to the introduction of digitalization into SMEs in
different business domains. The current state can be seen within the available indexes and
measures of digitalization. One of the most known is the Digital Economy and Society Index
(DESI) [7], measured by the European Commission. It is used for measuring the level of
digitization in EU countries with the use of six areas: connectivity, human capital/digital skills,
use of internet services by citizens, integration of digital technology by business, digital public
services, and research and development of ICT [7]. Another one is the Digital Transformation
Scoreboard (DTS) [8] as part of the Digital Transformation Monitor (DTM) [9] which was
launched in 2016 by the European Commission. Its primary purpose is to monitor the
transformation of existing industries and businesses. DTS consist of several dimensions, and each
is divided into two categories called enablers and outputs. Enablers are again divided into several
categories, including digital infrastructure, investments and access to finance, supply and demand
of digital skills, e-leadership, and entrepreneurial culture [10]. On the other hand, OECD in the
context of the Going Digital project [11], among others, reveals digitalization indicators
specifically for the SMEs` subdomain. Many country-level metrics can also be detected. In the
Trentino region in Italy, research was done for assessing the level of digitalization of enterprises
and evaluating possible strategies to optimize its internal processes with Industry 4.0 technologies
[12]. In Germany, in Baden-Württemberg, the “Digital Economic Index” was measured based on
1,124 interviews with companies. The index measured the degree of digitalization of business
processes, internal company procedures, and workflows, as well as the intensity of the use of new
digital technologies and services. Another study, the “Digitization Index for Small and Medium-
sized Enterprises 2019/2020”, in which 2,095 SMEs took part, shows that German SMEs are
working on their digital transformation continuously [13].

The available information reveals great insight, also into the digitalization level of the SMEs. But
still, they do not provide an insight into the digitalization level and tools used within SMEs divided
by various domains, for example, the natural fibers domain, e.g. SMEs in wood fiber value chains.
The manufacturing of wood and wood-based products takes an important place in the European
industry ecosystem, with the highest number of registered enterprises, i.e. around 160,000 in 2017
[14]. SMEs operating in the manufacturing of wood and wood products contribute to this industry
by producing a 60-80% share of added value [6]. For example, Slovenia, the second most forested
country in Europe, has 85% 1 of SMEs registered in the fiber-based sectors, which also includes
the wood fiber sector [15]. Another example is the Italian Trentino region. In 2019, about 41,583
m3 of wood was sold, where approx. 39,000 m3 came from spruce wood, 220 m3 from larch and
900 m3 from pine [16]. Despite the industry prevalence, the manufacturing industry of wood and
wood products is, in general, characterized by a low number of investments in research and

1Estimation based on the number of members (SMEs) of Strategic research and innovation partnership for Sustainable food
production, Circular Economy and Wood Industry Cluster Slovenia.

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development (R&D) initiatives, and it is categorized as a “low-tech” industry [6], affecting its
current digitalization level.

The paper aims to present the preliminary results of the analysis of the digitalization level of SMEs
included in different wood fibers value chains, like the eco-construction value chain in Slovenia,
or the recycled wood value chain in Italy. The study was performed within the EU-project Smart
SME’s, which is co-financed by the European Parliament through the Alpine Region Preparatory
Action Fund II (ARPAF II). The data were acquired with a survey questionnaire gathering the
information from the Slovenian and Italian (Trentino region) SMEs identified in different wood
fiber value chains.

The structure of the paper is as follows. The next Section presents the implemented survey,
covering the questionnaire structure and gathered results, presented in a structured form also as a
comparison between Slovenian and Italian SMEs. Among other information, obstacles are
presented for the expansion of the digitalization detected by SMEs. The last Section sums up the
results, providing final comments and remarks on the gathered information.

Digitalization rate of wood fiber value chains

The data within the implemented analysis were gathered using a structured questionnaire, which
was divided into different parts, combining content-related questions. The first part of the
questionnaire covered company information, the second part covered the current state of
integration of digitalization in the company, in the third part companies were asked why and in
what way they are willing to invest in digitization, and in the last, fourth part, the questions looked
into any targeted external support gathered from companies’ regions used for adaptation of new
digitalization technologies. To achieve the highest possible response rate, the questionnaires were
translated into the language of the country in which the company was located, i.e. Slovenian and
Italian. The questionnaires in Slovenia were distributed as an online questionnaire, while also sent
to the respondents in paper form.

Surveyed SMEs and their digitalization level

Sixteen SMEs from the Alpine region responded to the survey, 12 from Slovenia and four from
Italy, specifically from the Trentino region. 56.3% of surveyed SMEs came from the production
sector, 37.5% process wood, while only a few SMEs operate in the wood procurement or
construction sectors, 12.5% and 18.8%, respectively. Most surveyed SMEs had a low to moderate
level of digitalization. In Italy, only 50% of SMEs provided an answer to this item, indicating that
they rarely use digitalization tools. On the other hand, half of the surveyed SMEs in Slovenia use
digitalization tools in approximately 50% of their work, approximately one third uses it rarely or
never, and only 8.3% use it in all processes.

Table 1 - Frequencies and percentages for processes where digitalization already takes place in
surveyed SMEs.

Slovenia Italy Total

ƒ % ƒ % ƒ %

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Purchasing 7 58.3 1 25.0 8 50.0

Production 9 75.0 2 50.0 11 68.8
Packaging 3 25.0 0 0.0 3 18.8
Logistics 5 41.7 1 25.0 6 37.5
Sales 8 66.7 3 75.0 11 68.8
General management 9 75.0 3 75.0 12 75.0
Other 3 25.0 0 0.0 3 18.8

Table 1 lists the most common processes or departments within respondent SMEs, where
digitalization is already a common practice. The digitalization is most commonly used in the
general management department, followed by the sales, production and logistics departments. In
Slovenian SMEs, packaging is the process with the lowest digitalization, and in Italian SMEs,
logistics, purchasing, and packaging are among the processes with the lowest levels of
digitalization.

The use of ICT tools for communication within the surveyed SMEs

Communication, either with clients or partners or within the company, is a promising area,
allowing numerous digitalization options. Different communication options within Slovenian and
Italian SMEs are presented in Figure 1. The most commonly used ICT tool for the communication
with partners and clients in Slovenian SMEs is email, and in Italian SMEs their websites. When it
comes to the phone and email, both options are the second most used within Italian SMEs, followed
by different messaging applications. In contrast, in Slovenian SMEs, email is followed by phone
and the company website. Online sharing platforms or messaging applications are used less
commonly, followed by fax and external services for distance meetings.

Communication with employees in Slovenian SMEs is most often done via phone and email, and
less frequently via other tools. External services for distance meetings are used as un(commonly)
as a fax. Communication with employees within the Italian SMEs is performed by phone and
email. Fax or external services for distance meetings are not used at all.

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Figure 1 – Survey results considering exchanging information with clients, partners and among
employees.

Digitalization goals and present or future digitalization investments

In order to invest in digitalization, companies must see a clear goal and advantage. Therefore, the
surveyed SMEs were asked which goals they associate with digitalization. Slovenian SMEs stated
innovations and productivity as the most frequent answer, 58.3%, followed by cost-saving, 50%,
and new clients or markets, 41.7%. When it comes to the surveyed SMEs from Italy, new clients
and markets were most commonly associated with digitalization, at 75%, followed by innovations,
50%. However, none of the Italian SMEs associated digitalization with productivity or cost-saving.

Some of the surveyed SMEs had already taken, or were willing to take some measures and actions
towards digitalization. Among Italian SMEs, the most common option was investment into the
development of the company’s website and e-recruitment on social media, followed by online
advertisements and promotion. Only 25% of SMEs (would) invest in the acquisition of novel or
significantly improved hardware and/or software and in the introduction of new IT security
concepts and applications, while none (would) invest in the reorganization of the workflow for
integration of new digital work steps. On the other hand, three-quarters of Slovenian SMEs
(would) invest in the acquisition of novel hardware and/or software. Around half (would) invest
in the website development, in the development of new concepts for marketing or sales via the
Internet, and e-recruitment in social networks. Investing in the introduction of new IT security
concepts and applications, and reorganization of the workflow for integration of new digital work
steps to increase the level of digitalization is less frequent among Slovenian SMEs.

Perceived digitalization obstacles

Although digitalization is an emerging topic in almost every business domain, different obstacles
are perceived, especially among small and medium companies whose primary domain is not
related to IT. Regarding the digitalization obstacles SMEs are facing, a similar trend can be
observed in both countries. Very commonly, lack of financial resources is exposed, stated by at
least half of the respondents within Italian and Slovenian SMEs. It was followed by a lack of
qualified personnel, as well as difficulties with reorganizations. The more technologically oriented
obstacle, i.e. lack of data protection and security is the least commonly experienced challenge in
both countries.

The most commonly exposed obstacle, lack of financial resources, is a known problem, which
countries try to address by using different kinds of targeted support. Since the support is available
in Slovenia and Italy, the survey looked at whether the surveyed SMEs are receiving any external
targeted support related to digitalization. As the results indicate, only one Italian SME is receiving
funding aimed as an investment in production processes. The number is similar within the
Slovenian SMEs. Two of them responded that they are currently in the application process for
targeted external support, while one of them will invest the funding in purchasing processes.

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Conclusions

The results of the preliminary analysis researching the state of digitalization in Slovenian and
Italian SMEs included in the wood fiber value chain are presented. The results reveal a relatively
low level of digitalization for both Slovenian and Italian SMEs. Only a minority of the SMEs’
departments and processes are digitalized, offering a lot of space for further development and
implementation. However, it can be observed that SMEs are faced with several challenges and
obstacles when it comes to digitalization, with lack of financial resources being the most
predominant one. As the financial aspect is a known obstacle, not only for SMEs, countries are
addressing the challenges with different kinds of targeted external support. But, as indicated by
our results, only a few of the surveyed SMEs are receiving external funds to increase their level of
digitalization. Since the survey covered only a small sample of Slovenian and Italian SMEs, the
results could not be generalized, and have to be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, they still
offer a great insight into the current digitalization rate of SMEs embedded in wood fiber values
chains.

Acknowledgements

The content of this paper was developed within the Smart SME’s Project, co-financed by the
European Parliament through the Alpine Region Preparatory Action Fund (ARPAF II) (2019-
2021). The authors would like to express their appreciation to the project partners (Schweizerische
Arbeitsgemeinschaft für die Berggebiete (SAB), BIOPRO Baden-Württemberg GmbH,
Department for Economic Development, Research and Labour of the Autonomous Province of
Trento, Hub Innovazione Trentino, ecoplus. The Business Agency of Lower Austria and Anteja
ECG) for their valuable contribution and all the survey’s respondents for their insight into the
researched topic.

References
[1] Gartner Inc., “Digitalization,” Gartner Glossary, 2020. .
[2] IGI Global, “What is Digitalization,” 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.igi-
global.com/dictionary/it-strategy-follows-digitalization/7748. [Accessed: 05-May-2020].
[3] B. Rivza, M. Kruzmetra, I. Gudele, and D. Foris, “Digitalization as an essential growth
factor contributing in SME development (experience of Latvia and Romania),” Agron.
Res., vol. 17, no. 1, 2019.
[4] C. Santos, A. Mehrsai, A. C. Barros, M. Araújo, and E. Ares, “Towards Industry 4.0: an
overview of European strategic roadmaps,” Procedia Manuf., vol. 13, pp. 972–979, 2017.
[5] European Commission, “What is an SME?,” Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship
and SMEs, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/growth/smes/business-friendly-
environment/sme-definition_en. [Accessed: 04-May-2020].
[6] European Commission, “Annual Report on European SMEs - 2018/2019,” 2019.
[7] European Commission, “The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI),” 2019.
[Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/desi. [Accessed: 05-
May-2020].
[8] European Commission, “Digital Transformation Scoreboard,” 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/dem/monitor/scoreboard. [Accessed: 04-May-

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2020].
[9] European Commission, “Digital Transformation Monitor,” 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/dem/monitor/. [Accessed: 04-May-2020].
[10] J. Erjavec, A. Manfreda, J. Jaklič, and M. I. Štemberger, “Stanje in trendi digitalne
preobrazbe v Sloveniji,” Econ. Bus. Rev., vol. 20, pp. 109–128, 2018.
[11] OECD, Going Digital: Shaping Policies, Improving Lives. 2019.
[12] Politecnico di Milano - Manufacturing Group - School of Management, “Industria 4.0 -
verso la digitalizzazione,” 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.testindustria4-0.com/.
[Accessed: 04-May-2020].
[13] Deutsche Telekom AG Corporate Communications, “The digital status quo of German
small and medium-sized enterprises,” 2019.
[14] Eurostat, “Manufacturing statistics - NACE Rev. 2,” 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Manufacturing_statistics_-
_NACE_Rev._2#Sectoral_analysis. [Accessed: 15-May-2020].
[15] A. Kamišalić and D. Osvald, “Regional Status Analysis Slovenia (Smart SME’s - WP2
Mapping of actual state of play and needs),” 2019.
[16] BIOPRO Baden-Württemberg GmbH, “Mapping of actual state of play and needs -
Synthesis report (Smart SME’s - WP2),” 2020.

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A Circular Economy for Wood under the European Green Deal

Michael Burnard1
[email protected]
Uwe Kies2
[email protected]
Kim Turk Mehes1
[email protected]

1 InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

2InnovaWood, Belgium

Abstract
The Circular Economy (CE) has become a prevalent topic in policy and research in Europe during the
last years. In 2015, the EU Circular Economy Package was adopted which defined priority areas
relevant to the forest-based sector and wood use. The most important of these were Construction &
Demolition and Biomass and bio-based products. With this new focus, the EU shifted its narrative
focus from becoming a recycling society and using waste as a resource to extending the life and value
of products, materials, and resources in the economy as long as possible. This latter narrative
continues in the European Green Deal (EDG) was accepted by the European Commission in December
2019. Plans are under way to implement broad national policy support for it throughout the EU. The
EDG sets the goal of driving Europe to become the first climate-neutral continent, highlighting several
priority areas for policy development. The main opportunities for Wood under the EDG seem to lie
under the building and renovation and sustainable industry policy areas. However, construction related
topics here are primarily related to energy efficiency and material minimization through renovation.
Several construction materials are specifically mentioned, but wood is not (in contrast to cement and
steel, sand, and gravel). Moreover, the value of steel, chemicals, and cement is highlighted as
indispensable to Europe’s economy, targeting a zero-carbon steel making process by 2030. Forests
are addressed extensively in the EDG, with the emphasis on reducing de-forestation and increasing
afforestation to increase the absorption for CO 2. While promoting a circular bioeconomy is mentioned
as part of plans for forest policy, it remains difficult to see the same support for wood value chains as
for steel and cement related value chains. At this stage the lack of specific mention of wood or wood
value chains implies several things for the future of wood in Europe’s plans for the circular economy:
First, as researchers and practitioners, we must shape product development with environmental and
social impacts in mind; second, developing materials, products, and processes that align with key
activities in the EDG such as renovation, material reduction, digitization; and, third, be active in
developing policy at the regional, state, and international levels that support the role of wood in the
circular economy. The H2020-funded WoodCircus project addresses each of these items, including
research and policy recommendations for strengthening the role of the forest sector in the CE.

The authors gratefully acknowledge funding support from the EC for the WoodCircus H2020 project
(GA# 820892). Authors MB and KTM gratefully acknowledge the EC for funding support from the
InnoRenew CoE H2020 project (GA# 739574).

Biography

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Raising the Bar: Women Administrator Leaders in Top World Forestry

Universities

Pipiet Larasatie
[email protected]
Taylor Barnett
[email protected]
Eric Hansen
[email protected]

Oregon State University, USA

Abstract
The forest sector has been historically acknowledged as a male-oriented and male-dominated
workplace. Due to this image, women were reported less likely to choose a career in the forest sector.
As a part of the first author’s PhD dissertation, this study utilizes interviews to explore the perceptions
of women leaders on the role of universities in diversifying the forest sector. Our respondents are
women administrator leaders (e.g., dean, vice dean, department head) in the top four forestry
universities in the world based on The Center for World University Rankings: Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences (SLU) in Sweden, Oregon State University (OSU) in USA, University of British
Columbia (UBC) in Canada, and University of Helsinki (UH) in Finland. Most of our respondents agree
that there is today, better gender diversity in their institutions due to university and college/faculty
efforts. However, a leader mentioned that there has been a heavy burden on early women faculty
member entrants to the field. These few individuals carry a disproportionate service workload
representing diverse perspectives on committees and in other university work. This takes time away
from primary job requirements such as research, at times resulting in poor performance reviews and
at other times resulting in exhaustion.

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The Oil Palm Trunk: Opportunities and Challenges for the Malaysian
Timber-Based Industries

Yueh Feng Loh, Malaysian Timber Board, Malaysia

[email protected]

Abstract
The Malaysian timber industry is an important income generator for the Malaysian’s economy. In
2019, the export revenue of timber and timber products was valued an excess of RM22 billion. The
supply of raw material is central in order to further develop this thriving industry towards continuous
growth. With natural forests being kept safe via sustainable forest management practices and with
heightened awareness in conservation and green practices, the timber industry is looking at
alternative raw material. There are 5.7 million hectares of oil palm plantations in Malaysia. After 25
years, the oil palm trees will begin yielding less fruit and need to give way for replanting of new young
trees. This presents a boon to the timber industry as the felled oil palm trunk (OPT) is a renewable
source of alternative raw material. It is expected close to 11 million OPT logs will be felled to make
way for replanting every year. This alternative material has come at the right time for timber industry.
With tough competition in the global marketplace, rising costs and tight supply of timber, the timber
industry has been looking for a revival. The solution appears to be in OPT which is able to be
processed into plywood and timber. Initiative that carried out by Malaysian Timber Industry Board
(MTIB) and the timber industry, both in the past and present, has enabled OPT to become a new and
an important source of raw material for conversion into veneer, plywood and other timber products.
To date, MTIB has encouraged and promoted a number of activities particularly in the processing of
OPT into value-added downstream products for further utilization in both construction and furniture
industries. There are fundamental differences between OPT and natural forest logs in the area of
density, moisture content and mechanical properties. These attributes require modified equipment and
processing methods for peeling, sawing, drying, chemical treatment, gluing and finishing. These
differences pose challenges to the existing plywood and timber factories that have to research and
identify the best operational techniques to process OPT. There are many challenges in processing OPT.
More research work would be needed especially in the process of transforming OPT into plywood and
other timber products. Good quality products can be made, however the ultimate test is how well the
market can accept them. The emergence of plywood and sawn timber made from OPT should present
an attractive proposition to importing countries as it is environmentally friendly and sustainable. This
is also in line with rising demands for environmentally friendly and sustainably managed timber
products in the developed countries. With this in mind, many initiatives have to be undertaken to
introduce these timber products to the global market.

Biography

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Moving Past the Traditional Structure of Academic Publishing – Realigning

Incentives with the Goals of Science

Benedikt Neyses, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden

[email protected]

Abstract
Academic publishing is dominated by an oligopoly of a small number of large publishers, with Elsevier, Sage, Springer, Taylor
& Francis and Wiley accounting for more than 50% of all articles within scientific, technical and medical (STM) publishing.
Between 1986 and 2005, serial expenditures for the member libraries of the Association of Research Libraries have increased by
302%, while the number of serial items purchased over the same period has increased by only 45%. In 2014, STM publishers
generated a revenue of several billion dollars, and as these publishers obtain the content they are selling free of charge, their
average profit margin reaches the extraordinary value of 37%.

Simply put, within the current structure of academic publishing, the large publishers generate high profits while only contributing
marginal value to the system. In the realm of social sciences and economics, such behavior is known as “free-riding”, a type of
market failure. Usually, this leads to under-production of the goods or services affected and the system eventually breaks down.
However, in the case of academic publishing under-production is avoided because the content creating institutions, i.e. the
universities have an apparent dependence on the publishers, which further amplifies the publisher’s status as free-riders.

The current situation has caused an incentive structure that encourages a publication bias towards positive results, “salami-
publishing” of marginal scientific findings, and an exponentially increasing number of peer-reviewed publications, even though,
historically, actual scientific progress has only been linear.

One solution to these problems would be to report scientific studies without using the traditional publishing companies as
middlemen, by creating a community-based and non-profit publishing platform, but this has not happened, yet. From a game-
theory perspective, the current situation is similar to a so-called “stag hunt” game that has developed towards a risk-dominant
Nash equilibrium. This means that for any one actor within the system it is safer to avoid risk and instead maintain the status quo,
even though all actors would be better off if they would cooperate and move towards a pay-off dominant strategy.

Historical analyses of other stag hunt-like situations have shown that moving from the risk-dominant equilibrium towards the
pay-off dominant equilibrium is difficult because most actors predominantly act out of self-interest. A possible approach to solve
this dilemma could be to re-align the incentive structure within academic publishing in a way that the self-interest of individual
actors aligns with the larger goal of science, which is the establishment of increasingly accurate descriptions of the natural world.
Hence, my objective is to gauge the interest for this topic within the wood science community, and to start a discussion about
which steps need to be taken in order to put such a re-alignment of incentives into practice.

Biography

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The Wood Science and Technology Program at West Virginia University: A

Case Study

Gloria Oporto, West Virginia University, USA

[email protected]

Joseph McNeel, West Virginia University, USA

[email protected]

Abstract
Over the past decade, an education in Wood Science has continued to attract fewer students as a
career option at universities across the US. For example, at one land grant university in the
Appalachian region, the wildlife and fisheries management program attracts 70 to 80 new students
every fall. In contrast, the wood science program in that same university draws fewer than 10
students every fall. But in terms of potential employment after graduation and the earning potential of
graduates from these two programs, a wood science graduate is highly marketable and will generally
earn more than a graduate from a wildlife and fisheries program. Graduates from a wood science
program will typically receive two or even three employment offers with an average starting salary
ranging as much as $50 to $70K annually, depending on his/her specific responsibilities. The wood
science program at West Virginia University (WVU) continues to struggle with low enrollment and
scrutiny from University administrators hoping to expand programs. This paper focuses on the efforts
of the Wood Science Program at WVU over the last ten years, from the successful re-accreditation
review in 2010 to the last re-accreditation review in 2020. We will focus on how undergraduate
education has evolved over this time, as well as the impact of changing enrollment goals on the
program and its sustainability over time. Topics such as sustainability, green building, carbon
footprint, and circular economy have driven educational changes at many institutions of higher
learning and many academic administrators believe that students entering university demand an
education that incorporates these terms into the curriculum. This program, undergoing to challenges
and opportunities, is also moving in that direction and it is performing aggressive recruiting activities
in conjunction with the University Forest Resource Management Program and several wood-related
companies to promote, attract, recruit and retain students in both, Forestry and Wood Science and
Technology fields.

Biography

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Material Choice: A New Frontier in Corporate Sustainability

Rajat Panwar, Appalachian State University, USA

[email protected]

Eric Hansen, Oregon State University, USA

[email protected]

Abstract
Corporate involvement in achieving environmental sustainability has been proliferating during the last four decades, but it is
generally restricted to the choices firms implement to make their production processes environmentally friendlier. As a result,
while there is a significant body of literature that seeks to discern between green firms and non-green firms within an industry,
such juxtapositions at an industry level are rather scant. This is striking, particularly because the environmental impacts of a firm
are intrinsically and inherently tied to the nature of the basic raw material that passes through its value chain. Competing raw
materials may lead to significantly different end-of-product life cycle environmental impacts, even between firms with the same
level of commitment to greenness in their production processes. This understanding, while common among LCA scholars, is not
fully integrated in corporate sustainability literature. Our primary purpose in this presentation is to explore the role of material
choice in corporate sustainability. Specifically, we address how material choice imposes fundamental restrictions on a firm’s
ability to mitigate its environmental impacts. Overall, we propose that corporate sustainability discourse ought to shift its focus
away from firm level initiatives to focus on industry characteristics. We argue that the keystone choice in sustainability decisions
is about materials. The process choice is a secondary, though important, matter.

Biography

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Barriers and Drivers of Thermally-Modified Wood: Perceptions of Architects

in the USA

Henry Quesada, Virginia Tech, USA

[email protected]

Abstract
Thermal modification is a relatively new wood modification process in the United States (US). The
production of thermally-modified wood (TMW) in the US is estimated in 100,000 cubic meters per year
and hardwood species commonly known as yellow poplar (tulip wood) and ash are the most common
treated species in this industry. In this project over 1000 architects were surveyed to ask their
knowledge on TMW. Only 15% of the respondents indicated they have worked with TMW in some
capacity, indicating that there is still little awareness of TMW in the architectural community. The most
common perceived advantage of TMW by architects is dimensional stability while there is little
knowledge by the respondents on pricing and availability of TMW.

Biography

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Wood Waste, Source of Sustainable Livelihood for Women Group

Haruna Seidu
[email protected]

James Korang
[email protected]

Safia Ibrahim
[email protected]

CSIR – Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Ghana

Abstract
Ghana has made significant headway toward poverty reduction over the past few decades. However,
Poverty is pervasive in rural areas and in recent times, in the regional cities across the length of the
country. In Kumasi, the Ashanti region of Ghana, is situated the country’s biggest wood processing
and furniture production hub. The Sokoban Wood Village (SWV) employs over 12,000 direct and
indirect jobs. A study was conducted to assess how this men dominated trading community is helping
women in poverty alleviation in fulfilment of the Sustainable development Goal One (SGD1). The
survey revealed an interesting trade, emerging at the Sokoban Wood Village where women are using
wood waste from the processing of wood to produce charcoal. This is done by heaping scrap wood
covered with sawdust for carbonization without cutting trees in the forest. Over 70 women are
involved in this business, each making approximately USD 90 a week from the production of 7.2m 3of
charcoal for both local food vendors and domestic use. The charred sawdust is used as soil
conditioners for local vegetable producers within the Kumasi metropolis. Despite the tedious nature of
the carbonization process, it is a real livelihood for their families. In conclusion, the activities of these
women is saving the cutting down of trees by charcoal producers leading to sustainable forest
management.

Key Words: Women group, livelihood, Charcoal, sustainable forest management, Scrap wood

Biography

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Tuesday, July 14

Composites and Adhesives

Chairs:
David DeVallance,InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia
Douglas Gardner, University of Maine, USA

Learning About and From the Functionality of Primers in Glulam Bonding

Tomas Böger1
[email protected]
Klaus Richter2
[email protected]

1Technical University of Munich, Holzforschung München, Germany

2Technical University of Munich, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Wood
Research Munich, Germany

Abstract
In the past decades, glulam has been produced almost exclusively from spruce due to its broad availability and easy machinability
[1]. However, nowadays silviculture changes and the availability of other species, e.g., beech, birch, larch and Douglas fir, will
increase [2]. Some of those species offer new opportunities for glulam due to their higher durability or higher mechanical
properties. On the other hand, production processes have to adapt to those species and still be profitable, as well as fulfilling
standards for quality and safety.

An adhesive type often used in glulam production is the one component polyurethane (1C-PUR) because of its high throughput in
the production due to short processing times. However, in combination with the earlier mentioned species, 1C-PUR struggles to
gain technical approval. This is due to too high delamination rates and too little wood failure. Nevertheless, when applying a
primer onto the wood prior to the adhesive, 1C-PUR complies with regulations. Since the primer is an additional step in the
production, it hinders an adaptation in the industrial-scale manufactory. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the primers’
functions would set the first step to integrating it into the adhesive formulation.

In this study, we investigated the effect of a hydrophobic resorcinol-based primer and a commercial hydrophilic primer on beech,
birch, larch and Douglas fir bonded with 1C-PUR. Thus, two sets of experiments were conducted, where untreated wood was
compared with primer-treated wood. First, the influence of the primers on the bond quality in the glulam was assessed by
European standards for mechanical testing. Also the progressive method of digital image correlation (DIC) is applied to gain a
deeper understanding of changes in the stress distribution in and around the bondline. Secondly, the primers’ influence on the
hydrologic processes near the surface of the wood was evaluated by means of an automated dynamic vapor sorption device
(DVS), vapor flow rate, contact angle and its swelling behavior.
Mechanical tests reviled a significant improvement in the tensile shear strength and wood failure percentage, especially when
tested on wet wood. In addition, changes in wettability and sorption behavior of the wood were observed, even though the
samples differ between the primers. However, no significant changes in the vapor flow rate, as well as the swelling and
shrinkage, were perceived.

Based on the currently available results, we conclude that i) the hydrophobic primer supports the wood structure, which leads to a
change in stress distribution near the bondline, whereas ii) the hydrophilic primer changes the water transport near the bondline at
high humidity values and in the wet stage of the wood.

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[1] D. Ohnesorge, M. Henning, and G. Becker, "Bedeutung von Laubholz bei der Brettschichtholzherstellung: Befragung unter
BSH-Produzenten in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz," (in German), Holztechnologie, 2009.

[2] FAO, "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015, Country Reports," ed. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 2014.

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Porous Structures Produced from Different Bark Particles by Mechanical

Foaming

Maria Busquets Ferrer1

[email protected]
Axel Solt-Rindler1
[email protected]
Oliver Vay1
[email protected]
Christian Hansmann2
[email protected]
Wolfgang Gindl-Altmutter2
[email protected]

1Wood K plus – Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry –
Area Wood Materials Technologies,
2Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, BOKU-University of Natural
Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna

Abstract
Bark is the outer layer of trees and therefore protects the inner structures from environmental impact. Currently its potential is not
exploited, as bark is mainly used as fuel in the sawmills. This implies that a high amount of potential raw material is wasted,
since bark is an interesting material to obtain value added products. Moreover, and due to an increasing demand of energy there
is also an increase interest in developing efficient insulation materials from renewable resources, and bark could be one of the
possible options. The purpose of this study was to use spruce bark as a raw material to produce porous structures that could be
implemented as insulation materials, since spruce is commonly use in the wood industry, and the amount of its bark available is
higher than other species. Thus, wet spruce bark was obtained directly after debarking and disintegrated into different particle
sizes by different chippers and mills. Furthermore, bark fibres were successfully produced by means of a laboratory refiner.

Consequently, particles and fibres with different morphological properties were obtained and characterized by incident light
microscopy and particle size distribution. In order to obtain a porous material different bio-based and non-biobased binders such
as cationic starch, wheat gluten, bone glue and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc D3) were investigated. The foams could be produced by
mechanically introducing air inclusions with low water contents and hardened to stable structures by conventional hot air drying.

The porous structures were finally characterized in terms of density, morphology, thermal conductivity and mechanical
properties. The results reveal comparable properties to conventional bio-based insulation materials. Thus this study draws
possible pathways to utilize bark as insulation material, without complex material pre-treatment.

Biography

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Influence of Atmospheric Air Plasma Pre-Treatment of Veneers on the

Mechanical Properties and Stability of Beech Plywood

Sebastian Dahle1
[email protected]
Irena Uranjek2
[email protected]
Jure Zigon1
[email protected]
Sergej Medved1
[email protected]

1University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and

Technology, Slovenia
2Rogač Plus d.o.o., Slovenia

Abstract
Wood-based sheet materials such as plywood, fiberboard, particleboard, and oriented strain board find
applications in civil engineering, building technology, furniture manufacturing and many more. All
these materials rely strongly on an effective bond formation between the resin and the wood base
material, which gives rise to their mechanical performance and stability, as well as their resistance to
moisture and liquids. In our study, we present the use of the PlasmaTreat Openair© commercial
atmospheric air plasma system, which we employed for the pretreatment of veneers of common beach
(Fagus sylvatica L.) wood before formation of plywood boards. Plasma treatment parameters were
optimized following the change in water contact angle. Two different stacking patterns were used for
plasma-treated veneers. The time stability of the plasma modification was investigated by forming a
second set of plywood boards 70 hours after plasma treatment of the respective veneers. The
influence of the plasma treatment on mechanical properties was studied via bending and shear
strength of the four sets of plasma-treated boards in comparison to a plywood out of the same veneer
without plasma treatment. Water and moisture resistance were tested through water immersion and
surface water resistance tests. Further, confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to determine
changes of the surfaces’ morphologies.

Biography

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The Compatibility between Components of Wood-Plastic

Composites using Chemical Force Microscopy

Bernard Effah1* - Martina Meincken2

1Dept.of Interior Design & Materials Technology, Kumasi Technical University,
Ghana
[email protected] / [email protected]
2Department of Forest and Wood Science, Stellenbosch University, South Africa

[email protected]

Abstract
Chemical Force Microscopy (CFM) was used to quantify the adhesive forces between
functionalised tips and model substrates through adhesive force measurements to understand how
well the main components of wood-plastic composites adhere to each other.
Films of α-cellulose, lignin alkali, softwood and hardwood extractives, polyethylene-graft-maleic
anhydride (PE-g-MA), ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol (EVOH), low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and
Polypropylene (PP) were prepared. Silicon force modulation cantilevers were modified with
carboxylic acid (COOH), methyl (CH3) and the compounds typically used as compatibiliser,
namely PE-g-MA and EVOH, for force-distance measurements. The films were characterized
using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to confirm the presence of functional
groups. From the force-distance curves the average adhesive force between the substrates and the
coated tips was determined and principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to ascertain
the total variance.
Strong adhesive forces can be expected between similar chemical groups and accordingly strong
adhesive interactions were found between the -COOH coated tip and cellulose and extractives
films. Similarly, the -CH3 coated tip exhibited stronger interaction on the lignin film. The
interaction between the compatibiliser coated tips and model α-cellulose, lignin alkali, softwood
and hardwood extractives components showed varied sensitivity and affinity.
CFM allows the analysis of the interaction of individual components contained in WPCs and
allows a better understanding of the bonding nature of WPC components.

Keywords: Atomic force microscopy, chemical force microscopy, adhesive force, wood-plastic
composites, surface analysis.

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Introduction
Over the last few decades there has been a continuing interest in the development of composite
materials of plastic reinforced with natural fibers. Among the many reasons for such interest is the
possibility of formulating materials for use as primary and secondary structures that, on the basis
of weight and strength, are stronger and more rigid than conventional individual materials of
construction and to achieve specific performance requirements (Stokke, Wu and Han 2013,
Wegener and Windeisen 2016).

In wood-plastic composites (WPCs), wood is combined with a polymer and other additives to
produce a material with improved properties, while making more efficient use of the wood
resource. The heterogeneity of the individual WPC components, however, makes its adhesion
mechanisms complex and difficult to predict and the adhesion phenomena in WPCs are not entirely
understood (Kim and Pal 2010). To describe the adhesion in WPCs well one needs to understand
how the major components forming the bulk of the composite interact with each other. Thus to
improve the adhesion potential of the composite, the properties of the substrate and binder that can
enhance, hinder or complicate the development of optimum adhesion should be known (Orue,
Eceiza and Arbelaiz 2018).

It is of interest to note that with recent advanced surface characterization techniques, the
understanding of material surfaces has been significantly improved, making it possible to control
and tailor surface characteristics for specific applications, from a micrometer down to the
nanometer scale. One of these techniques is the atomic force microscope (AFM), which is a
valuable tool used to examine surfaces with high resolution and can image the topography, as well
as the chemical composition on the surface and mechanical properties (Gardner, Oporto and Tze
2016).

Typically AFM measurements are conducted with unmodified silicon probes to obtain
topographical images and in this case the tip-sample adhesion corresponds to van der Waals
interactions between the tip and sample surface, which does not provide information about the
chemical properties of the material being analyzed. However, specific chemical interactions can
be determined with chemically functionalised AFM probes to help identify specific binding
interactions (Berquand and Ohler 2010, Deda et al. 2012). The chemical functionalization of the
tip results in increased sensitivity to selected functional groups, which is termed Chemical Force
Microscopy (CFM) (Duwez et al. 2001). With CFM it is possible to investigate molecular
interaction of interest, while all other interactions are repressed (Le Moigne et al. 2018).

A good understanding of the surface characteristics and the adhesion properties of the major
components forming WPCs would help to optimize the design of WPC products. This study sought
to provide some insight on the adhesion between WPC components through CFM analysis to
create high resolution images of the surface morphology, as well as the distribution of functional
groups and to quantify the interactions between coated AFM tips and substrate films at the
molecular level.

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Materials and methods

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE, Sasol Polymers) with a MFI value of 65g/10min and
polypropylene (Sigma-Aldrich, Isotactic, average Mw-12,000, and Mn-5,000) were used to make
films for AFM and FTIR analysis. The polymers used as compatibilizers were poly ethylene-co-
vinyl alcohol (EVOH, Sigma-Aldrich, 44 mole % ethylene, Tm = 165 °C, glass transition
temperature Tg = 55°C) and oplyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride (PE-g-MA, Sigma-Aldrich,
viscosity 1,700-4,500 cP 140 °C). α-cellulose and lignin alkali were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich
and extractives of pine (softwood) and eucalyptus (hardwood) were supplied by the Department
of Forest and Wood Science at University of Stellenbosch.

Films of α-cellulose, lignin alkali, softwood and hardwood extractives, as well as PE-g-MA,
EVOH, LDPE and PP were prepared from solution and pellets by direct deposition and film
casting.

FTIR spectroscopy analysis was carried out using a Nicolet Is10 FTIR spectrophotometer operated
in the absorption mode, in the wavenumber range of 4000-400 cm-1. The spectra were obtained
with a resolution of 4 cm-1 and averaged over 32 scans.

Silicon force modulation cantilevers from Nanosensors (Switzerland) with a spring constant of 2
N/m were coated by Novascan Technologies (Ames, IA USA) with COOH and CH3 groups, and
tips were functionalised according to Bastidas et al. (2005) and Klash (2010) with EVOH and PE-
g-MA. For the CFM measurements and analysis, an Easy Scan 2 AFM from Nanosurf
(Switzerland) was used in the force modulation imaging and spectroscopy modes.Force-distance
curves were obtained with all coated tips on the various substrate films and the adhesive forces
were determined.

Results and Discussion

Figure 1 shows the interaction between -COOH and -CH3 coated tips and the major components
found in wood: cellulose, lignin and extractives. As expected, strong adhesive forces were
determined between similar chemical groups. The force distance curves showed a high adhesive
force between the –COOH tip and cellulose, which contains hydroxyls groups (–OH), followed by
extractives and a relative low reactivity on lignin. The -CH3 coated tip, on the other hand, showed
a higher sensitivity towards lignin than to cellulose and extractives confirming similar studies by
Basson (2013).

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Tip coated with:

2100
COOH
CH3
1800
Adhesive Force (nN)

1500

1200

900

600

300

e nin s s
llulos Lig ctive ctive
Ce tra tra
Ex Ex
SW HW
Figure 1: Adhesive force between COOH and CH3 functionalized tips and model wood components

The interaction between the EVOH coated tip and the major wood components (Fig. 2) showed
the same trend as the COOH tip. A strong adhesive force of about 800nN was determined on
cellulose and softwood extractives, somewhat less on hardwood extractives and only about 250nN
on lignin. The PE-g-MA coated tip showed a fairly consistent sensitivity towards all components
with adhesive forces around 200nN. Overall, EVOH showed a larger sensitivity towards the wood
components than PE-g-MA, which might make it sensitive to different wood species with varying
chemical composition.

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Tip coated with:

1000 EVOH
PE-g-MA

800
Adhesive Force (nN)

600

400

200

0
e nin s s
l l ulos Lig ctive ctive
Ce tra tra
Ex Ex
SW HW
Figure 2: Adhesive force between compatibiliser functionalized tips and model wood components

Figure 2 shows that EVOH exhibits a higher adhesive force on all the components and can
therefore be expected to have good interaction with all the components of a WPC. However, the
different sensitivity to the wood components could result in different compatibilising results for
different wood species. PE-g-MA showed a fairly consistent interaction to all the components,
which might be beneficial when working with different wood species.

Comparison of adhesive forces between the –COOH and -CH3 coated tips and LDPE and PP films
are shown in Figure 3. A stronger adhesive force was observed with the -CH3 tip on LDPE than
PP. This was expected as the polymer surfaces are hydrophobic and as such responded better to a
hydrophobic tip. However, it is worth noting that although there was a quantitative difference
between the average responses of the two tips, they were not statistically significant different. The
-COOH coated tip showed more consistent adhesive forces on LDPE and PP, while the -CH3 tip
responded better to LDPE than PP. This may be due to the presence of methyl groups in the branch
structure of LDPE and PP. Quantitatively, the COOH tip showed week adhesive force on both
polymers.

The adhesive forces between different coated tips and polymer is also shown in Figure 3. The -
COOH coated tip exhibited strong interactions on all the compatibilisers. The adhesive interaction
between the -COOH coated tip and PE-g-MA is larger due to the maleic anhydride groups present
in the PE-g-MA.

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2000
COOH
CH3
EVOH
1600 PE-g-MA
Adhesive Force (nN)

1200

800

400

LDPE PP

Figure 3: Adhesive force between different functionalized tips and model wood components

Tips coated with EVOH compatibiliser showed a strong adhesive force on PP and a weak
interaction on LDPE and a similar trend is seen in the with PE-g-MA coated tip (Figure 3). This
could be due to the composition of the compatibilisers with more emphasis on the use of PP for
WPCs and the presence as well as aliphatic hydroxyl group in EVOH which have the potential for
forming miscible blends with a variety of polymers containing complementary functional groups
such as esters, (meth)acrylates, acetoxys, pyridines and others (Le Moigne et al. 2018).

Figure 4 shows a PCA biplot for the WPC model substrates and different modified AFM tips. PCA
reduced the multiple observed variables to three components, which measured the sensitivity of
the coated tips to the substrates. The covariance was positive for–COOH, maleic anhydride groups
in PE-g-MA and ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol (EVOH) groups. However, it was negative for -CH3
groups. From Figure 4, -COOH and PE-g-MA coated tips show good sensitivity to EVOH and PE-
g-MA substrates. The EVOH coated tip shows a high affinity to cellulose and softwood
extractives. On the other hand the -CH3 coated tip was sensitivity towards the LDPE substrate. The
variable sensitivity of all the coated tips towards PP, lignin and hardwood extractive substrates can
clearly be observed from the PCA Biplot.

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-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

1.0
2
PE-g-MA
CH3
Principal Component 2

LDPE PE-g-MA COOH

0.5

EVOH
0 0.0

PP
Lignin HW Extractive EVOH
Cellulose
-0.5

SW Extractive
-2
-2 0 2
Principal Component 1

Figure 4: PCA biplot of WPC model substrates and different coated AFM tips

Conclusion
In CFM, the tip is chemically modified to detect special functional groups and their distribution
on the surface of a sample by means of adhesive force measurements. In this study, tips modified
with methyl (-CH3) and carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional groups and WPC compatibiliser
compounds of EVOH and PE-g-MA were used to mimic their interactions on model components
of wood (cellulose, lignin and extractives), polyolefins and WPC compatibilisers. The -COOH
coated tip showed strong adhesive interactions on cellulose and the extractives and the -CH3 coated
tip exhibited strong interaction on lignin. Even though lignin contains some hydroxyl and acid
functional groups, it is mostly hydrophobic and a weak interaction between lignin and the
carboxylic tip was expected, while a strong interaction was expected with the -CH3 tip. With
regards to the extractives, the -COOH coated tip showed strong interactions on both hardwood and
softwood extractives, as opposed to the -CH3 coated tip, which had weak interactions on the same
substrates. The -COOH coated tip exhibited strong interactions on all the compatibilisers. The
compatibiliser EVOH coated tip showed strong adhesive force on PP and a weak interaction on
LDPE. A strong adhesive force was achieved between the PE-g-MA coated tip and PP and weak
adhesive force on LDPE.
From our study, the surface chemistry of model WPC components was assessed with CFM and
adhesive forces determined between wood components, polymers and compatibilisers at the
molecular level.

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References

Agyeman S, Obeng-Ahenkora N K, Assiamah S, Twumasi G (2019) Exploiting recycled plastic

waste as an alternative binder for paving blocks production. Case Studies in Construction
Materials, 11, e00246.

Basson N C (2013) The effect of molecular composition on the properties of polyolefin-wood

composites (Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University).

Bastidas J C, Venditti R, Pawlak J, Gilbert R, Zauscher S, Kadla J F (2005) Chemical force

microscopy of cellulosic fibers. Carbohydrate polymers, 62(4), 369-378.

Berquand A, Ohler B (2010) Common Approaches to Tip Functionalization for AFM-base

Molecular Recognition Measurements. Bruker Application Note.

Deda D K, Bueno C D C, Ribeiro G A, Moraes A D S, Garcia P S, Brito B, Leite F D L (2012)

Atomic force microscopy-based molecular recognition: A promising alternative to environmental
contaminants detection.Current microscopy contributions to advances in science and technology,
5, 1-30.

Duwez A S, Poleunis C, Bertrand P, Nysten B (2001) Chemical recognition of antioxidants and

UV-light stabilizers at the surface of polypropylene: atomic force microscopy with chemically
modified tips. Langmuir, 17(20), 6351-6357.

Gardner D, Oporto G, Tze W T Y (2016) Wood and Fiber-Based Composites: Surface Properties
and Adhesion. In Lignocellulosic Fibers and Wood Handbook: Renewable Materials for Today's
Environment (pp. 345-383). Wiley Blackwell.

Godfrey L (2019) Waste plastic, the challenge facing developing countries-Ban it, change it,
collect it?. Recycling, 4(1), 3.

Kim J K, Pal K (2010) Recent advances in the processing of wood-plastic composites; 32. Springer
Science & Business Media.

Kumi-Larbi Jnr A, Yunana D, Kamsouloum P, Webster M, Wilson D C, Cheeseman C (2018)

Recycling waste plastics in developing countries: Use of low-density polyethylene water sachets
to form plastic bonded sand blocks. Waste management, 80, 112-118.

Le Moigne N, Otazaghine B, Corn S, Angellier-Coussy H, Bergeret A (2018) Surfaces and

Interfaces in Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites: Fundamentals, Modifications and
Characterization. Springer.

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Orue A, Eceiza A, Arbelaiz A (2018) Pretreatments of Natural Fibers for Polymer Composite
Materials. In Lignocellulosic Composite Materials. Springer, Cham: 137-175.
Stokke D D, Wu Q, Han G (2013) Introduction to wood and natural fiber composites; John Wiley
& Sons.

Wegener G, Windeisen E (2016) Chemically‐Based Modern Wood Composites. Lignocellulosic

Fibers and Wood Handbook: Renewable Materials for Today's Environment: 305-311.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Innovative High-Feed Rate Additive Manufacturing Using Sustainable

Nano- Micro- Cellulose-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites

Douglas Gardner, University of Maine, USA

[email protected]

Abstract
The University of Maine and Oakridge National Laboratory are collaborating on a research program to
explore Innovative High-Feed Rate Additive Manufacturing Using Sustainable Nano- Micro- Cellulose-
Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites. The research will focus on developing and evaluating low-cost
nano-cellulose- and micro cellulose-reinforced thermoplastic formulations for use in composites
manufacturing. The project will produce cellulose fibers using various type of lignocellulosic feedstocks
at different fibrillation levels, develop surface treatment approaches and efficient drying techniques.
The project will also involve innovative composite preparation and adaptation to large scale additive
manufacturing. The project will include material and process characterization at different stages of the
project and techno-economic analysis of different processes. We will also evaluate surface finishing
methods to produce a suitable tooling surface. In parallel, the project will also perform modeling
studies to predict temperature distribution and thermal distortion during 3D printing as well as
toolpath optimization. Finally, the developed materials will be demonstrated in the use phase for
different applications.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Green enzyme-based processes for value-added applications of lignin

Georg Gebitz
[email protected]
Gibson Nyanhongo
[email protected]

BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Abstract
Lignin accounts for around 30% of all non-fossil-based carbon sources while only about 3 % of the
lignin resulting from pulp and paper production is currently used for value-added applications.
Controlled modification of lignosulfonates (LS) with laccase-enzymes opens up a number of
sustainable applications which are presented here. Modified LS were used to substitute fossil-based
styrene-butadiene latex as binder in coating formulations for graphic paper. Laccase oxidation resulted
in improved printing properties (reduced picking), reduced penetration according to sectional
fluorescence microscopy while Abo Akademi gravimetric water retention properties were comparable
to those obtained with reference latex. Slow-release fertilizer granules were developed from laccase
polymerized LS and alginate which prolonged the release of fertilizer from 5 to 25 days. Hydrogels and
films were enzymatically synthesized from LS and fibres (e.g. cellulose) for reinforcement. In these
materials, the laccase remained active and completely reduced oxygen to water in a closed system,
making it suitable for application as oxygen barrier system. Finally, laccase functionalized LS have a
potential as biobased glues for various applications. In addition to up-grading of LS, laccases have
likewise great potential to covalently functionalize (e.g. hydrophobization, antimicrobial) lignocellulose
materials. Thereby, functional molecules like fatty acid esters, alkylamines, aromatic amines,
fluorophenols or tannins were enzymatically coupled to lignin moieties. Covalent binding was proven
by using lignin model molecules like syringylglycerol β-guaiacyl, guaiacylglycerol β-guaiacylether and
dibenzodioxocin together with LC–MS, XPS and NMR analysis. Overall, this demonstrates the potential
of enzyme-based processes for up-grading lignin and lignocellulosic materials.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

New Bio-Based Sandwich Panel with High Impact-Resistance, following

Cradle-to-Cradle Design

Raphaela Hellmayr1
[email protected]
Mathias Deutz1
[email protected]
Roman Myna2
[email protected]
Rupert Wimmer1
[email protected]

1University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

2Wood K plus - Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry,
Austria

Abstract
Wood is a bio-based and renewable material with superior properties, however, dimensional constraints or limitations in specific
properties exist. During the past century different engineered wood products have been developed to overcome these limits. Most
developments are combining wood particles, wood veneer sheets, or solid wood lamella, all glued with adhesives to materials
such as particleboards, plywood or cross laminated timber. Formaldehyde-reacting adhesives are currently used in the wood
industry. Existing regulations are limiting formaldehyde emissions, but the bio-based resource wood is still combined with a
petrochemical component, with a separation of these components at the end of the product life-cycle being impossible. The aim
of this research is to develop sustainable products without any toxic chemicals, which enables value creation within a natural
cycle. The cradle-to-cradle design principle is adopted, as proposed in the 1990s by Braungart and McDonough, which defines
products optimized for a biological cycle, a technical cycle, or the combination of both. To apply this for engineered wood
products, two possibilities exist: (1) separate material components at the end of life, or (2) use only non-toxic and biodegradable
materials. Within that frame a novel sandwich panel was developed. The panel has two wooden surface layers, made from
plywood, and a core layer made from a non-woven hemp mat. A novel adhesive with a lignin-base was used to assemble core and
face layers. The panel is lightweight and demonstrates a good thermal performance. Due to the flexible non-woven core, the new
panel type is also elastic and impact-resistant. This property profile makes the panel interesting for indoor facings, claddings or
partition walls in sports halls and gyms.

Key words: cradle to cradle, wood, hemp, lignin, bio-based, adhesive, sandwich panel, non-woven, lightweight

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Systematic evaluation of wheat flour, wheat starch and wheat protein in

urea and phenol formaldehyde resins

Elfriede Hogger1
[email protected]
Hendrikus W.G. Van Herwijen1
[email protected]
Wolfgang Kanter2
[email protected]
Johannes Konnerth3
[email protected]

1Wood
K plus, Kompetenzzentrum Holz Gmbh, Austria
2Metadynea Austria GmbH

3Department of Material Sciences and Process Engineering, BOKU - University of

Natural Resources and Life Sciences

Abstract
The continuous demand of plywood underlines that it is one of the important products in the wood
panel industry. Plywood can be used for many applications, a basic distinction is made between
interior and exterior use. The resins generally used in European plywood production are urea (UF) and
phenol formaldehyde (PF). Both resin systems have advantages and disadvantages. UF resins are both
inexpensive and widely used, but respond sensitively to the effects of moisture and water and release
formaldehyde during hydrolysis (Dunky 1998). Due to their chemical stability in cured state, PF resins
are resistant to moisture and weathering and have few to hardly any formaldehyde emissions, but are
more expensive than UF resins (Dunky & Niemz 2002).

A common practice to reduce the disadvantages during processing of these resins is the addition of
additives. Among other benefits, additives can reduce the consumption of raw material and thus lower
the price of the adhesive, or improve processing parameters. There are two main categories of
additives: extenders and fillers, while the first one has adhesive properties itself (EN 923-15).

Among other extenders available, wheat flour is used most commonly. However, the quantities of
wheat flour added to the resins are usually based on operational experience. There are rarely
systematic scientific studies in literature on the effects of the addition of wheat flour and its main
ingredients to resins. Wheat flour generally consists of 67-70 % starch and 12-18 % protein
(Lindhauer 2010).

In this project, wheat flour and its main components were systematically studied in various quantities
as an addition to either UF or PF resins. To identify the influence of the flour and its components on
the resins, the physico-chemical and mechanical properties of the adhesives and the plywood panels
thereof were investigated. Possible limitations, also with regard to the quantities added, were
evaluated.

The aim was to add quantities of up to 100 % extender, based on solid content of the resins. The
addition of protein to the two resin systems was limited to a maximum of 30 % due to its strong

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influence on the viscosity. Although the extenders behaved differently with respect to viscosity of the
resins and in terms of buffer capacity, no effect on curing behavior could be observed with either UF or
PF resins.

The influence of extenders on wet shear strength of plywood panels was investigated according to EN
314-1. Panels with UF-based blends were pre-treated according to the criteria for interior use and
panels with PF-based blends according to the criteria for exterior use. The treatments considered most
critical for each area of use were applied.

For all UF-based panels wet shear strength was tested and results met the requirements of EN 314-2,
while for PF-based panels satisfactory results were obtained only when small amounts of wheat flour
or starch were added. For the case of PF, protein could be added up to 30 % still meeting the
requirements of EN 314-2.

Keywords: UF, PF, wheat extenders, viscosity, ABES, plywood, wet shear strength

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Influences of various infill orientations on specific

mechanical properties of 3D printed wood/Polylactic Acid
(PLA) composites which were processed using Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM)
S. KAIN1*– M. MUSSO2 – A. PETUTSCHNIGG1

1Research Scientist, University of Applied Sciences Salzburg, Department of

Forest Products Technology and Timber Construction, Kuchl, Austria, A.P.:
[email protected] * Corresponding author:
[email protected]
2 Research Scientist, University of Salzburg, Department of Chemistry and Physics
of Materials, Salzburg, Austria, M.M.: [email protected]
Abstract

The production of components using Additive Manufacturing (AM), in particular Fused

Deposition Modeling (FDM), has increased significantly in recent years. Not only the process
technology itself has steadily developed, also the product range of materials for FDM has
continuously grown.

In addition to many commonly utilized thermoplastic polymers which are suitable for
conventional FDM – such as Polylactic Acid (PLA) or Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) –
some very special materials, including wood/PLA composites (wood filaments), have also been
successfully used for FDM. Basically, wood filaments are composite materials made of the
thermoplastic polymer PLA, in which wood fibers are embedded. Such compounds provide
several benefits in connection with specific mechanical properties, while having a positive
environmental footprint.

In this paper, possible effects of different infill patterns (infill orientations) on selected
mechanical characteristics – in particular tensile strength, compressive strength as well as charpy
impact strength – of FDM 3D printed specimens are analyzed. The specimens were produced
using two specially made wood/PLA composites – consisting of one specific PLA polymer
(IngeoTM 3251D) which was blended with two various contents of wood fibers (ARBOCEL®
C100). In connection with the wood fiber content, one wood/PLA composite was made of
15 wt. % wood fibers and the other was made of 25 wt. % wood fibers. A commercially
available Ultimaker 2+ from Ultimaker B.V. equipped with an unmodified 0.6 mm nozzle was
used for processing the non-abrasive wood/PLA composites. After several preliminary tests, the
printing speed was finally set to 22.5 mm • sec-1, to ensure the best possible printing quality.

The FDM 3D printed test specimens were tested as a function of the infill orientations (infill
patterns) applied as well as the wood fiber content used. In the context of the infill patterns, the
influence factors of seven different orientations – in particular 0°, 15° crossed, 30° crossed,

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45° crossed, 60° crossed, 75° crossed and 90° – on selected mechanical material properties have
been investigated.
It can be shown that there is in some ways a direct correlation between the applied infill pattern
(infill orientation) and the measured mechanical characteristic. In addition, it can also be
demonstrated that a higher wood fiber content in the wood/PLA composite leads to significantly
higher mechanical properties.

A further development of conventional FDM 3D printing is the so-called 4D printing. In this

case, a moisture-induced shape transformation of the FDM 3D printed object is caused over time.

Key words: Fused Deposition Modeling; FDM; Wood filaments; Mechanical performance;
Tensile strength; Compressive strength; Charpy impact strength; Infill orientations; Infill patterns

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Introduction

In recent years, a lot has happened in 3D printing using FDM methodology. A large variety of
new materials with interesting properties became available for 3D printing – including wood
filaments – at the same time the process technology being steadily adapted. Especially for new
materials, it is essential to know exactly specific material characteristics, as these significantly
affect the final performance of the 3D printed object. In addition, when using 3D printing, the
internal structure (infill) of the object can be influenced, which in turn can affect specific
mechanical properties.

Basically, all thermoplastic materials can be utilized for manufacturing physical three-
dimensional objects with the aid of FDM 3D printing. This manufacturing method builds a layer-
by-layer model by depositing the melted thermoplastic material until the three-dimensional
object is finished (Gebhardt, 2011).

As a result of sustainability concerns as well as environmental concerns, companies worldwide

are trying to substitute petrochemical-based products by using innovative materials made of bio-
polymers which are reinforced with natural fibers, so-called bio-composites (Mohanty et al.
2002; Faruk et al. 2012).

Researchers around the world have already reported the successful utilization of wood fillers. In
general, fillers made of wood are preferred due to the low price – compared to the more
expansive synthetic filler materials – and the unlimited availability (English and Falk 1996;
Osswald 1999; Williams and Wool 2000; Bledzki and Faruk 2003; Peltola et al. 2014). In
addition, filler materials made of natural resources have a low density (Holbery and Houston
2006), which leads to a noticeable light-weight structure in comparison to synthetic fibrous
fillers, such as glass fibers (Summerscales et al. 2010).

Materials & Methods

Formulations and fabrication of specially made wood/PLA composites

The PLA granulate (IngeoTM 3251D) supplied by NatureWorks LLC (Minnetonka; USA) and the
wood fibers/particles (ARBOCEL® C100) provided by JRS J. Rettenmaier & Söhne GmbH + Co
KG (Baden-Württemberg; Germany) was compounded using a twin-screw compounder, without
adding any additives like colorants or coupling agents during the compounding process. As soon
as the wood/PLA composite was compounded, it was shredded and compounded again to ensure
a more homogeneous distribution of the wood fibers/particles in the polymer matrix. In total, two
different wood/PLA recipes were applied for fabricating the wood filaments, which were then
used for manufacturing the test specimens. In general, the components of the wood filaments are
the same, they only varied regarding the wood fiber content (composite #1: 15 wt. % and
composite #2: 25 wt. %). Both wood filaments had a diameter of 1.75 mm, respectively. Table 1
shows the various wood/PLA recipes of the two specially made wood filaments.

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Table 1: Comparison of the two specially made wood filaments in terms of composition.

Recipe of the wood/PLA composites used

ID PLA (IngeoTM 3251D) Wood fibers (ARBOCEL® C100)
[wt. %] [wt. %]
Composite #1 85 15
Composite #2 75 25

Test specimens production

An Ultimaker 2+ from the Dutch company Ultimaker B.V. (Geldermalsen; Netherland) was
utilized for fabricating the different specimens for testing the mechanical performance of the two
specially made wood/PLA composites. The FDM 3D printer was equipped with a standard
0.6 mm nozzle for processing the wood filaments. In addition, specific printer settings were
adjusted, in order to produce test specimens having the best possible quality. The print speed was
decreased to about 22.5 mm • sec-1, while the infill speed was set to about 13.5 mm • sec-1.
Default settings were applied for the nozzle temperature as well as the build plate temperature,
the nozzle temperature being maintained at 210°C, while the build plate temperature being set to
60°C. The slicing software Cura (v 3.2.1) from Ultimaker B.V. was utilized for the slicing
procedure as well as for adjusting the process parameters – including the varying infill
orientations (infill patterns) applied – for producing the test specimens.

Infill orientation (infill pattern)

In order to identify a possible influence of various infill patterns (infill orientations) on specific
mechanical properties – such as tensile strength, compressive strength as well as charpy impact
strength – seven different infill orientations were selected and applied for fabricating all test
specimens. The infill patterns (infill orientations) are depicted in figure 1.

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Figure 1: All seven infill patterns applied for fabricating the test specimens | (a) 0° | (b) 15° crossed | (c) 30° crossed
| (d) 45° crossed | (e) 60° crossed | (f) 75° crossed | (g) 90°

Impact strength (unnotched specimens)

A pendulum impact tester CEAST 9050 Pendelschlagwerk from Instron GmbH (Darmstadt;
Germany) was utilized, in order to investigate the charpy impact strength of the FDM 3D printed
test specimens. In addition, the testing machine was equipped with a hammer which is capable to
apply an impact energy of 0.5 J, and all measurements were conducted according to the standard
DIN EN ISO 179-1 (2010).

Tensile strength

A Zwick/Roell Z250 – universal material testing machine – from the Zwick Roell Group (Ulm;
Germany) equipped with an add-on device for testing the tensile strength and a 20 kN load cell
was utilized for the investigations. The cross-head speed during testing was set to about
10 mm • min-1, while the initial distance between the lower and upper grip was about 115 mm,
meaning a resulting clamping length of about 17.5 mm. All measurements were implemented
according to the standard ÖNORM EN ISO 527-4 (1997).

Compressive strength

For testing the compressive strength of the FDM 3D printed test specimens, the same universal
testing machine was utilized which was used for measuring the tensile strength. In this case, the
testing machine was equipped with a 250 kN load cell as well as an add-on device for testing the
compressive strength. The cross-head speed during testing was also set to 10 mm • min-1. All
measurements were conducted according to the standard ÖNORM EN ISO 604 (2003).

Results and Discussion

The following results come from the previously published publication (Kain et al. 2020).
Furthermore, additional investigation results regarding special mechanical properties can be also
found in this publication.

Impact strength (unnotched specimens)

An analysis of the impact strength (unnotched specimens) illustrates that FDM 3D printed
specimens having an infill orientation of 0° provided by far the highest measured characteristic
values, as it can be seen in figure 2. Basically, the more the infill pattern (infill orientation) shifts
towards 90°, meaning the infill orientation being equal to the testing direction, the more the
resulting impact strength decreases. In general, the adhesion of two adjacent filament strands is
not that good, for that reason the FDM 3D printed structure can only slightly withstand the
impact of the hammer.

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Figure 2: The behavior of the impact strength (unnotched specimens) depending on the infill orientation applied as
well as the wood/PLA composite used (composite #1 or composite #2).

Tensile strength

Figure 3 illustrates an analysis of the ultimate tensile strength of the FDM 3D printed test
specimens as a function of the infill orientation applied and the wood fiber content within the
wood filaments used (composite #1 or composite #2). The box plots show that the highest
possible tensile strength can be measured when an infill orientation of 15° crossed or 30° crossed
is applied, depending on the wood/PLA composite used. Additionally, it is also assumed that the
behavior of the ultimate tensile strength – as it can be seen in figure 3 – directly correlates with
the printing path (infill orientation) followed by the print head to create the three-dimensional
object. As outlined in relevant literature (Stark and Rowlands 2003; Peltola et al. 2014), a higher
content of wood fibers in the specimen leads to higher mechanical characteristics (compressive
strength, tensile modulus, compressive modulus, tensile strength, etc.). Due to that reason, test
specimens made of the wood/PLA composite having a higher share of fibers, generally lead to a
higher mechanical performance.

Figure 3: The behavior of the ultimate tensile strength as a function of the wood/PLA composite (composite #1 or
composite #2) used and the infill orientation applied.

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Compressive strength

Figure 4 shows the evaluation of the compressive strength σ0,2 of the FDM 3D printed test
specimens, depending on the fiber content of the wood/PLA composite used and the infill
orientation (infill pattern) applied. Basically, the behavior of the compressive strength is related
to the tensile strength behavior (as it can be seen in figure 3), but not being that pronounced. The
highest possible material characteristic denoting the compressive strength can be measured when
the infill pattern (infill orientation) is set to 0° or 15° crossed. This means, the infill orientation is
parallel or almost parallel to the loading direction, which leads to an optimal flow of forces.

Figure 4: The behavior of the compressive strength σ 0,2 depending on the infill orientation (infill pattern) applied and
the fiber content (composite #1 or composite #2) in the wood/PLA composite.

Summary and Conclusions

It can be shown that there is a direct correlation between the infill orientation (infill pattern)
applied and the mechanical performance (tensile strength as well as compressive strength) of the
FDM 3D printed test specimens. The behavior of both mechanical properties is not exclusively
directly correlated, as it can be seen in figure 3 as well as in figure 4.

For the impact strength it can be claimed, that FDM 3D printed specimens with an infill
orientation (infill pattern) of 0° show the best possible impact strength. The further the infill
pattern (infill orientation) shifts towards 90° (the testing direction corresponding to the infill
orientation), the worse the resulting mechanical properties become.

In addition, it can be demonstrated that the wood fiber content of the wood/PLA composites
(composite #1 or composite #2) has an influence on the mechanical performance of the FDM 3D
printed test specimens. Basically, it can be shown that a higher fiber content tends to result in
higher mechanical characteristics of the FDM 3D printed biocomposites. At least up to a wood
fiber content of 25 wt. %, a noticeable improvement in mechanical characteristics can be
observed.

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Taking into account all the results obtained, it is strongly recommended to carefully select the
infill pattern (infill orientation) – especially for load bearing components – in order to obtain the
best possible performance for the FDM 3D printed objects.

Acknowledgements
All investigations are implemented within the project Interreg Austria–Bavaria AB 97 TFP Hy-
Mat. One major objective of this joint venture is to successfully implement a research platform for
producing and processing hybrid materials, such as 3D printable wood fiber reinforced
biocomposites.

References
Bledzki AK and Faruk O (2003) Wood fibre reinforced polypropylene composites: Effect of fibre
geometry and coupling agent on physico-mechanical properties. Applied Composite Materials
10(6): 365–79.
DIN EN ISO 179-1 (2010) Plastics-determination of charpy impact properties: part 1: non-
instrumented impact test (ISO 179-1:2010)
English BW and Falk RH (1996) Factors that Affect the Application of Woodfiber-Plastic
Composites. In: Proceedings (Forest Products Society) no. 7293: 189–194.
Faruk O, Bledzki AK, Fink H-P and Sain M (2012) Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers:
2000–2010. Progress in Polymer Science 37: 1552–1596.
Holbery J and Houston D (2006) Natural-fiber-reinforced polymer composites in automotive
applications | Overview: Low-cost composites in vehicle manufacture. JOM 58(11): 80–86.
Kain S, Ecker JV, Haider A, Musso M, Petutschnigg A (2020) Effects of the infill pattern on
mechanical properties of fused layer modeling (FLM) 3D printed wood/polylactic acid (PLA)
composites. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 78 (1): 65–74.
Mohanty AK, Misra M and Drzal LT (2002) Sustainable Bio-Composites from renewable
resources: Opportunities and challenges in the green materials world. Journal of Polymers and
the Environment 10: 19–26
Osswald TA (1999) Fundamental principles of polymer composites: processing and design.
Madison, Wisconsin.
ÖNORM EN ISO 527-4 (1997) Plastics-determination of tensile properties: part 4: test conditions
for isotropic and orthotropic fibre-reinforced plastic composites (ISO 527-4:1997)
ÖNORM EN ISO 604 (2003) Plastics-determination of compressive properties (ISO 604:2002)
Peltola H, Pääkkönen E, Jetsu P and Heinemann S (2014) Wood based PLA and PP composites:
Effect of fibre type and matrix polymer on fibre morphology, dispersion and composite
properties. Composites: Part A vol. 61: 13–22.
Stark NM and Rowlands RE (2003) Effects of wood fiber characteristics on mechanical properties
of wood/polypropylene composites. Wood and Fiber Science vol. 35: 167–174.
Summerscales J, Dissanayake NPJ, Virk AS and Hall W (2010) A review of bast fibres and their
composites | Part 1 – Fibres as reinforcements. Composites: Part A vol. 41: 1329–1335.
Williams GI and Wool RP (2000) Composites from natural fibers and soy oil resins. Applied
Composite Materials 7: 421–432.

Biography

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4D X-Ray CT Studies on Wood-based Panels at UGCT-Woodlab

Pieerre Kibleur1
[email protected]
Wanzhao Li2
[email protected]
Jan Van den Bulcke1
[email protected]
Joris Van Acker1
[email protected]

1UGCT – UGent-Woodlab, Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience

Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
2College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, China

Abstract
In the decade since the building of Nanowood in 2009, the University of Ghent’s Center for X-ray
Tomography (UGCT) has deepened its expertise, and its portfolio of techniques to investigate
materials. Nanowood is an X-ray CT scanner specifically designed for high-resolution investigation of
wood and wood-based materials. It is capable of reaching resolutions down to 400nm, and possesses
an ingenuous modular system (two X-ray sources and two detectors), to provide the most adequate
setup for the study of a given wood-based sample (Dierick et al., 2014).

Specifically, when studying the interaction of wood with water, the contrast between these two phases
can be particularly low, due to the similarity in density and elementary composition. However, the
study of this interaction is particularly relevant not only for wood, but also for engineered-wood, such
as wood-based panels. Indeed, their behavior remains largely un-characterized, while their use
worldwide continues to grow.

To study this interaction, we are able at UGCT to use a hygroscopy setup. Coupled to a generator of
moist air (GenRH, System Measurements Systems Ltd., UK), an indigenous climate chamber allows to
visualize in-situ a sample swelling under the effect of water absorption (Patera et al., 2017). The most
recent use cases involved medium-density fiberboard (MDF), and advanced reconstruction algorithms
to compensate for the motion artefacts inherent to the acquisition of tomograms on a non-stable
sample. Eventually, the results revealed the three-dimensional deformation field, in a representative
sample, during swelling at 95% relative humidity (Kibleur et al., in preparation).

Furthermore, aside from the interaction with water, the pure mechanics of wood-based panels present
exceptional complexity. Moreover, although macroscopic tests may dynamically characterize the
material, the true nature of the deformations down to the level of the constituent (e.g. wood fibers,
wood flakes, etc…) is unknown. However, we are able to use a dynamic load cell (Deben Ltd., UK), for
use in combination with CT. This cell can apply a load of up to 5kN, in compression or in tension. In
the latest works, this enabled us to visualize, at different compression steps, the evolution of the
microstructure in laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and oriented strain board (OSB). The results
confirmed the impact of the glue on the local stiffness, but also revealed the importance of high-
density intrusions protecting the microstructure (Li et al., in review).

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Overall, time-resolved X-ray CT, often referred to as 4D CT, presents growing opportunities for
advanced material characterization. Our research group combines expertise and innovativeness, on
hardware and software alike. The present work highlights such innovations, specific to wood-based
materials.

Biography

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Edge Banding Performance Analysis of Wood Based

Material in The Furniture Industry
Kucuk Huseyin Koc1*– Ender Hazir2 – Sedanur Seker3

1 Prof., Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey

* Corresponding author
[email protected]
2 PhD., Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
3 Msc., Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]

Abstract

Edge banding applications have an intensive use in the furniture industry due to the visuality,
added value and protective properties it provides. In addition, the edge banding process is an
important step in the production process. In this study, the results of PVC based edge banding
application applied to the 18 mm MDF (Medium Density Fiberboard) and PB (Particle Board)
slide edges are evaluated. Samples were taken from an industrial process by sampling method. In
the application, a computer controlled computer edge banding machine was used. In the edge
banding machine parameters such as speed glue temperature, speed and pressure were kept
constant. Dependant variable was edge banding performance while independent variable was
selected as material type. Edgebandign performance was analyzed with ANOVA and probability
plot.
According to results, material type was found as significant factor. MDF and PB for edge banding
performance values were found as 0.049 and 0.051 N/mm2, respectively.

Key words: Furniture, edge banding, adhesion resistance, edge banding performance, quality
control

Introduction

One of the most common processes seen in almost all modern furniture products is edge banding
application. This process, which seems simple in practice, actually has a complex process detail
with at least 5-6 parameters taken into account. For this reason, edge banding machines working
with traditional managements have quickly been replaced by computer controlled smart edge
banding machines all over the world. However, it is not possible to say that the problem has been
solved optimally even if the widespread use of computer controlled machines provides an increase
in quality and efficiency in edge banding. Because one of the important problems that arise in the
life cycle of products such as furniture and doors is that the edge bands are opened to the process
of use or deformed at various levels causes the function of the product to weaken.

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Edge Band applications have an intensive use in the furniture industry due to the visuality, added
value and protective properties it provides. However, edgebanding applications are an important
cost item in the process. The edgeband cost accounts for 3% of the cost of particle board and coated
particle board [1-3].

The first time woodworking appeared most commonly dates back to the medieval period. In this
period, massive trees were used as raw materials in furniture and threaded bushings were used as
joining technique. In this style, drawer, chest, carved door wings were made, and over time,
mosque and church furniture were transferred. Box furniture constructions were obtained by
adding narrow solid woods side by side [4]. Nowadays, with the rapidly developing technology,
important changes have occurred in the furniture sector, but the use of wood and wood composites,
which are wood-based wood composites, has become widespread due to the limited demand for
wood and the increasing demand for furniture [5-7].

Wood-based boards are produced in a way that their surface areas are homogeneous but their cross-
sectional areas cannot be aesthetically pleased due to their production technologies. For this
reason, it was necessary to perform a complementary aesthetic application on the sectional part of
the plate, which has been applied any surface treatment. While the edge massif application was
widely used in the past, today this application has been replaced by the combined materials under
the name of edge band produced from various raw materials. Since the edgebands require a second
process to cover the edges after the surface treatment of the boards is completed, the furniture
industry has developed production techniques in accordance with this production technique [8].

PVC Edge Band emerges as a product with thermoplastic feature, which is the most common use
area. The fact that it has been used for many years has led to the fact that the production technology
of this material has advanced and its usage area has been expanded further. The most important
feature of the glued edge bands is that they are produced in accordance with the coated plate
surfaces used in furniture manufacturing under today's conditions. By using quality raw materials,
it can be ensured to obtain high standard products. The fact that it is very suitable for furniture
production processes and offers a wide range of options for color matching with other materials
has made PVC edgebands the most used type of edgebanding.

Wooden edge bands are wooden strips obtained by cutting the coatings obtained from solid trees
by peeling or cutting management in the longitudinal direction and by cutting them in special
dimensions to the place of use. Although wood products are not alternative for those who cannot
give up their natural appearance, using wood edgebanding that is fully compatible with this wood
look is undoubtedly an important place in furniture production. When choosing wood belts to be
used, it will be very accurate to choose quality wood [9-11]. Saçlı [12]; investigated the effects of
application time, edge band type and edge band thickness on adhesion performance in edge band
application in melamine coated particle boards. As a result of the study, it was revealed that the
factors determined had an impact on adhesion performance. In the study of Lyu et al. [13], they
applied PVC edgebanding to fiber board based materials in the edgebanding process. In evaluating
adhesion performance, they made performance evaluation based on glue amount, temperature and
application speed parameters. As a result of the study, the maximum performance was reached at
140-150 ° C, the amount of glue 363-379 gr / m² and the application speed at the factor levels of
13-15 m / min. In the study of Sedlecky and Gasparik [14], they conducted researches in terms of

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processing and energy consumption of wood-based materials with edge banding applied. As a
result of the study, it was concluded that the energy consumption increased in the drilling process
for the materials with edge banding. Yapıcı et al. [15] investigated the effects of edgeband
thickness on performance on solid edgebanding applications. As a result of the study, they stated
that 5 mm thickness gives better results in MDF applications. Saclı and Neseli [16] Using the
Taguchi experiment design, melamine-coated particle boards studied the performance evaluation
of the edgeband thickness at the end of the aging period. It is concluded that the aging period and
edgeband thickness are important on performance.

The experimental design approach is a method used in planning the experiments and evaluating
the data obtained as a result of the application in an objective way [17-19]. By using the
experimental design in evaluating a process or developing a new product, information about the
process can be gathered, effective parameters and interactions between the parameters can be
monitored, and it is based on investigating optimum levels by type of quality characteristic. One
of the most important experimental design techniques used for the development of products and
processes, reaching a structure required by certain standards, meeting customer requests, is the
response surface method. This method can be used in the development and improvement of new
processes as well as the improvement of existing systems. In cases where a specified quality
characteristic (response) is affected by different parameters and levels, it is a method aimed at
optimizing this quality characteristic by using mathematical and statistical methods to make
modeling and analysis. Response surface method; reveals the relationship between the variables
and the response or responses in line with the application of regression analysis using experimental
data that emerged in accordance with the design using experiment design, regression analysis and
optimization techniques.

Considering real life problems, it is aimed to be able to produce by finding cheaper and more
effective ways without compromising product quality. To achieve this goal, the response surface
method can use both statistical and mathematical models together [19-25].

For the improvement of edge banding, at least three groups should be taken into consideration
together with the basic parameters. The first of these are the parameters that depend on the
edgeband structure (type, quality, dimensions). The second is the adhesive properties used and the
third is the process-dependent (speed, pressure, temperature, etc.) parameters. In addition,
materialing of the application is another important parameter group in the edge banding process.
In this study, it is revealed the factors affecting the edge band adhesion resistance in the edge band
application, which has an intensive use in the furniture industry. And by optimizing factor levels,
it is aimed to discuss factors affecting adhesion resistance and improvement conditions.

Materials & Methods

Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) and Particle Board (PB) were selected as test material in order
to determine the edge banding performance. Density levels of PB and MDF samples were
measured using randomly cut specimens with 50 mm by 50 mm squares. Each sample was weighed
and its dimensions were measured at an accuracy level of 0.1 g and 0.01 mm, respectively. Average
density of particleboard was determined as 0.56 g/cm3 while this value was 0.68 g/cm3 for MDF
samples.

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The edge banding has a widespread use due to its visually and protection against external
influences. At the same time, it creates added value in wooden furniture due to its different colour
options, different thicknesses and different types. In this study, PVC edge banding with a thickness
of 3 mm is used. The PVC edge banding applied to the samples was carried out on the CNC-
controlled edge banding machine. The speed of the machine is determined as 10 m / min, and the
glue temperature is set to 190˚ C.

Figure 1.a. MDF edge banding test started Figure 1.b. MDF after the test.
.

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Figure 2.a. PB edge banding test started Figure 2.b. PB after the test.

These samples were measured by using universal testing machine which is showing Figure 3 and
loading rate was selected as 5 mm/min. For each sample, the maximum edge bending strength was
determined as the force applied to each experimental sample at the time of failure. The results for
each of the specimen was illustrated by using edge banding performance software. Application
images of edge banding performance for MDF are given in Figure 1.a and 1.b. Application images
of edge banding performance for PB are given in Figure 2.a and 2.b.

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Figure 3. Universal testing machine

Results and Discussion

In this study, PVC edgebanding performance for different material types such as MDF and PB was
determined. Edgebandign performance was analyzed with ANOVA and probability plot.
Probability plot of edge banding performance values of MDF and PB is displayed in Figure 4. This
plot was presented with results of mean, standard deviation (StDev), sample size (N), Andersen
darling test (AD) and P-critical values. According to the results of 95% confidence level, P-values
were high than 0.05 showing the model the observations have a normal distribution. MDF and PB
for edge banding performance values were found as 0.049 and 0.051 N/mm2, respectively.

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Fig. 4. Probability plot result of Edge banding for MDF and PB

For each type of material types, 30 x 2 arrays were measured and these results were evaluated with
One-Way-ANOVA analysis. According to results, material type was found as significant factor.
ANOVA result for edge banding of MDF and PB was given in Table 1.

Table 1 ANOVA Results for Edge banding of MDF and PB

Source DF Adj SS Adj-MS F-Value P-Value
Material Type 1 0.000079 0.000079 69.96 0.000
Error 58 0.000065 0.000001
Total 59 0.000144

Conclusions

The aim of this study, PVC edgebanding performance for different material types such as MDF
and PB was determined. The data collected to evaluate the performance of the edgebanding was
evaluated using the Pobability plot and Anderson darling test. ANOVA was applied to determine
the effective factor. According to the results of 95% confidence level, P-values were high than
0.05 showing the model the observations have a normal distribution. Material type was found as
significant factor. MDF and PB for edge banding performance values were found as 0.049 and
0.051 N/mm2, respectively.

Acknowledgements

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"This work was supported by Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit of Istanbul
University-Cerrahpasa. Project number:FBA-2019-33685.”

References

[1]Sakarya, S., Doğan, Ö., Mobilya Sektör Raporu 2016, Orta Anadolu İhracatçı Birlikleri
Genel Sekreterliği ,Ankara, 2016.
[2] Usta İ., Güray A., Ankaradaki Küçük Ölçekli Mob. Firmalarının Yapısı ve Ürün
Türlerinin Yöresel Taleple İlişkisi, I. Uluslararası Mobilya Kongresi, 14-17 Ekim, İstanbul,
Türkiye,.1999.
[3] Anonim, Ülkeler Bazında Dünya Mobilya Ticareti Değerleri 2018, www.trademap.org.
(Nisan 2018).
[4] Hüseyin, H., Kodal, S., Altinok, M., Kaplamalı Orta Yoğunluklu Lif Levhada (MDF)
Köşe Birleştirme Tipinin ve Tutkal Çeşidinin Diyagonal Basma ve Çekme Direncine Etkisi, Yapı
Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi 1, 7–14, 2007.
[5] Sözen, E., Kabin Tipi Mobilyalarda Düz Köşe Birleştirmelerinde Kullanılan Kenar
Bandı Kalınlığının ve Türünün Birleştirme Direnci Üzerindeki Etkisinin Belirlenmesi, Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, Zonguldak Karaelmas Universitesi, 2008.
[6] Akkök, A., Demonte Mobilya Üretiminde Kenar Bantlama İşleminin, Birleştirme
Elemanlarının Mekanik Performansı Üzerine Etkileri, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi,
2016.
[7] Anonim, PVC ve ABS bazlı kenar bantlarının benzerlik ve farklılıkları
https://www.romaplastik.com/kenarbandidokt
[8] Stark, N., M., Cai, Z., Carll, C., 2010, Wood Handbook, Wood as an engineering
material, Centennial, Particleboard, General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190.
[9] Yılmaz, B.M., 2018, Mobilya endüstrisinde kullanılan pvc kenar bantları için
değerlendirme kriterlerinin belirlenmesi ve test metodlarının geliştirilmesi, Yükseklisans tezi,
Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara.
[10] Sözen, E., 2008, Kabin Tipi Mobilyalarda Düz Köşe Birleştirmelerinde Kullanılan
Kenar Bandı Kalınlığının ve Türünün Birleştirme Direnci Üzerindeki Etkisinin Belirlenmesi,
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Zonguldak Karaelmas Universitesi.
[11] Akkök, A., 2016, Demonte Mobilya Üretiminde Kenar Bantlama İşleminin,
Birleştirme Elemanlarının Mekanik Performansı Üzerine Etkileri, Yükseklisans tezi,
Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, 2016.
[12] Saclı, C., 2015, The effect of time and edhe danding type and thickness on the bending
and tensile strength of melamine coated particleboard, Proceeding of 27 International conferance,
213-219.
[13] Lyu, J., Jiang, L., Chen, M., 2017, Influence of temperature of applying glue, glue
dosage and feed rate on Peel strength of edge band from curved edge part, IOP conf.
Series:Material Science and Engineering 274: 1321-1332.
[14] Sedlecky M., Gasparik, M., 2017, Power consumption during edge milling process of
medium density fiberboard and edge-glued panel, BioResources 12(4): 7413-7426.

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[15] Yapıcı, F., Likos, E., Esen, R., 2012, The effect of edge banding thickness of some
trees on withdrawal strength of beech dowels pins in composite material, Wood research, 5(4):610-
612.
[16]Saclı, C., Neseli, S., 2016, Determination of the effect of edge banding thickness and
aging period on the mor and moe of melamine coated particle board using Taguchi method,
Tehnicki vyesnik, 23 (4): 1059-1065.
[17] Montgomery, D.C., 2005, Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th ed. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. Arizona, ISBN: 978-1-118-14692-7.
[18] Dellino, G., Kleijnen, J.P.C. and Meloni, C., 2010, Robust optimization in simulation:
Taguchi and Response Surface Methodology, Int. J. Production Economics, 125, 52-59.
[19]Miro-Quesada, G. and Del Castillo, E., 2004, Two approaches for improving the dual
response method in robust parameter design, Journal of Quality Technology, 36 (2), 154-168.
[20] Dvorak, T.M., 2001, Response surface optimization techniques for multiple objective
and randomly valued independent variable problems, Phd. Thesis, University of Central Florida.
[21] Montgomery, D.C. and Runger, G.C., 2011, Applied statistics and probability for
engineers, John Wiley & Sons, United States of America, ISBN: 0-471-20454-4.
[22]Lin, D.K.J., and Tu, W., 1995, Dual response surface optimization, Journal of Quality
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[23] Wang, B. P., 2004, Parameter optimization in multiquadric response surface
approximations, Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 26, 219-223.
[24] Chen, H.-W., Wong, W. K. and Xu, H., 2012, An augmented approach to the
desirability function, Journal of Applied Statistics, 39 (3), 599-613.
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Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Highly efficient, stable, and recyclable hydrogen manganese

oxide/cellulose film for the extraction of lithium from seawater

Daxin Liang, Northeast Forestry University, China

[email protected]

Abstract
The extraction of lithium from seawater has attracted much interest as a means to meet increasing
demand for lithium with the rapid expansion of the electric vehicle and electronics markets. Herein, a
renewable and recyclable hydrogen manganese oxide (HMO)-modified cellulose film was developed
and investigated toward the extraction of lithium from lithium-containing aqueous solutions. The
porous film was characterized and its extraction efficacy and selectivity toward lithium from an
aqueous solution (ppm level) and seawater (ppb level) were investigated. The HMO/cellulose film
exhibited a higher Li+adsorption capacity (21.6 mg g−1 HMO) than HMO/polymer (e.g., polyvinyl
chloride or polyvinylidene fluoride) films, which have been examined in the literature for lithium
extraction, owing to its multi-dimensional porosity and hydrophilicity. The kinetics analysis based on a
pseudo-second-order model indicated that the Li+ extraction rate of the HMO/cellulose film was three
times higher than that achieved by the HMO powder alone (i.e., 0.075 cf 0.023 g mg−1 h−1).
Furthermore, the HMO/cellulose film displayed high selectivity for Li + when exposed to seawater—the
extraction of Li+ reached 99%, whereas that of the other ions present in seawater (i.e., Sr 2+, K+, Ca2+)
was less than 4%. In addition, the adsorption capacity and mechanical strength of the HMO/cellulose
film remained stable even after eight adsorption–desorption cycles. The present findings demonstrate
the potential of the present HMO/cellulose film for the recovery of Li+ from seawater or waste water.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Agrocomposites for the reinforcement of concrete within light weight

structures

Laetitia Marrot1
[email protected]

Jana Winkelmann2
[email protected]

Natalie Vellguth2
[email protected]

Jan Binde2
[email protected]

Marco Wolf2
[email protected]

1 InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

2 Fraunhofer WKI, Germany

Abstract
Concrete performs well in compression but has low tensile performance. To improve properties of concrete under tensile loading
conditions (e.g., bending) requires a complementary supporting material to absorb excessive tensile forces. For this purpose, steel
is a common solution to reinforce concrete. Steel reinforcement is though susceptible to corrosion due to the alkaline
environment within concrete.

To reduce corrosion problems, another approach for concrete reinforcement is the complete substitution of the steel with a textile
reinforcement made of glass, carbon and/or plastic fibers. Textile fabrics can be customized thanks to their thread systems (warp
thread in the machine direction and weft threads across the machine direction). The type of crossing of warp and weft threads is
referred to as weave. The weave influences properties such as mechanical resistance, dimensional stability and drapability. While
effective, synthetic fibres, however, come from petroleum-based resources and their production is energy-intensive.

Cellulosic fibres are widely available in most countries and provide a cost-effective, low density reinforcement material. In
addition, cellulose fibres are biodegradable, renewable, non-hazardous and non-abrasive. Their specific mechanical properties
(i.e. specific strength and modulus) are comparable to those of synthetic fibres (e.g. E-glass) when used as reinforcement
materials. These advantages make cellulosic fibres a convenient material for the reinforcement of cement-based materials. As
well as for synthetic fibres, an alkaline environment can weaken cellulosic fibres, therefore a coating is required to protect them.

This study aims at assessing available flax fabrics for the reinforcement of concrete. Several weaving types will be considered
and mechanically characterized with textile standards. Their resistance to an alkaline environment will be tested, and different
coating formulations will be investigated to enhance the flax fabrics performances. The selection of a suitable polymer coating
focuses on compatibility with the reinforcing fibres, processing and usage properties such as viscosity, drip time, biobased
content, and chemical and temperature resistance.

Biography

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Laboratory testing on the face bond durability of cross-laminated

hardwoods

Munkaila Musah
[email protected]

Xinfeng Xie
[email protected]

Michigan Technological University, USA

Abstract
The study investigated the durability of the face bond in cross-laminated layups using 7 hardwood and
2 softwood species from the forests of the Great Lakes region. The layups were glued using resorcinol-
and melamine-based structural wood adhesives. A total of 720 combinations of the cross-laminated
wood species and adhesives were tested for delamination by exposing the samples to cyclic wet-dry
conditions. Distribution of the adhesive at the bond lines was studied as well, to understand the effect
of adhesive penetration on the bond durability. The results indicated that mix hardwood species
generally produced good bonds than single species cross lamination and the hybrid cross lamination
(Softwood and hardwood) had better bond durability in wet-dry conditions. Also, both melamine and
resorcinol based adhesives could be used to manufacture cross-laminated timber since softwood
species cross lamination, hybrid cross lamination, and mix hardwood cross lamination met the
requirements of the AITC Test T110-2007 (>8%) in dry and wet cycles. High failure rate (≥ 50%) was
produced in aspen, white ash and white pine for melamine glue and yellow birch for resorcinol
adhesive in the single species combination. Similarly, in the mix species cross lamination, red maple-
aspen, red maple-white ash, and red oak-hard maple in melamine, as well as aspen-hard maple,
aspen-yellow birch, red maple-hard maple and red oak-white ash cross lamination in the resorcinol
adhesive, recorded ≥ 50% rate of delamination which raises caution in their use in CLT
manufacturing. Anatomical features and specific gravity were related to delamination of both single
species cross lamination and mix species cross lamination. The abrupt and gradual transition in
softwood recorded no delamination with all adhesives except in melamine gradual transition that failed
to meet the requirement of the AITC 110-2007 (> 8%). In addition, the viscosity of the adhesive
influences the maximum depth of penetration, which intends to affects face bond performance and
durability in an environmental condition (delamination percentage).

Biography

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Characterization of recycled wood plastic composites with added torrefied

wood

Davide DeVallance
[email protected]
Jaka Gašper Pečnik
[email protected]
Matthew Schwarzkopf
[email protected]

InnoRenew CoE, Slovenia

Abstract
Torrefaction is a thermochemical process carried out at elevated temperatures between 200 °C and 300 °C. This process leads to
decomposition of material, change in structure, mass loss and volatiles release. Torrefied wood (TW) shows improved energy
density, grindability and exhibits lower mass and water absorption. Today, this process is predominantly used in energy
applications. In our study, manufactured wood plastic composites (WPC) were evaluated for mechanical, thermal and water
absorption properties for repeated cycles of regrinding and remolding the composites. This process was performed to evaluate the
potential of these materials to be recycled and determine if WPCs with torrefied materials improved recyclability of the WPCs.
Wood species type, filler ratios of TW and torrefication temperature were also varied between WPCs. The project focused on
selected short rotation crops, as they are a commonly used source for energy purposes and, therefore, underestimated for more
advanced materials. In the study, three willow varieties (Millbrook, Fabius and Fish Creek) were torrefied using a tube furnace at
both 225 °C and 300 °C in a 30-minute process. Different mixtures of torrefied wood (0, 5, 15, 25 and 40 %) and un-torrrefied
wood were mixed with a constant amount of polypropylene and lubricant for pellet production using a Thermo 16TE twin-screw
extruder. Test specimens were manufactured using a hydraulic hot press at 200 °C to meet standardized tensile (ASTM D638)
and flexural (ASTM D790) standards. After the first cycle (Run 1) of testing was completed, the samples were reground using a
Pulversette mill with a 3 mm screen to match the pellet material size in Run 1. The regrinding and new sample preparation was
continued until statistically significantly differences in material properties were found. Results from mechanical properties of
Millbrook indicated significant reduction in modulus of elasticity of selected mixtures compared to control group using un-
torrefied wood only. More evident decrease in flexural properties was observed with higher torrefication temperature. This was
also confirmed for flexural strength. Elastic modulus in tension was improved with increasing torrefication temperature.
However, tensile strength was found to be lower in comparison with the reference group (un-torrefied wood only WPCs).
Additionally, water absorption decreased with higher percentages of added TW and temperature of torrefication. Research of
ongoing cycle testing will be presented and used to evaluate the viability of reuse for WPC tailored with TW from different short
rotation willow species.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Study on one-shot process for wood-based composites

Vicky Reichel1*– Werner Berlin1 –Felix Rothe 1 –
Jan Beuscher1 – Klaus Dröder1

1 Research Assistant, Research Assistant, Research Assistant, Head of Department,

Head of Chair and Professor, Institute of Machine Tools and Production
Technology, Technische Universität Braunschweig,
Department: Manufacturing of Hybrid Components
@ Open Hybrid LabFactory e.V, Wolfsburg, Germany
*Corresponding author [email protected], w.berlin@tu-
braunschweig.de, [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]

Abstract

Environmental changes force industries to use renewable and degradable materials for
lightweight solutions to solve weight and therefore CO2. One highly prioritized topic is the
combination of wood materials with biodegradable plastics. Especially when processing these
materials, it is essential to develop efficient processes to reduce obstacles and enable the
application in serial use. To take advantage of the mechanical behaviour of the wood structure it
is necessary to investigate the combination of thin solid wood with plastic. Regarding large-scale
production, an injection moulding process is addressed in this study. When processing raw
material cutting operations are used. To use the shear cutting process has several advantages: it is
a cost effective process with short cycle times. Also no thermal influence or water immersion
occur on the working material (like in laser beam or water jet methods), so material sensitive on
this can be worked by shearing. But as a disadvantage a working force is applied. This work
aims to show the findings this working fore on 5mm wood solids and the influence of the created
surface on the bonding between plastic and wood cutting edge. The process connections and
dependencies of shear cutting and injection moulding are investigated. Different wood materials
were used to analyse the effects of cutting and material parameters (e.g. moisture, forces) on the
cutting edge quality (e.g. structural damage). To detect the effect of different cutting edge
qualities on the joint between wood and plastic component tensile specimen were tested.

Key words: Wood-Plastic-Composite, Cutting Edge, Injection Moulding Process

1 Introduction

When using wood materials in combination with polymer materials the structure of wood often is
subordinately and wood is used as flour filling in polymers [1, 2]. This is related to its low
density as well to the special ability of wood to bind CO2 while growing. Therefore, wood has a
low environmental footprint compared to other filling and reinforcement materials e. g. based on
glass or carbon. Using wood fibres in polymers addresses the reinforcement of the compound but
is often related to difficult processing by means of thermal damage of the fibres [2]. Another way
is to use solid wood plates. The advantage is the natural composite structure of wood base

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element: celluloses as fibres and lignin as matrix. For this no extra processing of the raw material
is necessary and the cost to performance ratio becomes economically relevant for a wood-plastic
application.

2 Manufacturing of Wood-Polymer composites

When using wood as flour filling in polymers the wood raw material (flour, shavings, chips,
fibres) is just mixed into the polymer granules. Typical methods to produce wood-plastic-
composites (WPC) parts are the direct extrusion of profiles (US market: 98% [3]), injection
moulding or pressing techniques [3].

The usage of solid wood like wood veneer in combination with polymers requires the adaption of
existing processing methods. Taking the mechanical characteristic of the wood veneer into count
pressing techniques become more relevant [4, 5]. The veneer and polymer films can be stacked
alternately and pressed while increased temperature melts the polymer. The cured veneer-
polymer-compound can be processed further.
For decorative parts thin veneer is processed in injection moulding and overmoulded as well as
back-injected with rips and other supporting structures. Since this process is widely used there is
a number of findings available for the process parameters and resulting (bonding) strength [6–
11].

The investigation shown in this paper aims to determine influences and parameter relations of
bond strength between solid wood and polymer material based on a varying bonding agent ratio
and wood surface characteristic. For this firstly the bonding strength between wood veneer and
polymer using a bonding agent are analysed. After determining the optimal processing
parameters for this, the influence of a shear cutting surface on the bonding strength is evaluated.
The results of all the experiments are shown and discussed below.

2.1 Shear cutting of wood materials

In this section the shear cutting process and the resulting characteristics on wood cutting edge
surface topology is described.
The shear cutting process is described based on DIN 8865 shown in Figure 1. A punch is moved
against the die with a specific die clearance. This clearance influences the resulting cutting force,
the wear of the tool and the workpiece edge cutting quality. Additionally, a blank holder can be
used when materials tend to move or bend when processed.
Advantages of the process are the short cycle times and the overall low cost. A major
disadvantage is mainly the tool based method which includes wear and therefore maintenance
intervals.

The shear cutting of wood is not highly investigated yet due to the process is not typically used
for wood materials as Wagenführ et al. [12] and Kollmann [13] said.
Defining the forces and the resulting surface geometry the process can be adapted for the
following injection moulding for wood-polymer parts. To show basic findings is targeted by the
experiments presented in this paper.

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Figure 1 Basic terms of shear cutting process

Wood has low density due its capillary and therefore hollow structure. When cutting, the force is
applied orthogonal to this tubes and the structure is compressed and damaged. In comparison to
metal material the mirco sectional analysis shows significant fractures at the cutting edge (see
Figure 2).

Figure 2 Cutting edge geometry of solid wood in the shear cutting process

The cutting edge geometry shows different sections. A delamination in the first millimetres can
be detected. The fibres in this section spring back when the load maximum is exceeded and
tearing appears. This effect leads to a delamination between the fibres torned and the fibres
expanded and bended. It is observed that the torn zone where fibres tear apart is situated behind
the roll over zone where fibres are bend. A clean cut appears at the lower cutting section. It is
assumed that the fibres are first compressed and stretched to their maximum followed by a clear
cut.

2.2 Influence of bonding agent

Combining the two different material categories of wood and polymers the bonding strength can
be increased by using bonding agents. There are findings available for maleic anhydride grafted
polypropylene (MAHg-PP) especially when using polypropylene (PP) material [3, 14, 15]. This
thermoplastic polymer type is often used in polymer parts due to its specific mechanical
characteristics [16]. Polypropylene belongs to the group of polyolefins and is partially crystalline
and non-polar [17]. To react with a joining partner, the accessible active molecular groups are
required. Such groups are not available in untreated polypropylene. When using maleic

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anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAHg-PP) as a bonding agent a chemical connection can be

achieved [18].
The achievable strength of polymer and wood are influenced by the wood quality, surface
structure, material parameters like moisture content, etc. Therefore, we decided to evaluate the
optimal bonding strength on the wood veneer and polymer used specifically in this study.

2.2.1 Experiments on bonding strength depending on the bonding agent

The polypropylene type BJ356O manufactured by Borealis® and ExxonMobile®’s bonding

agent ExxelorTM PO 1020 containing approximately 1 wt.-% of maleic acid [19] were used for
investigations.
The bonding strength was determined as shear strength in 3-point-bending specimen (see Figure
3). The specimen geometry offers a large connection area which suitable to test thin veneer
coated with polymer.

Figure 3 Polypropylene-wood veneer bending specimen

The aim of the experiment was to achieve the optimal bonding agent content and melt
temperature of the plastic melt by varying the values in three steps according to Table 1.
Table 1 Variation of the adhesion promoter content and the melt temperature for the initial tests

Melt temperature Bonding agent content

T in [°C] m in [wt.-%]
Lower level 190 5
Basic level 200 10
Higher level 210 20

Figure 4Error! Reference source not found. shows the influence on the bending strength of the
variation of melt temperature and bonding agent content. It can be assumed that the bond
strength decreases with increasing temperature. This can be explained by the convergence of the
melt temperature to the temperature of maximum reaction between beech wood and oxygen at
210 °C which leads to higher depolymerization of cellulose [2]. This means that fewer free
hydroxyl groups are available with which the bonding agent can react.

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110
5 wt.-% MAHg-PP 10 wt.-% MAHg-PP 20 wt.-% MAHg-PP
[MPa]
100
bending strength

90

80

70

60
190 200 210 [°C]
melt temperature

Figure 4 Dependence of bending strength on melt temperature and bonding agent content

At adhesion promoter contents of 5 and 10 wt.-%, the strength is approximately the same. It
decreases at the highest adhesion promoter content. This indicates a saturation already reached at
5 wt.-% adhesion promoter content. A further increase even has a strength-reducing effect.
For the following investigations an adhesion promoter content of 5 wt.-% and a melt
temperature of 190°C is used.

2.3 Influence of shear cutting surface characteristic on bond strength in tensile specimen

To determine the influence of the shear cutting surface characteristic different material and tool
parameters in the shear cutting process are used. The influence of two different wood types
beech and oak are addressed due to their different structure and therefore expected varying
behavior when cut.
Secondly the determination of the bond strength values is addressed in this study. For this
purpose, the cut edge of the wood material was butt-moulded. For the achievement of a
composite strength, possible interlocking effects between polymer and cutting edge of the wood
material are to be used. The preceding shear cutting process is used to display different cut edge
characteristics of the wood material. The quantification of this influence is determined by means
of tensile test force.

For this two-step process the specimen dimensions are shown in Figure 5. A thickness of 5mm
solid wood material was choosen to enlarge the bonding surface. When manufacture the wood-
polymer specimen the dimension ratio of both components is nearly the same. This is important
for tensile testing to force the bonding area to fail rather than the material.

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Figure 5 Shear cutting (a) and injection moulding (b) specimen

The process parameters are shown in Table 2. Depending on the experiment different parameters
are listed and varied.
Table 2. Processing parameters for shear cutting and injection moulding process

Process parameter Symbol & Units Value

I. Shear cutting process
Wood specimen dimensions w x l x t in mm 25 x 110 x 5
Shear gap u in mm 0.016 (u/t: 8%)
Cutting speed vc in mm/min 500
Cutting condition Tt in °C 23°C at 65% rH
Grain orientation γc in ° 90
Wood type - beech (BE); oak (OA)
Preconditioning
ω in % 9; 15
(according to EN 13483-1)
Tool shape/cutting angle αc in ° straight: 0; angled: 20
Quantity of specimen per series - 10
II. Injection molding process
Injection molding specimen
w x l x t in mm 25 x 200 x 5
dimensions
Melt temperature T in °C 190
Max. pressure bar 760
Holding pressure t in s 19 s at 760 bar;
6 s at 0 bar
Mold temperature T in °C 60
Cooling time t in s 60
Bonding agent ratio m in wt.-% 5
Quantity of specimen per series - 10

2.3.1 Shear cutting properties of wood specimen

The shear cutting process was realized on a self-constructed shear cutting tool. The tool was
mounted on a press which enabled the movement of the punch while recording the target value
of the cutting force. To determine material related dependencies the wood type and the wood
moisture were varied in two different values. Using different wood types show the influence of

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specific wood structures. By varying the moisture of the wood specimen the cutting force is
influenced directly. In shear cutting process basic parameters like the shear cutting gap and
cutting velocity were held constant while the shear tool geometry was varied from straight to
angled. The different tool shapes lead to different cutting edge geometries and therefore high
influence on the bonding strength was expected.

The values reached for oak and birch are constantly on the same force level when using the same
process parameters. A comparison of values for the two different cutting tools shows that using a
drawing cut is a reliable method to reduce cutting forces around -19% for both wood types. This
is related to the cutting mechanism: the straight cut (pushing cut) applies forces over the whole
cutting edge at the same time. A force peak is therefore generated. The angled cut (drawing cut)
conversely applies forces per section which is lower. Also it can be detected that the deviation of
the overall values can be reduced for angled cuts.

8000 Tool geometry

straight, angled
7000
Specimen thickness
6000
Cutting Force

5.0 mm
5000 Testing temperature
4000 23 °C
3000 Cutting speed
beech
beech

500 mm/min
2000
oak
oak

Shear gap
1000
0.016 mm
0 Wood type
straight angled
beech, oak
Figure 6 Influence of tool geometry on cutting force Preconditioning
moisture ω: 9 %

The analysed cutting force values for different wood moistures showed no significant difference.
This could be related to weak conditioning. The moisture content of 9 % and 15 % were chosen
to show a high difference in mechanical behaviour. Usually this difference is adequate to modify
the strength properties of wood material. The specimen geometry could have an influence on the
fibre saturation. Moisture is transported longitudinal to fibre direction which is a long distance in
the used specimen. The moisture can differ therefore in different positions of the specimen.

Table 3 shows section views of the cutting surface and cutting edge on different specimen. As
described in 2.1 the upward specimen side shows a thin delaminated layer followed by a bend
torn zone and a compressed clean cut section. The height of the torn zone is larger when an
angled cut is used. This is related to the cutting mechanism: while a straight cut applies forces
over the whole cutting edge, the angled cut only applies force to a punctual point of the
specimen. The force is therefore higher for the individual section and the torn zone enlarges. The
angled cut shows therefore higher material damage by fibre bending.
Table 3 Cutting edge and surface characteristics for beech and oak (ω: 9 %)

beech oak

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cutting surface - straight cut cutting surface - straight cut

5 mm 5 mm
cutting surface - angled cut cutting surface - angled cut

5 mm 5 mm

cutting edge – both cutting shapes cutting edge - both cutting shapes

5 mm 5 mm

The cutting edge of beech shows a lower amount fibre breakage and fringe sections. For both
tool geometries the cutting edges of both materials showed no clear difference.
Comparing the micro sectional views, it turned out that the reproducibility of the cutting edge is
low. The individual wood types show specific breakage behavior but no identical cutting edge
and surface. This is related to the natural origin of wood as well as to the fibre structure. The
structure of the single specimen differs slightly so the cutting edge is differently pronounced
depending on the ratio of hard and soft proportion (early/latewood).

2.3.2 Bonding strength of wood-polymer tensile specimen

To show dependencies of the bonding strength the cut wood specimen where moulded with
MAHg-PP in a tensile test form. The target value was the bonding strength F in N/mm².

To analyse the bonding area microsections were made shown in Figure 7. It turned out that the
cutting edge of oak material tend to close fully by the injected polymer material. Therefore, no
interlocking effects by undercuts occur.

5 mm 5 mm

Figure 7 Microsectional view of beech (l.) and oak (r.) plastic specimen

The results can be seen in Figure 8. Firstly, the high deviation of values needs to be mentioned.
Therefore, no significant factors and values could be detected. But as a trend it can be said that
oak showed slightly lower values. It cannot make any statement about the dependencies of the
tool and surface geometry of the wood on the bonding strength in combination with plastic
polymer.

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5
4.5
Bonding Strength F in N/mm²

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
ω: 9 % ω: 15 % ω: 9 % ω: 15 %
beech oak
Figure 8 Tensile force of wood-plastic joint

The overall values are low in comparison to the strength in the individual materials. The
chemical bonding seems to be low. When manufacture the specimen it could be detected that the
ejectors of the injection moulding mould are positioned on each material side of the specimen.
Therefore, in the demoulding process a bending force in the joint area was applied. The
specimens were pre-damaged by this process.

Conclusion

There were results shown for the shear cutting of 5 mm solid wood specimen and the resulting
bonding strength in wood-plastic-composites.
For the shear cutting process it can be said that lower cutting forces appear for drawing cuts but
higher material deformation and damage occur. The influence of wood moisture content could
not be examined. There is no difference in the forces for beech and oak wood material. The
analysis of the surface topology needs to be extended e.g. by roughness values. By doing so the
possible interlocking effects could be predicted.
In the further investigation on the bonding strength the values showed extremely high deviations
so no significant parameters could be found. The original question of the influence of the shear
cutting edge geometry on the bonding strength could not be answered.
The investigation showed that the specimen geometry used was not expedient. In future
investigations it is planned to use a combination of a higher bonding surface area and tensile
specimen. This can be reached by enlarge specimen size but also by overmould the wood
specimen not only by a butt-joint but from both sides. This also allows a better resistance against
bending forces which may be applied in demoulding processes.

References

[1] Kim, J.-K.; Pal, K. (2010): Recent advances in the processing of wood-plastic composites,
1. Aufl.: Springer. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. ISBN: 364214876X.

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[2] Rowell, R. M. (2012): Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites, 2nd ed.: CRC
Press. Boca Raton. ISBN: 9781439853818.
[3] Dipl.-Geogr. Dominik Vogt, Dipl.-Phys. Michael Karus, Dipl.-Ök. Sven Ortmann, Dipl.-
Ing. Christin Schmidt, Dipl.-Gwl. Christian Gahle (2006): Studie Wood-Plastic-Composites
(WPC) Holz-Kunststoff-Verbundwerkstoffe. Märkte in Nordamerika, Japan und Europa mit
Schwerpunkt auf Deutschland Technische Eigenschaften – Anwendungsgebiete Preise –
Märkte – Akteure.
[4] Buchelt, B.; Siegel, C.; Wagenführ, A.; Nendel, W. (2015): Veneer prepreg - biobased
prepregs for thermoplastic processing methods. In: Journal of Plastics Technology 11 6, p.
356–74.
[5] Ouali, A. A.; Rinberg, R.; Nendel, W.; Kroll, L.; Richter, A.; Spange, S.; Siegel, C.; Buchelt,
B.; Wagenführ, A. (2015): New Biocomposites for Lightweight Structures and their
Processes. In: Materials Science Forum 825-826, p. 1055–62.
[6] Dietzel, A.; Raßbach, H.; Krichenbauer, R. (2016): Material Testing of decorative veneers
and different approaches for structural-mechanical modelling. In: BioResources 11 3, p.
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[7] Makenji, K.; Goodship, V.; Buckley, S.; Evered, C. (2006): A New In-Mould Decoration
Process using Real Wood Veneer. In: Progress in Rubber, Plastics and Recycling
Technology 22 4, p. 225–42.
[8] Makenji, K.; Goodship, V.; Fanning, R.; Buckley, S. (2007): Analysis of Back Injecting Real
Wood Veneers using Engineering Polymers in an Injection Moulding Process. In: Progress
in Rubber, Plastics and Recycling Technology 23 2, p. 83–95.
[9] Makenji, K.; Cherrington, R. (2015): Plastic Trim. In: Crolla, D.; Foster, D. E.; Kobayashi,
T.; Vaughan, N. D. (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia of automotive engineering. Chichester, West
Sussex, United Kingdom. ISBN: 9781118354179.
[10] Barth, S.; Hartmann, M.; Rudolph, M.; Karlinger, P.; Michanickl, A.; Schemme, M. (2016):
Zusammen Massnehmen - Verfahrensenticklung zum Hinterspritzen von Holzfurnieren am
Beispiel eines Zillstocks. In: Kunststoffe 7. URL: www.kunststoffe.de/1396574.
[11] Müller, N.; Haart, C.; Sauer, M. : Lenkraddekorschalen und interieurzierelemente sowie
verfahren zu deren Herstellung DE 102004062646 B4.
[12] Wagenführ, A.; Scholz, F. (Hrsg.) (2018): Taschenbuch der Holztechnik. München. ISBN:
978-3-446-45440-8.
[13] Kollmann, F. F. P. (1975): Principles of Wood Science and Technology. II wood based
materials: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Berlin, Heidelberg. ISBN: 978-3-642-87931-9.
[14] Endres, H.-J.; Hausmann, K.; Helmke, P. (2006): Untersuchung des Einflusses
unterschiedlicher Haftvermittler und Haftvermittlergehalte auf PP-Holzmehl-Compounds.
In: KGK - Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe, S.399 – 404. URL: http://www.pharma-
food.de/ai/resources/59566227820.pdf.
[15] Maier, R. D.; Schiller, M. (2016): Handbuch Kunststoff-Additive, 4., vollständig neu
bearbeitete Auflage: Hanser. München. ISBN: 9783446432918.
[16] PlasticsEurope Deutschland e.V.; Conversio Market & Strategy GmbH : Plastics demand by
resin types 2018. Distribution of European (EU28+NO/CH) plastics converters demand by
resin type in 2018. Frankfurt am Main.
[17] Whiteley, K. S.; Heggs, T. G.; Koch, H.; Mawer, R. L.; Immel, W. (2010): Ullmann's
encyclopedia of industrial chemistry: Wiley. Chichester. ISBN: 9783527306732.

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[18] Takase, S.; Shiraishi, N. (1989): Studies on composites from wood and polypropylenes. II.
In: Journal of Applied Polymer Science 37 3, p. 645–59.
[19] Erdmann, M. (2009): Entwicklung innovativer Compatibilizer-Systeme für Polypropylen-
Nanocomposites auf der Basis organophiler Schichtsilikate: Logos-Verl. Berlin. ISBN: 978-
3-8325-2319-0.

Biography

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Long Fiber Wood Compounds

Thomas Schmid
[email protected]

Mara Schumacher
[email protected]

Rosenheim Technical University of Applied Sciences, Germany

Abstract
Compounds made from wood and plastic, commonly known as WPCs, are established and used around
the globe. The objective of this particular project is to develop a new compound by embedding long
TMP wood fibers in a polymer matrix. Substituting glass or carbon fibers with long wood fibers
presumably leads to a reduction of weight due to the fact that wood fibers have a much lower density
than glass or carbon fibers. It also leads to a reduction in cost.

The mechanical properties of the new compound should be better than commercial WPC and
comparable to CRP or GRP. Boundary conditions for a successful outcome of the project is that all the
processing (metering, melting, compounding) is to be done in an injection molding machine. After a
functional processing procedure is established, first results have been obtained using standard
polymers, such as PE or PP. Further research activities will be the utilization of bio-based polymers
that will lead to a completely bio-based fiber enhanced plastic. To ensure consistent wood fiber
dimensions the fibers are processed with the university’s laboratory scale refinerplant and
subsequently analyzed using different fiber analysis methods. So far, several test specimen have been
produced and tested concerning tensile stress. The results are indicating that in comparison with a
standard WPC the wood fiber enhanced material shows a higher tensile strength. Furthermore, the
compound will be directly injected on- and into a non-woven material. This is made of wood- and
polymer-fibers. The aim at this part of the project is to produce thermoplastic hybrid composites
reinforced with wood fibers by using Compression Hybrid Molding, which combines the advantages of
injection molding and compression molding. A possible application for this kind of combination can be
the processing of components for the automotive industry, as for example casing doors.

Key words: wood fiber, TMP-Fiber, wood-plastic-compounds, fiber-reinforced plastic, bio-economy,

injection molding

Biography

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Effect of Scavenger and Microwave Heating on Formaldehyde Emission

from Particleboard

Anil Kumar Sethy1,2

[email protected]
Beena Babu1
[email protected]
Vipin Kumar Chawla3
[email protected]

1 Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore;India

Czech University of Life Science, Prague, Czech Republic
2
3 Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute

Abstract
Formaldehyde based resins are most economic and widely used resin in panel industries. Among
these, urea formaldehyde (UF) resin is the most commonly used resin because of its low cost and
good bonding strength. However, formaldehyde emission from UF bonded boards is quite substantial
and pose health concern. Higher formaldehyde to urea (F/U) molar ratio yields better resin in terms of
bond strength, however, it is also the cause for excessive formaldehyde emission. While, one of the
most effective ways to reduce formaldehyde emission is to reduce the F/U molar ratio, lower molar
ratio also adversely affects the bond strength and thickness swelling of the boards. The present study
was aimed to use chemical scavengers (ammonium bicarbonate and sodium metabisulfite) in the resin
and microwave irradiation of the pressed boards to reduce formaldehyde emission from particleboard.

Urea formaldehyde resin was prepared in the laboratory using F/U molar ratio of 1:1.6. This ratio was
selected as most of the industries in India use F/U moral ratio between 1:1.5 to 1:1.8. Particleboards
were prepared using 10% resin (solid content based on the oven dry weight of wood) without the
addition of sizing material. Ammonium chloride (0.5% based on the solid content of the resin) was
used as catalyst. Scavengers were added to the resin just before blending with wood particles. Boards
were pressed at a temperature of 120 ˚C and specific pressure of 15 kg/cm 2 for a compression cycle
of 16 minute for 13 mm boards. Microwave heating was carried out in a domestic microwave oven
operating at a frequency of 2.45GHz. Microwaving was carried out at a power level of 160 watt.
Temperature at the core of the sample was measured with the help of thermocouple in pre-drilled
holes. Irradiation time was optimized to maintain core temperature at about 50°C. Formaldehyde from
the board samples (control, scavenger treated, microwave heated) was extracted by perforator
method and estimated using UV spectroscopy. Internal bond strength as well as thickness swelling of
samples were also assessed.

Both the scavengers were found very effective in reducing formaldehyde content in the boards to
meet E1 class requirement (≤8mg/100g oven dry board). Sodium metabisulfite was found more
effective even at lower concentration as compared to ammonium bicarbonate. Addition of scavengers
with UF resin improved the internal bond strength, however, thickness swelling also increased by 2-
6% with increasing scavenger concentration. Microwave heating, as a post treatment method,

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accelerated removal of unreacted formaldehyde from the boards thereby reduced the formaldehyde
content in the irradiated boards. The average formaldehyde content reduced from 19.27 mg to 5.69
mg per 100g oven dry board with a microwaving time of 5 minutes. Assessment of board properties
indicated no detrimental effect of microwave heating on the internal bond strength and thickness
swelling. The results suggest that, formaldehyde emission from particleboard prepared with high F/U
molar ratio UF resin can be controlled to E1 class requirement either by using scavengers or by
microwave irradiation.

Keywords: Formaldehyde emission, Scavenger, Microwave heating, Internal bond strength, Thickness
swelling

Biography

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Biobased porous structures based on cellulosic materials

Axel Solt-Rindler1
[email protected]

Stefan Veigel2
[email protected]

Christian Hansmann1
[email protected]

Wolfgang Gindl-Almutter3
[email protected]

1 Wood K plus - Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry,
Austria
2 University of Natural Resources, BOKU, Austria
3 Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, BOKU-University of
Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Abstract
The demand for biobased products is increasing as new sustainable materials are required in terms of
climate change and increasing environmental pollution mainly induced by non-sustainable fossil-based
waste material. However, also the demand of functionalized materials that perform e.g. as packaging
materials or thermal insulation materials on porous structures is constantly increasing, as
biodegradable materials or energy-saving installations are gaining more relevance. That is why
investigations on the proper utilization of biobased and re-growing materials towards bio-based
materials with advanced properties are inevitable to acquire the demanded material properties. One
straightforward pathway is to up-grade residues from existing production processes of materials that
are on a sustainable basis. By-products from wood processing like sawdust, but also agricultural
residues e.g. wheat bran are potentially interesting, as no supply chain must be established, and the
raw material is available worldwide in enormous amounts. Thus, hardwood and softwood sawdust
were obtained directly from sawmills and commercially available wheat bran was used for the
investigations. As the raw materials differ significantly in their primer morphology different
disintegration processes (ultra-fine friction grinder, ultra-centrifugal mill and laboratory refiner) were
applied and a variety of particle and fiber evaluation methods (incident light microscopy, cam sizer,
particle size distribution) were conducted to observe the material. Different biobased (cationic starch,
wheat gluten) and non-biobased binders (urea-formaldehyde, polyvinyl acetate, potassium water
glass) were investigated in terms of bonding to the particles and their ability to form stable porous
material structures. Different foaming procedures were tested under different aspects as e.g. vapor
expansion, chemically induced carbon dioxide inclusions and mechanically introduced air inclusions. To
achieve a stable dry structure different dewatering and drying procedures were applied. Stable and
dry porous structures were subsequently characterized by means of scattering electron microscopy
(SEM), thermal conductivity measurements and mechanical testing. The results reveal comparable

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properties to conventional bio-based insulation materials and packaging material. Therefore, the
findings of this study draw pathways for utilizing former residues towards new functionalized biobased
porous structures potentially relevant for future applications.

Key words: biobased porous structures, residue utilizing, wheat bran, insulation, packaging material;

Biography

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Wood species dependent performance of pMDI adhesion

Pia Solt1
[email protected]
Hendrikus W.G. Van Herwijnen1
[email protected]
Roland Mitter2
[email protected]
Johannes Konnerth3
[email protected]

1Wood K plus - Competence Center of Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry,

Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH, Austria
2 Fritz Egger GmbH & Co. OG, Austria
3 Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, Department of Material
Sciences and Process Engineering, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences, Austria

Abstract
Particleboards are high volume commodity materials typically processed by the furniture industry. Due
to their high reactivity, chemical versatility and economic competitiveness formaldehyde-based poly-
condensation adhesives are used in huge amounts in the particleboard industry. Considering the world
production volume of particleboards of approx. 84 mio. m³ (2015) (FAOSTAT 2017), the resin
consumption of standard adhesive is assumed to 5-7 million tons per year. Owing to the
reclassification of formaldehyde as a Carcinogen Category 1B compound and in view of potential and
highly probable even stronger future restrictions of formaldehyde use, the industry is constrained to
actively searching for appropriate alternatives. Currently, pMDI may be regarded as the most relevant
formaldehyde free adhesive candidate. This conclusion is supported by the fact that this system is
already in industrial use not only for OSB production but also in the particleboard industry, albeit in
comparably small amounts.

Having a look at the curing mechanism of pMDI resin, the isocyanate groups R-N=C=O in pMDI are
highly reactive to all nucleophilic compounds. A possible reaction is for example the reaction of the
isocyanate group with a hydroxyl group, which leads to the formation of urethane. Such a reaction can
theoretically take place between isocyanate groups and hydroxyl groups of cellulose or lignin, while
forming covalent bonds with the wood adhesive. Research regarding the effect of moisture on the
curing reactions of pMDI has been studied extensively with many techniques such as different
spectroscopy methods, or thermal analysis. The results have shown that moisture in the wood has a
significant effect on the chemical reaction mechanism, curing products and curing kinetics. With
regard to the effect of moisture content on mechanical properties of bonds, is has been found that a
high amount of moisture is also necessary to obtain relevant lap-shear strength. Beside the effect of
moisture, pMDI adhesive performance with wood is dependent on many other variables. Some of
these include bonding conditions (pressure, temperature, rate, etc.), but also particle geometry

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(planer shavings, flakes, fibers, etc.) and wood species. However, only limited research is available on
the influence of wood species.

Goal of this work is to further advance our understanding of pMDI/wood adhesion and its wood species
dependence in correlation with moisture content. Therefore, four European wood species - beech,
birch, spruce and pine - were selected for this investigation. Methods of analysis include production
and testing of particleboards using industrial pressing parameters and development of tensile shear
strength of single lap-joints. Furthermore, the novel results are supported by various other
experiments. This study found a significant difference in the strength development and other
mechanical properties of pMDI using different wood species, with one conspicuous species – the pine.

Keywords: pMDI, isocyanate adhesives, wood species, moisture content, adhesive curing, particle
boards, bonding strength, bond line

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Highly Anisotropic Wood-Based Composite with Layered

Structure for Thermal Insulation and Electrical
Conductivity
Hao Sun 1– Min Xu 1*

1 Graduate Student, Professor, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin,

Heilongjiang, China
[email protected], * Corresponding author
[email protected]
Abstract
Composite materials have attracted tremendous attention because of their excellent properties and
unique functionalization. Generally, the conventional composites composed of substrate and
functional fillers are fabricated by melt mixing, solution mixing, and mechanical mixing, which
leads to a random and isotropic structure. To improve its performance, the high volume of the
fillers is mixed into the composite, which caused high cost, aggregation of fillers, and even
destroyed the structure of composites. By designing an anisotropic and ordered structure, the high
performance of composites with a low volume of fillers can be achieved. Trees are the most
abundant biomass on the planet and natural wood can transport water and nutrients by aligned
microchannels. Hardwood is mainly composed of wood fibers, vessels, wood rays, and
parenchyma. Intercross axial wood fibers and radial wood rays partially reflect the anisotropy of
wood, which forms a natural hierarchical structure. Presently, natural wood with anisotropic
structures has attracted much attention for optical, water filtration, and ion transportation. Here,
we propose a fabrication method for making a lightweight, anisotropic, and compressible wood
scaffold with aligned layered structure by a simple chemical treatment. The wood scaffold exhibits
a low density of 32.18 mg/cm3 and a high specific surface area of 31.68 m2/g. Moreover, the wood
scaffold presents an anisotropic thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity perpendicular to
the fiber direction and along the fiber direction were 0.033 W/mK and 0.11 W/mK, respectively.
The wood-based electrically conductive film is prepared by directly immersing the wood scaffold
into a carboxylic multi-wall carbon nanotubes suspension, followed by densification. The
MWCNTs are transported and anchored on the surface of fibers driven by capillary force through
aligned nanochannels, a large amount of mesoporous, and hydroxyl groups. The electrically
conductive film presents an anisotropic conductivity, excellent flexibility, a high tensile strength
of 93.00 MPa and a Young’s modules of 2.40 GPa. The electrical conductivity along the fiber
direction and perpendicular to the fiber direction were 42.19 S/m and 1.31 S/m, respectively.

Key words: Wood-based composite; Layered structure; Anisotropic; Thermal insulation;

Electrical conductivity
Biography

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Low Temperature Adhesive Bonding for Structural Wood Materials

Anita Tran
[email protected]

Melanie Mayr
[email protected]

Johannes Konnerth
[email protected]

Wolfgang Gindl-Altmutter
[email protected]

Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, Department of Material

Sciences and Process Engineering, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences Vienna, Austria

Abstract
Reliable and securely bonded joints are mandatory for structural timber products, consequently the manufacture is strictly
regulated. In the case of finger jointed solid timber, according to EN 15497, the wood temperature specification is at minimum 18
°C for adhesive application. In the present study, we examine adhesive bonding at distinctly lower substrate temperatures,
providing enough time for cure in order to ascertain whether sufficient bond strength can be achieved under conditions currently
not foreseen by the relevant standard.

Scarf joints from spruce, imitating finger joint angles of 7.5°, were produced at different temperatures. A two-component
adhesive composed of melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) resin and hardener was applied separately. Adhesive strength was
verified by macroscopic, microscopic and micromechanical testing to further understand the influence of pressing and post-
curing temperature. Resulting tensile shear strength varied marginally for different temperatures even after water immersion.
Penetration of the adhesive into the wood in fiber direction was deeper on hardener than on resin application side due to
differences in viscosity with no dependency on temperature. Nanoindentation visualized the penetration of the adhesive into the
cell wall with increased hardness and reduced modulus of elasticity from unfilled cells to adhesive filled cells independent of the
temperature. Equally indents directly into adhesive showed hardness values with no significant difference temperature wise.

Our results show that the temperature of the substrate at the time of adhesive application has no influence on macro- and
microscopic level hence adhesive bonding at low temperatures is feasible, given that enough time for cure at sufficient
temperature is allowed. Deep penetration in to the fiber cavities and the cell wall itself proves similar adhesive strength even at 0
°C cold bonding.

Key words: adhesive bonding, cold temperature cure/hardening, low temperature, melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin,
nanoindentation, penetration depth, wood adhesion

Biography

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Development of a Concept for Electrically Conductive

Furniture Panels
Christof Tschannen1– Heiko Thoemen2*

Junior Scientist, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Biel, Switzerland

1
[email protected]
2 Head of Research Unit Composite Materials and Furniture Development, Bern
University of Applied Sciences, Biel, Switzerland *Corresponding author
[email protected]

Abstract
The wood industry, in particular, the interior and building sector are affected by the digital
transformation. As a result, furniture is required to additionally inhere special functions like
integrated illumination while being flexible in positioning and re-arrangements.

The focus of this paper is the development of a concept for a conductive furniture panel
including the cable-free conduction of electricity and illumination using LED. Two types of
panels were investigated for this study. Single-layer particle boards for resistance measurements
and three-layer particle boards for conceptual testing were produced using hot-pressing. The
samples were analyzed for their electrical properties with resistance measurements.

The results for the conductive panels were promising and reached resistivities of 4.8*10- 3 Ωm.
Highly flexible positioning of a LED was possible, using the panels in combination with the
LED fixation pin.
Further research is still required to finalize the concept as the material showed inhomogeneous
blending and poor processability of the conductive panels. But the panels provide a feasible
concept for a conductive furniture panel.

Key words: wood-based panel, conductive wood-based panels, electrical conductivity, carbon
fibers, furniture, interior lighting

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Introduction
The integration of electronic components is now an integral part of many products. Accordingly,
hardware manufacturers and furniture producers are also working on solutions for the increasing
demand for wiring in furniture. In a concept study, it has now been demonstrated that wiring can
be completely omitted if furniture panels are designed accordingly. The newly developed
approach makes use of a characteristic feature of wood-based particleboard: Such boards
typically have a three-layer structure. If appropriately designed, the top layers can serve as
conductors of electricity, with the middle layer serving as an insulator. When using such
functionalized boards, LED lights and, if necessary, other electrical components can be placed in
the furniture in a highly flexible, wireless and thus cost-effective manner.

Literature Review
Electrical properties of an element or a material is given by the atomic shell and the number of
free electrons in the outer atomic structure respectively. This applies for wood as well as for
synthetic polymers that are normally not considered as conductive materials (Leute 2015, Niemz
and Sonderegger 2017). Therefore, every material including wood has its own specific electrical
resistance depending on the atomic density and the number of free electrons. Nevertheless, the
conductivity of wood is poor compared to copper due to the limitations of the free electrons to
move. Furthermore, the electrical properties of wood are limited as the orthotropy of wood
didacts a dependency in direction and is additionally influenced by the density and the
extractives which varies from one species to the other. One of the most significant factors on the
resistance of wood is the moisture content. Consequently, it is no surprise that the moisture
content of wood can be measured over the electrical resistance. This is true for almost dry wood
up to the fiber saturation point (FSP) with a strong correlation between resistance and moisture
content. In wood-based panels there are even more influence factors. Some adhesives, catalysts
and additives may reduce the resistance even further. (Niemz and Sonderegger 2017)
Medium density fiberboards (MDF) fabricated with phenolic or pMDI (polymeric methylene
diphenyl diisocyanate) have a higher conductivity than a MDF board manufactured with a
melamine-urea-formaldehyde adhesive (Prieto and Kiene 2007). Ugolev (1986) in Niemz and
Sonderegger (2017) measured the electric resistance and resistivity on different wood species
parallel and perpendicular to the fiber direction. The species with the lowest resistance parallel
and perpendicular to the fiber direction is Oak (Quercus robur L.) with 2.0*1010 Ω parallel and
5.5*1010 Ω perpendicular to the fiber direction. The species with the highest resistance parallel to
the fiber direction is Birch (Betula B.) with 4.0*1011 Ω and Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with
7.9*1011 Ω perpendicular to the fiber direction. As mentioned above the extractives in wood may
affect the electrical resistance which explains the low resistance of Oak. Oak is one of the
species with a very high content, up to 12 %, of extractives in the core besides tropical wood
(Lohmann 2010). The electrical resistance of wood is therefore between 1.7*107 Ωm to 8.6*109
Ωm and can be considered as an electrical insulator as in the definition of Kuchling (2011).

Enhancing the electrical properties of wood and wood-based products was investigated
frequently in the past. The recent study of Guo et al. (2018) showed the application of a copper
nanowire on the surface of wood and creating a conductive surface coating. The resistivity of
that nanowire was measured at 2.6*10- 7 Ωm which is relatively close to the resistivity of copper
itself (1.71*10-8 Ωm). The sheet resistance was significantly higher with 0.34 to 9.53 Ωm
depending on the copper nanowire suspension applied and furthermore the structure of the wood

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specially in perpendicular direction lead to an almost electrically insulated surface. In another

study Agarwal et al. (2006) described a method for a layer by layer nanocoating of individual
cellulose fibers for papermaking, creating electrically conductive fibers. Adding these conductive
fibers to the cellulose fibers for paper results in resistivities of 1*10-3 to 10 Ωm, depending on
the amount added to the paper. In the field of wood-based panels some examples are described as
well. In the study of Zauscher (1992) the alignment of fibers of MDF boards using magnetic
fields is investigated to enhance the panel properties. In order to align the fibers with a magnetic
field, the fibers were previously coated with an acrylic powder loaded with nickel. Although, not
having the conductive properties as goal, a wood fiber susceptible for a magnetic field is most
likely also electrically conductive. Many patents show the addition of carbon fibers and other
conductive materials to wood-based panels as a protection against electromagnetic radiation (Fu
et al. 2001, 2014; Qian et al. 2015; Zhang 2016). Furthermore, Könekamp (2017) describes a
device for the production of a wood-based panel using fiber shaped additives or fillers on an
industrial production machine. Of all wood-based panels, particle boards (chip boards) represent
50 % of the manufactured panels on the European market (EUWID 2019).

Synthetic polymers are considered as insulator materials and are like wood without free electrons
on the outer atomic shell. In this field however, a lot of research was concluded to enhance the
electrical properties. One method to enhance the electrical properties is the addition of
conductive filler material. Leute (2015) provides an overview of the different conductive fillers
and the theory of it. Typical conductive fillers are carbon black, carbon fibers, graphite, carbon
nanotubes or metallic fibers or particles. The idea is to add enough conductive material to
enhance the formation of a conductive network but keep the properties of the polymer in the
desired range. This point where enough conductive filler is applied is called the percolation
threshold (Kc) as in Figure 9. Once the conductive network is formed, additional conductive
filler material does not enhance the conductivity any further or only in a non-significant range.

Figure 9: The conductivity as a function of the additive concentration with Kc as the percolation threshold, modified
from Leute (2015)

In the manifold of investigations concluded in this field it was discovered that long particles with
small diameters in random alignment achieve the best results at lowest concentration, whereas

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ball shaped particles need the highest concentration to form a conductive network (Pike and
Seager 1974; Bigg 1977; Hu et al. 2008).
A similar application is known from the field of adhesives. Conductive adhesives based on the
addition of carbon based fillers is described in different studies. (Brischke 2007; Brischke et al.
2008; Wehnert et al. 2012).

Carbon fibers are due to their aspect ratio (length divided by diameter) best suited as a
conductive filler. The fibers are mostly based on polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as precursor with a
common diameter of 7 µm (Whelan 1995). Carbon fibers are relatively expensive. The latest
forecast by Rao et al. (2018) for 2020 expects an average price of 10 $/kg.

Materials & Methods

Materials
Conductive fibers
Two different carbon fibers types (CF1 and CF2), SFC 3/EPB 3 mm and SCS Carbon-
Kurzschnitt 220 µm (Sutter-Kunststoffe AG, Fraubrunnen, Switzerland), were used in this study
to manufacture the conductive particle boards. CF1 has an average fiber length of 3 mm and a
density of 1800 kg/m3 and CF2 220 µm and 1700 – 2000 kg/m3 respectively. Both fiber types
contained up to 10 wt. % oligomeric epoxy resin as facing.
Wood material
Wood particles (Swiss Krono AG, Menznau, Switzerland) consisting of deciduous trees mainly
beech (Fagus sylvatica) and coniferous trees mainly spruce (Picea abies) were used in this study.
Two qualities of particles were used. They complied with the industry grade for surface layer and
core layer material. The moisture content of the particle material was around 3% in average and
a packaging density around 300 kg/m3.

Adhesive
The adhesive used in this study was a urea formaldehyde with the trade name Kaurit 350 (BASF
SE, Ludwigshafen, Germany) and an average solid content of 66.5%. A solution of ammonium
sulphate (purity ≥99%) with a concentration of 40 wt. % was used as a catalyst (hardener) to
accelerate the reaction of the adhesive.

Copper tape
A conductive copper tape 3M 1181 with a width of 19.1 mm and 0.07 mm thickness was used as
an interface to the particle board for measuring the resistance of the board. The resistance of the
conductive adhesive on the tape is described with 0.005 Ω by the producer. The application of
the copper tape differs to the standard application and the contact interface with the conductive
adhesive of the tape was not used, therefore, the resistivity of copper can be used as
characterization e.g. 1.71*10-8 Ωm.

Connection pin
A connection pin to connect a LED (light emitting diode) to the conductive particle board was
developed at Bern University of Applied Sciences (BUAS, Biel, Switzerland). The pin consists
of two aluminium discs and a polyethylene disk stacked on each other with the polyethylene disk
in between. The pin has two drill holes, one reaching the first aluminium disc whereas the second
drill hole reaches all the way through the first aluminium disc and the polyethylene disc into the

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second aluminium disc with an expanded drill hole diameter in the first aluminium disc. An LED
can be plugged into this pin by inserting the cathode into the first drill hole and the anode into
the second drill hole. The pin has a diameter of 10 mm and has a screw thread at the outer
surface to easily turn it into a pre-drilled hole in the particle board.

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Experimental
Manufacturing of conductive particle boards
Two types of panels were produced in this study. P1 a one-layer particle board with the
dimensions 250 mm x 250 mm x 8 mm and a target density of 650 kg/m3. UF resin was applied
with 10 wt.% solids based on the dry mass wood and 3 wt.% ammonium sulphate in solution
based on solids adhesive. The carbon fibers were added as a substitute of wood in weight
percent. P2 is a 3-layer particleboard with a thickness of 16 mm and a ratio of surface layer to
core layer of 50/50, i.e. the surface layers with a thickness of 4 mm each and the core layer with
a thickness of 8 mm. The addition of conductive fibers was only done in the surface layer
material.

The carbon fibers substitution was 3 wt.%, 4 wt.%, 5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, 20 wt.% and 30 wt.% for
P1 and 10 wt.% for P2, see Table 4. The carbon fibers and the wood particles were mixed
together prior to the application of the adhesive for both panel types.
The highest carbon fiber substitution of 30 wt.% with both carbon fiber types CF1 and CF2 was
tested first to asses weather the content could be lowered or must be increased. The content of
carbon fibers was then lowered to a minimal value of 3 wt.% only using CF1.
Table 4: Overview of conductive particle boards manufactured.

Panel nr. Panel type Carbon fiber content Carbon fiber type
(wt.%)
1 P1 30 CF2
2 P1 30 CF1
3 P1 20 CF1
4 P1 10 CF1
5 P1 5 CF1
6 P1 4 CF1
7 P1 3 CF1
8 P2 10 CF1

After the blending of the material in a mixer, half of a panel was formed for P1. Two stripes of
the conductive copper tape were placed on top of the half-formed panel parallel to each other
circa 2 centimeters from each side with the copper conductive tape sticking out at one side
roughly 5 centimeters. Then the second half of the panel was formed on top of the conductive
tape enclosing the copper tape in the core of the panel. For P2 the procedure was similar, the first
surface layer was formed using the wood-carbon fiber mixture. Then the entire core-layer
material was formed on top of it and finally covered again with a surface layer consisting of the
wood-carbon fiber mixture. No copper adhesive tape was used for P2.

Both panel types were then pressed using a Höfer laboratory press (HLOP 210, Höfer
Presstechnik GmbH, Taiskirchen, Austria) and a press factor of 15 s/mm at a press platen
temperature of 180 °C. The press program followed three steps, closing, holding and opening
with a very slow opening rate of 1 mm in 10 seconds for one millimeter.
Methods
Resistance measurements
Electrical resistance measurements were done using a multimeter Agilent U1241B (Keysight
Technologies, California, USA). The multimeter was connected to the two copper adhesive
stripes sticking out of the conductive particle board. The detection range of the multimeter is

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possible up to 100 *106 Ω. The distance between the parallel copper adhesive tape was 0.2 m.
The principle of this test is that the board itself closes the electric circuit when connected in this
way with the assumption that the resistance of the copper tape is significantly lower than the
resistance of the particle board. Therefore, the measured resistance belongs to the conductive
particle board. This test was only performed on the panels of type P1. From the measured
resistance (R) and the known cross-section (A) and length (l), the resistivity (ρ) was calculated
using (1. The length was assumed to be the distance between the parallel copper adhesive tapes,
i.e. 0.2 m.

𝑅∗𝐴
𝜌= (1)
𝑙

Conceptual testing
The panel of type P2 was prepared by drilling 10 mm diameter holes at random spots.
Additionally, on all edges a hole of 2 mm diameter was drilled into the cross-section of each
surface layer approximately in the middle of the board. A 9volt battery was prepared with two
cables and an additional resistor of 200 Ω. The connection pin with an LED was placed in one of
the pre-drilled 10 mm holes and the cables of the battery were plugged into the small diameter
holes at the edges of the board as shown in Figure 10. This test was repeated several times with
all the possibilities of plugging the pin as well as the cables to prove the concept.

Figure 10: Conceptual testing of the conductive particle board connected to the pin with an LED and a battery.

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Results and Discussion

All panels of type P1 were found to be conductive after manufacturing with the process
described before. The measured resistance and calculated resistivity are shown in Table 5
Table 5: Resistance and resistivity of P1 panels.

Panel nr. Resistance in Ω Resistivity in Ωm

1 20 0.192
2 0.5 0.005
3 1 0.01
4 1.7 0.016
5 11.9 0.115
6 15.2 0.146
7 19.4 0.186

The panel with 30 wt.% of CF2, panel nr. 1 resulted in very high resistivity and could not
compete with the panels manufactured with CF1 as conductive filler. This follows findings of
Bigg (1977) and Hu et al. (2008) about conductive polymers where a higher aspect ratio of the
carbon fibers provide better results with a percolation at lower concentration. The aspect ratio of
the 220 µm fibers is 31.4:1 whilst the aspect ratio of the 3 mm fibers is 429:1. Furthermore, the
panel nr. 7 with only 3 wt.% of CF1 achieved better resistivity than panel nr. 1. The resulting
panel had a very poor appearance, nonetheless. It was very brittle, and the surface showed very
inhomogeneous material mixtures. After manufacturing panel nr. 1 and 2 it was decided to
follow the research plan including CF1 as only conductive filler as CF2 showed to be unsuited.

In Figure 11 the results are shown graphically with the addition of a linear regression line based
on the data of panel nr. 2 to 4 and 5 to 7 respectively. The intercept does not show the
percolation threshold necessarily as the data was very small for these experiments. But following
the theory as described by Leute (2015) this may indicate that the theory of synthetic polymers
might be applicable to the conductive panels as well.

Figure 11: P1 - resistivity over carbon fibre content of panel nr. 2 to 7 manufactured with CF1.

However, it is possible to state that conductivity is achieved even with a relative low percentage
of carbon fibers. The conceptual test using the 3-layer panel and the pin showed that the concept

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works. Using a 3-layer panel (P2) allows to use the two surface layers as positive and negative
phase of the electric circuit. The boards were found to be conductive as the functionality was
given independent from the place where the pin was plugged in. The only drawback of the pin
was that it had naturally some loose connections due to its prototype state. However, the test
performed with the P1 panels resulted only in the best-case resistance as the resistance was
measured between the two parallel copper tapes, whereas with the conceptual testing the
applicability was proved.

The characterization of the conductive particle boards in terms of resistivity is shown in Figure
12, showing materials in the range of conductors – semiconductors – and insulators and typical
resistivity values for wood. Nevertheless, the conductive panels are not competitive with
standard conductive materials as copper. A reduction in resistivity compared to wood was
achieved by over 10 orders of magnitude.

Figure 12: Overview of resistivity from different materials. Figure modified from Kuchling (2011). Resistivity
values for wood according to Ugolev (1986) in Niemz and Sonderegger (2017). Own experimental panels are
labelled as conductive panel.

Summary and Conclusions

Manufacturing a conductive particle board mainly based on the non-conductive material wood
was successfully demonstrated in this study. The literature study showed on the example of
synthetic polymers how a non-conductive material can turn into a conductive one by adding
conductive filler materials. Carbon fibers were found to be well suited for this application. Two
types of panels were produced in this study. A one-layer panel P1 with two copper adhesive
tapes as interface for resistance measurements and three-layer panels P2 with conductive filler
material in the surface layers. Using the P1 panels for characterization and measurement of
resistance and P2 as conceptual testing proved the conductivity of the panel and the concept to
work. The development of the connection pin, although not covered in this paper, supported the
overall concept for an electrically conductive furniture panel (a patent application was placed for
the conductive panels and the connection pin by BUAS in the meantime). Some testing, outside
the description of this paper, showed the connection of two conductive panels type P2 to work

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with a simple butt-joint, whilst the second panel is integrated in the electric circuit without
special connectors to ensure the conductivity.

Acceptable resistivity is given at 10 wt.% carbon fiber content, however, compared to copper
relatively high. Further improvement of resistivity by optimization of the process and material
parameters is most likely possible but will never be as good as a standard conductor material
itself. Adding more carbon fibers to further enhance the conductivity properties will not improve
the conductivity in a decisive matter following the theory of Leute (2015). The input of more
expensive material for a disproportionate gain in conductivity will not be justifiable. For the
application in a conductive panel any grade of carbon fibers with good electrical properties may
be used. For the ease of access an industry grade material was used for this study but carbon
fibers originating of renewable resources are imaginable for this application too. This benefits in
two ways. Carbon fibers based on renewable resources can be less expensive than standard fibers
for heavy duty application and are sustainable compared to an oil-based fiber.

Another fact that was not discussed so far is the effect of the relative high resistivity of the panels
and the consequences for the power consumption. All tests were conducted on relatively small
samples with a resistivity of 0.01 Ωm for a 10 wt.% panel. Using this number to calculate the
resistance of a 2 m long and 0.5 m width panel with an average surface layer thickness of 4 mm
and the assumption the power passes through both surface layers results in an overall resistance
of 32 Ω for one panel. This is a very optimistic calculation and 32 Ω is quite a high resistance
compared to a standard conductor material for the same application. However, the conductive
panels have another benefit that is difficult to express in numbers and comes at a cost on behalf
of the energy efficiency. The overall conductivity of the panels allows for a flexible solution in
furniture without the need of an extra electrical installation and are highly innovative. The
conductive panels offer new possibilities for design pieces and furniture for the mass market.
Further work is required to polish the concept to a state where products for the market can be
developed. But this was a first big success for a conductive furniture panel.

References
Agarwal M, Lvov Y, Varahramyan K (2006) Conductive wood microfibres for smart paper
through layer-by-layer nanocoating. Nanotechnology 17:5319–5325. doi: 10.1088/0957-
4484/17/21/006
Bigg DM (1977) Conductive Polymeric Compositions. Polym Eng Sci 17:842–847
Brischke C (2007) Untersuchung abbaubestimmender Faktoren zur Vorhersage der
Gebrauchsdauer feuchtebeanspruchter Holzbauteile. E-Dissertationen der Univ Hambg 321
Brischke C, Rapp AO, Bayerbach R (2008) Measurement system for long-term recording of
wood moisture content with internal conductively glued electrodes. Build Environ 43:1566–
1574. doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.10.002
EUWID (2019) EUWID Special : Wood-Based Panels. EUWID Wood Prod Panels 76
Fu F, Hua Y, Lu B (2001) Manufacture of composite wood board with conducting function.
Patent CN1294959 (A)
Fu F, Lu K, Hou J (2014) Fiberboard with electromagnetic shielding function and preparation
method thereof. Patent CN104175381BB
Guo H, Büchel M, Li X, et al (2018) Dictating anisotropic electric conductivity of a transparent

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copper nanowire coating by the surface structure of wood. J R Soc interface 15:. doi:
10.1098/rsif.2017.0864
Hu N, Masuda Z, Yan C, et al (2008) The electrical properties of polymer nanocomposites with
carbon nanotube fillers. Nanotechnology 19:. doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/19/21/215701
Könekamp M (2017) Method and device for producing wood-based material panels, and wood-
based material panels. Patent WO2017207451 (A1)
Kuchling H (2011) Taschenbuch der Physik, 20th edn. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser
Verlag, München
Leute U (2015) Elektrisch leitfähige Polymerwerkstoffe - Ein Überblick für Studierende und
Praktiker. Springer Fachmedien, Wiesbaden
Lohmann U (2010) Holzlexikon, 4th edn. Genehmigte Lizenzausgabe für Nikol Verlag,
Hamburg
Niemz P, Sonderegger W (2017) Holzphysik. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag,
München
Pike GE, Seager CH (1974) PHYSICAL REVIEW B Percolation and conductivity: A computer
study. P. Phys Rev B 10:1421–1434
Prieto J, Kiene J (2007) Holzbeschichtung: Chemie und Praxis. Vincentz network, Hannover
Qian J, Gao W, Li L, Lu J (2015) Fiber wood with electromagnetic shielding function and
preparation method thereof. Patent CN104985668 (A)
Rao S, Simha TGA, Rao KP, Ravikumar GV V. (2018) Carbon Composites Are Becoming
Competitive And Cost Effective. Infosys Report. Bengaluru
Ugolev BN (1986) Holzkunde und Grundlagen der Holzwarenkunde. Lesn. Prom., Moskau
Wehnert F, Heinrich J, Jansen I (2012) Multifunctional adhesives by integration of Carbon
Nanotubes. In: 9th European Adhesion Conference (EURADH), Friedrichshafen.
Fraunenhofer IWS, Dresden
Whelan A (1995) Reinforcement of Mouldings. In: Simpson WG (ed) Plastics and Resin
Compositions. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, pp 26–53
Zauscher S (1992) Orienting Lignocellulosic Fibers by Means of a Magnetic Field. Oregon State
University
Zhang F (2016) Manufacturing method for environment-friendly and energy-saving decoration
board resisting fire, electromagnetic radiation and static. Patent CN105328760 (A)

Biography

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Bonding Strength of Benuang and Duabanga Glulam Using Their Bark as

Filler for Phenol Formaldehyde Resin

Sari Delviana Marbun

[email protected]

Imam Wahyudi
[email protected]

Jajang Suryana
[email protected]

Deded Sarip Nawawi

[email protected]

IPB University, Indonesia

Abstract
In line with environmental issues and forest sustainability, the bark of two tree species from tropical rain forests of Indonesia i.e.
benuang (Octomeles sumatrana/BN) and duabanga (Duabanga moluccana/DB) were used as filler for phenol formaldehyde resin
(PF-filler). Effect of each bark as PF-filler on bonding strength of BN and DB glulam produced was analyzed. Four glue mixture
compositions with ratio of PF, technical filler, and bark i.e. A (10 : 0 : 0), B (10 : 1.5 : 0.5), C (10 : 1.25 : 0.75), and D (10 : 1 : 1)
were prepared. Characteristics of each bark and glue mixture were also investigated. Glulam parameters being studied, namely
moisture content, density, delamination, bonding strength, wood failure, and formaldehyde emission were determined following
JAS 1152. Results showed that bonding strength was influenced by bark species and glue mixture composition. The B
composition -the lowest portion of bark- was the best for BN glulam, while for DB glulam D composition -the highest portion of
bark- was the best. Generally, utilization of bark as filler improves the bonding strength. Without the bark, the failure occurred on
the glue line. DB’s bark is more potential to be utilized as PF-filler as compared to BN’s bark.

Keywords: bonding strength, D. moluccana, filler, glulam, O. sumatrana, bark

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Preparation of Cellulose Acetate-Polyacrylonitrile Composite Nanofibers by

Multi-fluid Mixing Electrospinning Method: Morphology, Wettability, and
Mechanical Properties

Dong Wang
[email protected]

Wanli Cheng
[email protected]

Qingxiang Wang
[email protected]

Guangping Han
[email protected]

Northeast Forestry University, China

Abstract
Electrospun cellulose acetate-polyacrylonitrile (CA-PAN) nanofibrous membranes with controllable spatial structure
were fabricated by a multi-fluid mixing electrospinning process. SEM showed that morphologies of membranes
transformed from smooth to rough surface upon changing the weight ratios of CA to PAN, whereas their average
diameters increased from 303 to 502 nm. The static contact angle value of membranes increased from 86 to 131°
with increase in CA content. The hydrophilic-hydrophobic properties were affected by the Mixture Rule of surface
microstructure and spatial structure. The PAN nanofibers had higher elongation at break (εb), however their yield
strengths were lower, while CA fibers exhibited poor mechanical properties. After introduction of CA fibers into CA-
PAN membranes, the mechanical properties were improved significantly. The 33%CA(67PAN) nanofibers showed
highest tensile strengths (δmax, 5.0 MPa) and εb (29.2 %) values. Moreover, the composition, roughness and thermal
stabilities of nanofibers were also analyzed. The structure-property relationship was clarified.

Keywords: electrospinning; CA-PAN nanofibrous membranes; hydrophobicity; structure-property relationship

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Characteristic properties of 3D-printed wood/Polylactic acid composites

with different extrusion temperatures using fused deposition modeling

Chin-Hao Yeh
[email protected]

Teng-Chun Yang
[email protected]

National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan

Abstract
This work aimed at determining the effects of different extrusion temperatures on the wood fiber-reinforced polylactic
acid (PLA) composite (WFRPC) components manufactured by fused deposition modeling (FDM). The physical-
mechanical properties of the WFRPC components printed at different extrusion temperatures (200, 210, 220, and
230oC) were determined. The results showed that most of the physical properties were not significantly affected by
different extrusion temperatures. However, the color difference and density of the FDM-printed WFRPC components
increased as the extrusion temperature increased. As the extrusion temperature increased over 200oC, the tensile
and flexural properties of the WFRPC components decreased. Additionally, when the extrusion temperature
increased from 200 to 230oC, the compression strength and the internal bond strength increased by 15.1% and
24.3%, respectively. Furthermore, using scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), the fracture surface of the tensile
component printed at high extrusion temperature exhibited better adhesion between the extruded filament segments.
The results showed that different extrusion temperatures of the FDM printing process have an effect on the color,
density, and mechanical properties on the FDM-printed WFRPC component.

Keywords: wood fiber; polylactic acid (PLA); fused deposition modeling (FDM); extrusion temperature; physico-
mechanical properties

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wood-Metal Bonding Strength Improved Via Atmospheric Plasma Pre-

Treatment

Jure Zigon
[email protected]
Sebastian Dahle
[email protected]

Abstract
Hybrid composites of wood and metals present an interesting material for different building and
construction purposes. Joints between the elements in this kind of composites can be formed with
different types of adhesives, however, the compatibility between adhesives used and different
materials is often challenging. A proper surface treatment is a crucial step before bonding process. In
the present study, an atmospheric plasma discharge, generated in air at atmospheric pressure, was
employed to enhance the adhesion strength of joints between common beach (Fagus sylvatica L.)
wood and two different types of metals (steel and aluminum alloy), using four different types of
adhesives. Firstly, the optical properties of plasma discharges and its influence on treated substrates'
surface morphology were studied. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed chemical changes with
the surface oxidation of all the materials after treatment with plasma. Improved wettability properties
of substrates due to plasma treatment were confirmed with calculated surface free energies. Finally,
adhesion properties of bonds were investigated with measurements of tensile shear strength of single-
lap joints between wood and metals. Atmospheric plasma treatment technology showed a great
potential for enhancement of adhesives strength of joints combining wooden and metal elements.
Additionally, it was shown that better bonding performances of more cost-affordable adhesives can be
reached, if the treatment with plasma discharge is applied on the bonded materials prior to bonding
process.

Biography

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Wood Chemistry and Cell Biology

Chair:
Gloria Oporto, West Virginia University, USA

Simultaneous Chemical and Topographical Mapping of Wood

Ultrastructures by Chemical Force Microscopy

Claudia Gusenbauer1
[email protected]
Etienne Cabane2
[email protected]
Tiina Nypelö3
[email protected]
Johannes Konnerth1
[email protected]

1 Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, Department of Material

Sciences and Process Engineering, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences, Austria
2 Institute for Building Materials, Wood Materials Science, ETH Zürich
3 Dep. of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Applied Chemistry, Chalmers
Universit of Technology, Sweden

Abstract
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) represents a nanotechnology method capable of visualizing the
ultrastructure of wood cell walls up to the nanometer range. The centerpiece of this method is a <100
nm radius tip which is scanning the surface of the sample. By tracing the movement of the tip, the
topography of the specimen is visualized. Functionalization protocols of the AFM tip enable additional
simultaneous mapping of chemical surface properties, called Chemical Force Microscopy (CFM) 1. In
this further development, force-distance measurements are performed in varying liquids in which the
adhesion force between a chemically modified tip (e.g. hydrophilic or hydrophobic) and functional
groups of a material reveals chemical surface variations with high spatial resolution.

We perform CFM experiments on native and functionalized wood structures to gain novel insights into
the surface characteristics of ultra-microtomed lignocellulosic scaffolds 2. In detail, we show a close-up
look of chemical surface properties of different cell wall layers and chemically treated wood
ultrastructures and present the required sample preparation, challenging scanning conditions and the
gained insights into bio-based materials. This approach aims at confirming the presence of functional
groups with high spatial resolution, targeting functionalization procedures of wood cell walls and shall
support the extending of current wood applications through better understanding of the inherent wood
properties.

Keywords: wood cell wall, adhesion, atomic force microscopy, chemical force microscopy,
functionalized tip

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Literature:
1) Frisbie, C.D., et al., Functional group imaging by chemical force microscopy. Science, 1994.
265(5181): p. 2071.
2) Gusenbauer, C., et al., Visualization of the Stimuli-responsive Surface Behavior of Functionalized
Wood Material by Chemical Force Microscopy. Scientific Reports, 2019. 9(1): p. 18569.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Comparison of wood volumes and quality produced both by

forestry
and agroforest systems: the case of walnut (Juglans x Regia
x Nigra)
Lucie Heim1, Kevin Candelier2,3, Eric Badel4, Louis Denaud1, Lydie Dufour5, Rémy
Marchal1

1 PhD student, Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, LABOMAP, HESAM

Université, F-71250 Cluny, France, [email protected]

2CIRAD, UPR BioWooEB, F-34398 Montpellier, France.

3 BioWooEB, Univ. Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier, France.

4INRAE - UCA, UMR 0547 PIAF Physique et physiologie Intégratives de l'Arbre

en environnement Fluctuant. Centre de recherche Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes,
Clermont-Ferrand, France

5INRAE - CIRAD - Montpellier SupAgro - CIHEAM, UMR 1230 SYSTEM,

Montpellier, France
Abstract

Agroforestry trees grow in very different conditions than forestry trees systems mainly because of
their higher exposure to wind and light, strong interactions with annual crops, numerous human
operations on branches (pruning) and root systems.
Until now, agroforestry woods have not been studied a lot for their quality. Our research aims to
understand how those particular growing conditions affect the development of trees - especially
primary and secondary growths - and wood quality.
In a first stage, we have focused on hybrid walnut (Juglans x Regia x Nigra) located into the
Restinclières Agroforestry Platform (RAP), near Montpellier, France, managed by lab System
INRAE (https://umr-system.cirad.fr/en/the-unit/research-and-training-platform-in-
partnership/restinclieres-agroforestery-platform-rap). We have performed dendrometric
measurements and take wood samples both in agroforestry plot (AF) and in a forest control plot
(FC). The trees were all 25 years old.
Agroforestry walnut are spaced 4, 8, 12 or 16 m on a same planting line and the density in the plot
is 100 trees/ha. Between each line, cereal crops are cultivated. In FC plot, the walnut tree density
is almost 200 trees/ha and are mixed with other trees, i.e. alder (Alnus spp) and ash trees (Fraxinus
excelsior). Both plots are north-south oriented.
Concerning wood production, the DBH measurements of the trees performed since 2002 allow a
comparative assessment of secondary growth. It shows that radial growth in AF plot is on average
50% greater than in FC plot.

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Concerning wood quality, we have first considered duraminisation process because the color
associated to this phenomenon is the main quality criteria for walnut wood industry and end-users.
The study of duraminisation was made on 5 mm radial increment cores (2 per tree) and on disk
from 5 trees harvested in each plot. The first results did not show any significant difference
between AF and FC only considering the color but biochemical and MFA measurements are
currently in progress in order to confirm this result.

Key words: Agroforestry, walnut, wood quality, density, growth

Introduction

Trees had in the past an important place in agricultural landscapes but the emergence of the
intensive agriculture, at the middle of 20th century, has largely contributed to the decline of the
tree in the agricultural environment. Indeed, the intensification of agricultural practices and the

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evolution of technical facilities have led to a decrease in the quantity of trees present in cultivated
areas. But since 70’s, these modern agricultural models presented economic, environmental and
social weaknesses (Nair, 1993), leading scientists to define and implement alternative agricultural
models integrating environmental and social issues into economic development (MEA, 2005). This
agro-ecological evolution of agriculture has contributed to the emergence of agroforestry systems.

Agroforestry encompasses a set of land use practices which aim to realize the benefits from
growing woody and herbaceous species together, commonly by the addition of trees to land already
being used for pasture or for growing annual crops (Anderson, 1993).
At first, agroforestry practices were only focused on the food production and the trees were of
secondary importance but were very profitable in the quality and quantity of food production.
Nowadays, trees can represent a long-term investment for the farmer, providing a significant
additional income when they are mature enough to be felled, harvested and resold as timber.
Agroforestry trees grow in very different conditions than those from forestry systems, mainly
because of their high exposure to wind and light, strong interactions with annual crops, numerous
human operations on branches (pruning) and root systems. However, contrary to the trees from
forestry systems, agroforestry woods have not been studied a lot for their growing, qualities and
properties.

This study is part of a more general thesis work seeking to compare the growing conditions and
the quality of agroforestry wood with the similar wood species from conventional forest stands.
Three elements are studie: Firstly, the primary and secondary growth of agroforestry trees are
analyzing in three species: Juglans, Poplar and Robinia. The duraminisation phenomenon is
studying in walnut (Juglans x Regia x Nigra), and finally, the mechanical aspect athwart the study
of Poplar.

The aim of this article is to present the first results from this PhD thesis work. The present study
is focused only on the wood production and on the wood quality of agroforestry walnut trees.
Common walnut (Juglans regia L.), black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) native to North America, and
their interspecific hybrids (Juglans nigra x Juglans regia) produce high quality lumber. It is a tree
that normally does not grow in the forest and that is considered like one of the "flagship" species
used in the French agroforestry systems.
The uses of high-quality walnut wood are mainly veneer and cabinet-making, but also nuts
production. Currently, the high value of walnut wood is mainly related to its aesthetic
characteristics, i.e its brown color or color contrasts and patterns marked by grain.

As the environmental growth conditions are different, we will focused first trees productivity
considering primary and secondary growths both on an agroforestry plot compared to trees from a
control plot (conventional stand). Then, as the main quality criteria for this wood is its color, we
will considered duraminisation process because of the color associated to this phenomenon.

Materials & Methods

The agroforestry system of Restinclières was created in 1995 by INRAE. It is located near
Montpellier, in South of France and is one of the bigger agroforestry systems in France. The system
is composed by 45 ha of plantations, with forest plots, agroforestry plots and crop fields. In this

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way, it allows comparison of production and growth of agroforestry plots with those of forest plots
or crops.

Our studies focus on two walnut trees plots: one is an agroforestry (AF), the other is a forest (FC)
one. Both are north-south oriented lines. Agroforestry walnut are spaced 4, 8, 12 or 16 m on a
same planting line and the density in the plot is 100 trees/ha. Between each line, cereal crops are
cultivated every years. In FC plot, the wa lnut tree density is almost 200 trees/ha and are mixed
with other trees, i.e. alder (Alnus spp) and ash trees (Fraxinus excelsior) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Agroforestry plot (left) and Forest control plot (right)

growth monitoring carried out since since 2002 with an annual DBH measurement. It allowed to
determine the primary growth and the radial growth of the agroforestry (AF) walnut trees compare
to those from the forest system (FC).

The studies of specific gravity and of duraminisation were made on radial increment cores with a
diameter of 5 mm and on disks. Two cores were made on 6 trees in each plot. One core was made
in the north-south orientation and the other in the east-west one.
Then the cores were divided on small pieces of 1 cm length. After an oven-drying step performed
at 103°C until their mass stabilization, all samples were weighed, and their volume was determined
to define their infradensity.
Results and Discussion

Annual monitoring of walnut tress growth showed that radial growth in AF plot is on average 50%
greater
than
those in
FC plot,
with
mean
values of

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circumference of 66 cm and 52 cm, respectively (figure 2a). The height of walnut trees in AF plot
is also more important than those of trees from FC plot with average values of 12.8 m and 11.5 m
high, respectively (figure 2b).
a b

Figure 2. (a) Circumference at 1,30 height of AF walnuts and FC walnuts / (b) Height of AF walnuts and FC walnuts
(2017)

Concerning radial growth, our results are in agreement with observations made on the impact of
stand density on growth. In forest stands, density had significant effects on tree radial growth and
crown size, and the lowest stand density produced trees with the largest stem diameter (Jiang et
al., 2007). Moreover, Cabanettes et al (2004) showed that in agroforestry system, the spacing of
the trees favored radial growth.

Concerning axial growth, it can be observed that agroforestry walnut trees are taller than those of
forest control walnuts. These results are not conform to the observations from other studies
indicating that agroforestry trees are usually smaller than forest trees (Cabanettes et al., 2004).
Moreover, a study conducted on young poplars stimulated by periodic controlled bending showed
that axial growth is reduced by mechanical stimulations and hydric stress while radial growth was
strongly increased by the periodic stem bending (Niez et al., 2019). With a lower stand density
compared to conventional forest, agroforestry systems increase the exposition of the trees to wind
and thus to mechanical stress, inducing a lower axial growth. However, Cabanettes et al (2004)
showed that agroforestry trees with shelter are taller than agroforestry trees without shelter. The
plots used in this study are surrounded by large hedges that can reduce the effect of the wind on
the growth of the trees. This could explain why the agroforestry walnut trees are not smaller than
the walnut trees from the control forest plot.

Concerning specific density, our first results show that there is no statistically significant
difference between the infradensities of agroforestry wood trunk and those of forest trees (figure
3).

Figure 3. Infradensity of AF walnut trunks and FC walnut trunks

Juglans sp belongs to the semi-porous hardwood group. In hardwoods, particularly those with
porous initial zones, an increase in growth rate leads to an increase in wood density, due to a higher
proportion of the final wood. However, in hardwoods such as walnut, where the distribution of

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vessels is more homogeneous, specific gravity is little affected by the increase in the width of the
rings and therefore by the increase in the speed of growth (Trouy, 2015). This may explain why,
although the growth in agroforestry walnut trees is higher, their infradensity is not significantly
different from that of walnut trees in the FC plot.

The analysis of radial variation of infradensity did not show significant differences along the trunk
(from the bark to the cord) and this for both plots (AF and FC). Yet the density in Juglans nigra is
usually higher in the duramen than in sapwood (Rink, Phelps, 2007).
In the same time, the study of duraminisation made on 5 mm radial increment cores did not show
any significant difference between AF and FC only considering the color with visual appreciate.
This result can be related to the previous one: the process of duraminisation seems to have started
only slightly in the two plots.

Summary and Conclusions

The study of the growth of agroforestry walnut trees compared to walnut trees from a control forest
stand clearly indicated that agroforestry trees have a greater growth rate in height and width.
Therefore, agroforestry walnuts produced more biomass than walnut from conventional plot at the
same age. This result is potentially interesting for the wood industrial sector but also for the
farmers; their walnut trees can be a significant source of additional income at the farm level.

This study of growth and thigmomorphogenesis in an agroforestry environment is followed in

parallel within an agroforestry system of Robinia pseudoaccacia. The study is also done by
comparing agroforestry individuals with individuals from control forest plots.
Some trees will be staked and others not, in order to study the impact of wind on the radial and
apical growth of agroforestry trees.

Thereby, walnut trees produce more wood in agroforestry system than in forest system, but the
wood density is quite the same in both systems. Before concluding on the similarity of the woods,
we have made colorimetric and biochemical measurements. These trials are currently in progress.
The color and extractives content for each plot are characterized along radial axis and the values
will be compared between AF plot and FC plot. The colorimetric tests are performed before and
after a treatment of the wood surfaces with a starch indicator, using a Colorimeter based on the
CieLab system. To quantify the total amount of extractives two successive solvents-extraction
process will be used. All these results will allow us to better know the quality of agroforestry
walnut wood.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank INRAE System Lab, especially Jean-François Bourdoncle, Alain Sellier and
Christian Dupraz for for their technical contributions in our work. They also thank the Hérault
department (Sophie Marco, Hélène Sosa and Vincent Sablain) and all those who accompany them
in this PhD work.

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ANDERSON, L. S. and Sinclair, 1993. Ecological interactions in agroforestry systems. In :
[en ligne]. 1993. Disponible à l’adresse : https://agris.fao.org/agris-
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CABANETTES, Alain, AUCLAIR, D. et IMAM, W., 2004. Diameter and height growth curves
for widely-spaced trees in European agroforestry. In : Agroforestry Systems. 2004.
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JIANG, Ze-Hui, WANG, Xiao-Qing, FEI, Ben-Hua, REN, Hai-Qing et LIU, Xing-E., 2007. Effect
of stand and tree attributes on growth and wood quality characteristics from a spacing trial with
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MEA (éd.), 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Washington, DC : Island Press.
ISBN 978-1-59726-040-4. GF50 .E269 2005
NAIR, P. K. R., 1993. An Introduction to Agroforestry. S.l. : Springer Science & Business Media.
ISBN 978-0-7923-2135-4.
NIEZ, Benjamin, DLOUHA, Jana, MOULIA, Bruno et BADEL, Eric, 2019. Water-stressed or
not, the mechanical acclimation is a priority requirement for trees. In : Trees - Structure and
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RINK, George et PHELPS, John E., 2007. Variation in Heartwood and Sapwood Properties
Among 10-Year-old Black Walnut Trees. In : Wood and Fiber Science. 22 juin 2007. Vol. 21,
n° 2, p. 177‑182.
TROUY, Marie-Christine, 2015. Anatomie du bois - Formation, fonctions et identification. In :
Librairie Quae [en ligne]. 2015. Disponible à l’adresse :
https://www.quae.com/produit/1310/9782759223510/anatomie-du-bois.

Biography

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In situ synthesis of mesoporous carbon-encapsulated Iron nanoparticles

derived from rattan for efficient adsorption

Lili Shang, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, China

[email protected]

Abstract
Rattan, a tropical climbing palm that exhibits no branches or seasonal rings is characterized by a
homogeneous parenchyma and vascular bundle distribution in contrast to wood. The stem has
vascular features which are functional in water transport that are unusual compared with those in
arborescent. Besides, rattans do have wide and long vessels, which can be as big as 3 m long and 532
μm in diameter, with uniformly and continuously pitted walls, and it is notable that the amount of
stem occupied by vessels may be as much as 30% total stem volume. Such considerable vessels imply
rapid water transport efficiency in the long stems. Furthermore, the honeycomb like microstructures of
parenchyma cells with wide pits may well be used for infiltration of liquid. In conclusion, the inherently
open pores from the natural anatomy of the rattan structures are more beneficial to the metal solution
infiltration. Carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles (CEINPs) were synthesized by one step pyrolysis
from rattan cane. The nanoparticles were characterized for physicochemical properties by SEM, TEM,
XRD, Raman, and FTIR methods. The morphologic results showed that the nanoparticles had core-
shell structures with α-Fe in situ encapsulated within 10-30 layer graphitic shell. The N2 adsorption
results showed their specific surface area was 135.29 m2 g-1 with 3.07 nm average pore size.
Methylene blue (MB) as a typical kind of cation dye was chosen to investigate the adsorption
performance of the CEINPs samples. The adsorption results exhibited that CEINPs were effective to
adsorb MB. The adsorption capacity increased with an increase of the iron contents from 5 to 15%.
The maximum value was 186.22 mg g-1 at 10wt.% iron content. The synthesized CEINPs derived from
rattan would open a new path to develop a dyes removal product for wastewater treatment.

Keywords: Rattan, Vessels, Carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles, Methylene blue, Adsorption

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The Visualization of Microstructure of Bamboo Nodes by High-resolution X-

ray Microtomography (Micro-CT)

Shumin Yang
[email protected]
Elin Xiang
[email protected]
Lili Shang
[email protected]

International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, China

Abstract

Bamboo plant is one of the most important non-wood resources with excellent mechanical properties. The
characteristics properties of bamboo are determined to a large extent by its structure. The anatomical
structure of the culms consists of parenchyma cells, with embedded vascular bundles composed of
metaxylem vessels, sieve tubes with companion cells, and fibers. the fibre characteristics of internodes
such as micro and ultrastructure have been reported more. Little is known about the structure of bamboo
nodes due to its rigidity and difficulty in slicing. In this study, high resolution X-ray computed
microtomography (Micro-CT) was applied to efficient and non-invasive determination of the microstructure
of bamboo nodes. This research could provide a basis for deeper understanding of growth mechanism
and realizing resource efficient utilization of bamboo.
The distribution of vascular bundle of bamboo nodes was similar to that of internodes, which were
gradually sparse from the outer to the inner, while the parenchyma gradually increases. However, there
were significant differences in the shape and arrangement of vascular bundle. All cells are strictly axially
arranged within the internodes of culm, and when the vascular bundle passes through the node, it will
have different degree of bending, branching and thickening. There are no ray cells for radial
transportation in nodes similar to that in internode, but the vascular bundle branched into diaphragm as
as a supplement. In addition, the bamboo nodes does not have a typical vascular bundle similar to that of
internodes, and the lateral fiber cap is often absent or only weakly developed. The bamboo diaphragm is
composed of transverse conduction tissue and parenchyma cells, formed a complex reticular structure.
Furthermore, the microstructure of bamboo nodes with different numbers of branches is readily imaged
through Micro-CT,and it is clearly visible that many criss-crossed conduction tissues are connected
between the culm and the branches.
The morphological dimensions of vascular bundles, parenchyma and vessel obtained by Micro-CT scan
are agreement with those by optical microscope and field emission scanning electron microscopy. There
were obvious heterogeneity of the pits distribution in different types of cell walls. The number of pits in the
vessel cell wall is much higher than that of parenchyma and fibre cells, and pits in the metaxylem vessel
is densely distributed in the center of the vascular bundle.
the unique microstructure of bamboo nodes and internodes is the result of adapting to environment
optimization. Micro-CT technology is a fast and non-destructive imaging characterization method of
bamboo science, which can obtain high resolution 2-D and 3-D images, and quantitative analysis of
morphological size. The method can make up the defects of the traditional method, which is not time-
consuming and can obtain three-dimensional structure.

Key words：Micro-CT; microstructure; internodes; nodes; nondestructive testing

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

A Direct Bioautography as a Screening Method for Bioactive Wood Extracts

Against Basidiomycetes

Regina Wanschura1*– Elisabeth Windeisen1 – J. Philipp Benz 2 – Klaus Richter1

1 Technical University of Munich, Chair of Wood Science, Winzererstr. 45, D-
80797 Munich
* [email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

2 Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan,

Wood Bioprocesses, Hans-Carl-von-Carlowitz-Platz 2, D-85354 Freising
[email protected]

Abstract
Many (tropical) wood species contain biochemically interesting and partly unknown substances.
As these extractives consist of a great variety of components differing in quantity and composition,
the analysis is often time-consuming and sophisticated, especially for very polar and/or high
molecular compounds. Bioassay-guided fractionation is helpful to focus on the key bioactive
substances, however the established bioassay methods cannot be readily adapted to basidiomycete
fungi that are commonly used for the respective durability tests. They do not sporulate easily in
laboratory settings and working with hyphae is still common in many laboratories. To overcome
this restriction, a direct bioautography using homogenized hyphae from basidiomycetes was
developed. Four tropical wood species regarding their potential bioactivity on two selected
basidiomycete fungi were analyzed. The extract constituents were resolved by a two-dimensional
planar chromatography and the metabolites were located by characteristic zones of fungal growth
inhibition, which was accentuated by a color reaction using a dye reagent: 3-(4,5-dimethyldiazol-
2-yl)-2,5diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) which is mixed directly into the hyphae agar. This
technique can be used as a rapid “pre-selection” of noticeable (bioactive) extracts and therefore
the analysis becomes more efficient. In the present study, tropical hardwoods are extracted with
organic solvents and are screened against Rhodonia placenta and Trametes versicolor. Both fungi
show positive reaction to the MTT-test and some of the separated bioactive compounds are
detected on the hyphae-agar overlaid TLC which were then analyzed by gas chromatography/
mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Potentially responsible compounds could be identified, such as the
alkaloid bicuculline from Mezilaurus itauba, which has not been described in this species yet.

Keywords: basidiomycetes, bioassay, GC/MS, heartwood extracts, hyphae agar

Introduction
Many tropical timbers stand out due to their high durability against wood-degrading fungi
(Schwager und Lange 1998) which is determined by exposing wood samples to certain fungal

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species and measuring the loss of mass (Råberg et al. 2005, EN 113, EN 350-1). However, the
mechanism behind this high durability has not been fully understood yet. The high content and the
composition of extractives in tropical wood compared to species from colder climates might be
one reason (Schultz and Nicholas 2000) and it is an accepted fact that the extractives contribute to
the natural durability of wood to a considerable extent (Rutiaga-Quinones 2001, Kirker et al. 2013).
Natural extracts were already utilized in ancient times, and in recent years, the chemistry of
extractives has retrieved growing interest due to ecological concerns of synthetic substances (Singh
T and Sing 2012; Snow et al. 2019) and basically the working principles of nature might open
totally new bioactive structures. Applications to pharmaceutics and food and for the production of
platform chemicals are partly implemented (Willför et al. 2003, 2005; Smeds et al. 2012) but many
potentially bioactive wood extractives (e.g. polyphenols, stilbenes, lignans) remain unused so far
(Yang 2009), which might be useful, i.e. as wood protection agents.
Planar chromatography combined with a microbial detection method, termed bioautography, is
considered an efficient assay for the detection of antimicrobial compounds (Dewanjee et al. 2015).
It allows for the localization of the activity even in a complex matrix and therefore permits a target-
guided isolation of the active components (Rahalison et al. 1991). These conventional
bioautography test-methods are mostly designed for spore-producing fungi (Favre-Godal et al.
2013) which are easily harvestable and inoculated on agar. However, these standard antifungal
assays cannot be readily adapted to basidiomycetes, like, in particular T. versicolor and R.
placenta. The production of basidiospores in vitro was subject of several studies in the past (Croan
and Highley 1991), and even if it was improved over the last few years (Choi et al. 2001, 2002;
Stirling et al. 2016), the work with hyphae is still standard in many laboratories (Deklerck et al.
2017).
The main objective of the study was to develop a direct bioautography using homogenized hyphae
from these two basidiomycetes. Both fungi have already been used in earlier studies testing the
activity of the tropical wood species Tectona grandis and Dipteryx odorata (Wanschura et al.
2016) as well as Handroanthus spp. (formerly Tabebuia spp.), Mezilaurus itauba and Manilkara
bidentata (Wanschura et al. 2017).
It was investigated whether the bioautographic agar overlay method (Rahalison et al. 1991) and
the hyphae agar (Kawamura et al. 2004) can be combined. Combining the two techniques should
provide a possibility to benefit from the advantages of a direct bioautography (rapid, easy to
implement) while testing wood extractives against commonly used basidiomycetes, which do not
readily sporulate.
Separating the compounds thoroughly should be achieved by performing the thin-layer
chromatography as a twodimensional development (2D-TLC) as suggested by Wedge and Nagle
(2000). Furthermore, the vitality of the mixed hyphae should be determined by using the viability
stain 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT). By indicating the
vitality of the mixed hyphae through a stain, the judgment of whether a compound (-mixture)
causes fungal inhibition or not should be improved.
Consequently, the presented technique should provide a rapid method to evaluate bioactive
components in complex extract mixtures, but also applicable to fractions of them or single
extractives, to focus the analytical efforts on the possibly causative key compounds, trying to better
understand the increased durability of the tested tropical wood species.

Materials & Methods

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Wood samples and test organisms. The tropical wood species used were Astronium graveolens,
Intsia spp., Shorea laevis and M. itauba that come from South and Central America. The boards
used to cut the specimens were purchased from local lumberyards. Wood blocks of 1 cm 3 were
sawn out of the heartwood, milled in a cross hammer mill (Retsch) together with dry ice and sieved
with a mesh size of 0.315–0.05 mm. The sample moisture content was determined via oven drying
at 105°C (double determination) and the sample weight is referred to as absolutely dry.
The white-rot fungus T. versicolor BAM 116 (CTB 863 A) and the brown-rot fungus R. placenta
BAM 113 (FPRL 280) were chosen as test organisms (according to EN 113), in order to detect a
possible bioactivity of the wood extractives in the four species.
Solvent extraction: Determination of the extract content in organic solvents was done in a Soxhlet
extractor using petroleum ether, acetone and methanol (all supplied by Merck, Darmstadt,
Germany, SupraSolv quality) successively for 6 h (5 g of wood flour extracted with 170 ml of the
respective organic solvent; double determination; determined gravimetrically) with a relative
deviation of less than 10%.

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC). A two dimensional chromatography (2D-TLC) was

performed on preparative glass plates (stationary phase: silica 60; 2 mm; 20 × 20 cm; Merck,
Darmstadt, Germany) without a fluorescence indicator for bioautography and for gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. For a proper detection of the substance
spots, the separation was also performed on analytical aluminum TLC plates (stationary phase:
silica 60; 2 mm; 20 × 20 cm) as well. The plates were subjected to derivatization by dipping the
plates for 10 s in a mixture of (NH4)6Mo7O24 (5%) and Ce(SO4)2 (0.2%) in a 5% sulfuric acid
solution.
For the bioassays (performed as duplicates), 30 μl of extract solution with a concentration of 100
g l−1 (resp. 3 mg) was applied onto the plates. The solvents used for the mobile phase (300ml
solvent mixture) were used for both, the acetone and the methanol extracts.
For the separation of S. laevis mixtures of butanone:methanol:dH2O (20:3:4) + 10 drops of formic
acid (for D1) and butanone:propanol:dH2O (6.5:2.5:1) + 10 drops of formic acid (for D2), for M.
itauba mixtures of cyclohexane:ethyl acetate:ethanol (1:1:19.5) + 10 drops of NH3 (for D1) and
chloroform:methanol:dH2O (35:18:1) + 15 drops of NH3 (for D2) and for Intsia spp. and A.
graveolens mixtures of cyclohexane:acetone:ethanol (3:6:1) + 10 drops of formic acid (for D1)
and chloroform:acetone:methanol (1:2:2) + 10 drops of formic acid (for D2) were used. The plates
were left to dry overnight at 60°C to completely remove the organic solvents. One TLC plate per
fungi and wood species was performed without extractives as a reference. Furthermore, one TLC
plate per extract and wood species was prepared for the following GC/MS analysis.
Hyphae agar. As described in Wanschura et al. (2020) and Wanschura (2020) the homogenized
hyphae solution (Fig.1), 5.1 g malt extract (4%) were mixed with 125 ml dH2O using a stir bar
(Kawamura et al. 2004), the bouillon was poured into Erlenmeyer flasks and autoclaved
(sterilization temperature 121°C for 20 min; autoclave: HMC Europe, Tüßling, Germany). Three
inoculation blocks (0.5 × 0.5 cm) were cut from the fungal film of an agar plate of either R.
placenta or T. versicolor and were put into the malt extract medium. After the liquid cultures were
incubated in an incubator (Memmert) for 10 to 14 days at 22°C, 70% relative humidity, the malt
extract medium was decanted from the liquid cultures of R. placenta (19 000 rpm) or T. versicolor
(10 750 rpm) and the hyphae were homogenized using a homogenizer (VWR, Ismaning,
Germany). Then, the suspension was centrifuged (4 min), the supernatant was discarded and the
hyphae were washed with 10 ml of sterile 0.9% sodium chloride solution. Five milliliters of hyphae

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solution (formerly suspended in 2.5 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride) was added to 250 ml potato
dextrose agar (9.75 g PDA) of with a temperature of >50°C (hyphae concentration of
approximately 2%). 1 ml of an aqueous MTT solution was mixed directly into the agar with a
concentration of 10 mg ml−1 (Rahalison et al. 1991; Osmonova 2011).

Fig1: Flowchart of the production of hyphae agar (Wanschura 2020)

Bioassay. The TLC plate was locked into a template and overlaid with 120 ml of the hot hyphae
agar-MTT mixture to generate 1-mm-thick agar layer (Fi.XX). After drying (for 1–2 min), the
plate was disassembled from the template form, stored in a bioassay dish (245 × 245 × 25 mm,
Corning Life Science, Lowell, MA, USA) and incubated in an incubator at 22°C and 70% relative
humidity.
To determine the location of the compounds on the TLC designated for GC/MS analysis, the
bioassay plates were photographed after incubation. On each photo, the inhibition zones were
marked. Together with the detection of the substance spots by ultraviolet (UV) light, these pictures
were used as an overlay to mark the corresponding spots on the “GC/MS-plate”, which were then
scratched from the plate. Furthermore, the TLC plates were compared with a respective
chromatogram developed under identical conditions, which was revealed with the oxidative dying
reagent (see Coloring of the hyphae through the vital stain MTT). This compound visualization
provided helpful information about their localization in the plate (Wanschura et al. 2020).

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Fig.2 Overview over the Hyphae-agar assay overlay method (Wanschura 2020)

GC/MS: The substance spots were scratched from the TLC plates, dissolved in 5 ml methanol,
micro filtrated and after evaporating the solvent, the residue was dissolved in 100 μl
dimethylformamide (DMF) and 30 μl N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)
trifluoroacetamide/chlorotrimethylsilane (BSTFA/TMCS; SigmaAldrich) (80°C for 1 h).
Heating program GC: 10°C min−1 from 100°C to 320°C (held isothermally for 15 min); injector
temperature: 300°C; split: 30:1 (39 ml min−1), carrier gas: helium; column: SGE-BPX 5 (15
m × 0.25 mm; 0.25 μm film); MS ionization: −70 eV; detector temperature: 150°C; MS source:
230°C; recorded mass range: 40 to 800 amu.

Results and Discussion

Coloring of the hyphae. Based on the reduction of the yellow tetrazolium salt, actively growing
cells produce a blue/purple, insoluble formazan product (Mosmann 1983). MTT has already been
utilized successfully to quantify the effects of antifungal agents on cell viability or as a method of
colorimetric determination of fungal cell densities on a number of fugal species (Hidore et al.
1991; Meshulam et al. 1995; Freimoser et al. 1999; Etexeberria et al. 2011; Patel et al. 2013;
Stockert et al. 2018). Best conditions were evaluated for the tests using β-thujaplicin (Rennerfelt
1948) in a disk diffusion assay. The solution used had a concentration of 40 μg ml−1 MTT. The

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best optical results were achieved at a concentration of 0.2 g l−1 producing clear zones of fungal
inhibition (Wanschura et al. 2020)

Determination of antifungal activity of the extract fractions

Extract content of the tested species. The extracts of the wood species were obtained through
successive extraction with three solvents (Fig.3). As the lipid factions of the extracts showed no
bioactivity in preliminary carried out agar dilution tests these parts were not further tested,
although they contributed considerably to the extract amounts (M. itauba: 4.1%).

Fig 3: Extract contents from the tested species in percentage of dry weight [%] (Wanschura et al. 2020).

12

10
extract content [%]

0
Astronium graveolens Intsia spp. Shorea laevis Mezillaurus itaúba

petroleum ether acetone methanol

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2D-TLC Bioassay. Figure 4 (I–IV) shows the bioassay results from Shorea laevis acetone and
methanol extracts tested against T. versicolor and R. placenta. The absence of fungal growth
indicates the inhibition due to the present extract compound. Unless the agar is not colored by
the extract compound (marked with an arrow), these zones show a bright beige coloring of the
agar. Fungal activity can clearly be seen by the blue color of the agar induced by the MTT
reaction. For a better visualization of the bioactive zones on the photos shown in Figure 2 (I–
IV), the zones were marked by a circle. Inside the circles, the partitioned antifungal constituents
of the extract can be found.

Figure 4:
2D-TLC direct bioautography of Shorea laevis acetone (I/II) and methanol (III/IV) extract: bioactivity response from
T.versicolor and Postia placenta

The reaction time until the blue coloring of the MTT appeared was varying from 3 to 8 days,
whereby the response time for R. placenta cultures was longer. Even though the intensity of the
blue coloring varies (probably due to unequally distributed hyphae), the optical determination of

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the bioactive zones is highly improved. As a completely homogeneous dispersion of the hyphae
is difficult, the optical determination of the bioactive zones was much more exact using the MTT
vitality stain than an evaluation by judging the hyphal growth alone. It could be observed that both
fungi are not able to distinguish between compounds that are located very close together on the
TLC. Instead, they formed inhibition zones with no or less fungal activity. On the one hand, this
could be due to the fungal sensitivity, but more on the other hand, the substances very close
together are more likely to get mixed during the diffusion process from the silica phase into the
agar overlay, although the agar layer is very thin. Therefore, the detected fractions are aggregated
to zones of fungal growth inhibition (Wanschura et al.2020).
Compounds detected in the inhibition zones of Astronium graveolens. Five zones with
bioactivity against both fungi were detected (Tab.1): D, E, G, H, and K while fraction A only
inhibited the growth of R. placenta. Compared to compounds in the other active zones, the
compound(s) in zone A may have a smaller microbiologically effective spectrum. It is known that
Astronium species contain different hydrolyzable tannins like gallotannins and ellagitannins
together with different phenolic derivates (Da Silva et al. 2011). Other already known components
found in Astronium species are gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, china acid, quercetin and
rutin (Imai et al. 2008; Brito Pereira Bezerra Martins et al. 2018). In zone E and in the methanol
zones H and K, an unidentified flavonoid (Rt 19.86) and gallic acid (Rt 12.63) were detected, as
well as two triterpenes (Rt 22.74 and Rt 22.69) in methanol zone G. The bioactive potential of the
acetone zones G and H cannot be explained sufficiently at this moment (Wanschura et al. 2020).
Tab. 1: Compounds detected on the TLC from Astronium graveolens extracts that were developed similar to the bioassay
plates (Wanschura et al. 2020).
tested extract a m a m m m m tested extract a m m

zone on TLC D E G H K zone on TLC D G

compound RT [min] compound RT [min]
gallic acid 12.63 x x n.i. triterpen 22.96 x
n.i. flavonoid 19.86 x x x n.i. sterol 23.32 x
catechin 20.13 x (epi-) gallocatechingallate 30.54 x
n.i. triterpen 22.74 x (epi-) gallocatechingallate 32.73 x
Compounds detected in the inhibition zones of Intsia spp. Catechin isomers like robinetinidol
or fisitinidol and some more flavonoids were detected in 3 bioactive zones (Wanschura et al.
2020). Furthermore, the reduced hyphal growth in another zone could be explained by a higher
content of gallic acid. Gallic acid has already been detected in an Intsia species by Kilic and Niemz
(2012). Robinetin was reported as the main flavonoid in Intsia bijuga. Further constituents
mentioned in this study were dihydromyricetin, myricetin, naringenin and leucocyanidin (Hillis
and Yazaki 1973).

Tab. 2: Compounds detected on the TLC from Intsia spp. extracts that were developed similar to the bioassay plates
(Wanschura et al. 2020).
tested extract a m a a a m a m m
zone on TLC C F H zone on TLC C D E
compound RT [min] compound RT [min]
n.i. compound 12.40 x catechin isomer 19.18 x x x
gallic acid 12.63 x catechin isomer 19.33 x x

dehydroabietic acid 16.80 x catechin isomer 19.34 x x

Compounds detected in the inhibition zones of Shorea laevis. In the two detected bioactive
zones, some fungicidal triterpenes were detected and additionally resveratrol in one of them

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(Wanschura et al. 2020). Hadi (2009) identified hopeaphenol, a resveratrol tetramer, in Shorea
ovalis. Bisset et al. (1971) detected triterpenes like ursolic aldehyde, dipterocarpol, shoreic acid
and dammarenolic acid in Shorea roxburghii. The bioactivity of zones E and F might be related
to a diterpenic compound, which has a fragment pattern that indicates the occurrence of
dehydroabietic acid. Dehydroabietic acid has a well-studied bioactivity profile, including antiviral,
antibiotic and antifungal activity (Helfenstein et al. 2017). Even though dehydroabietic acid, as a
resin acid, is usually found in conifers like Pinus spp., it is known that Shorea species form resin
ducts (Wagenführ and Scheiber 1974).

Tab. 3: Compounds detected on the TLC from Intsia spp. extracts that were developed similar to the bioassay plates
(Wanschura et al. 2020).
tested extract m a m a a m
zone on TLC D E F zone on TLC B D
compound RT [min] compound RT [min]
dehydroabietic acid 16.80 x x x n.i. triterpen 25.27 x
resveratrol 19.15 x n.i. triterpen 26.98 x x
n.i. triterpen 27.21 x x

Some more compounds, already isolated from the heartwood of Shorea spp., such as the tannin-
related compounds like gallic acid, flavogallonic acid dilactone, valoneic acid dilactone, ellagic
acid and catechin (Schwager and Lange 1998; Hirano et al. 2003) were not detected on the TLC.
One reason might be the relatively low concentration of some compounds on the TLC, which
could therefore not be isolated properly. To address the concentration problems that do not allow
correct identification of probably bioactive compounds, further preparative chromatography
methods could provide higher amounts of the pure compounds, which would allow for additional
analysis methods, such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
Compounds detected in the inhibition zones of Mezilaurus itauba. Like many Lauraceae
species, M. itauba contains a portfolio of alkaloids (Gottlieb 1972). Already identified alkaloids
from Mezilaurus synandra are coclaurine and corytuberine as well as some lactones (Silva et al.
1983) and neolignans from M. itauba (Yanez et al. 1988).

Tab. 4: Compounds detected on the TLC from Intsia spp. extracts that were developed similar to the bioassay plates
(Wanschura et al. 2020).
tested extract m a m a m m a m a m m
zone on TLC E F G K zone on TLC F G K
compound RT [min] compound RT [min]
bicuculline 18.61 x x boldine 20.71 x
methylcoclaurine 18.73 x boldine-isomer 20.83 x
laurotetanine 18.93 x boldine-derivate 20.99 x
n.i. alkaloid 19.22 x boldine-isomer 21.22 x x
coclaurine 19.30 x x x x n.i. triterpen 21.50 x
reticuline 19.40 x n.i. triterpen 21.53 x
norbicuculline 19.48 x x x n.i. alkaloid 22.49 x
n.i. alkaloid 19.58 x n.i. alkaloid 22.63 x x
n.i. alkaloid 19.63 x isoboldine 22.66 x
n.i. alkaloid 20.14 x n.i. triterpen 24.84 x

While the benzyltetraisochinoline coclaurine (Rt 19.30) was present in all bioactive zones (E, F,
G, K), reticuline (Rt 19.40) and methylcoclaurine (Rt 18.73) could only be detected in zone G.
With the exception of zone E, all zones contained aporphines like boldine (R t 20.71) or one of its
isomers isoboldine and corytuberine (Rt 20.83, Rt 21.22). Furthermore, its derivates laurotetanine

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(Rt 18.93) and methyllaurotetanine or its isomer isocorydine (Rt 20.99) could be identified
(Wanschura et al. 2020). Benzyltetraisochinolines as well as aporphines belong to the most
frequently detected alkaloids in the family Lauraceae (Custódio and da Veiga Junior 2014).
In the zones E, F and K, two compounds were detected, which have not been described in
Mezilaurus species yet: norbicuculline and bicuculline (Fig.6), of which the latter is known as a
GABA ( 4-aminobutanoic acid) receptor antagonist (Starke 2013), the chief inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (Watanabe et al. 2002). Furthermore, a triterpene
was found in zone G (Rt = 24.84). As the results show, a part of the natural durability of the tested
tropical wood species can certainly be attributed to the detected substances causing the inhibition
zones on the TLC plates. Because this inhibition is also dependent on the substance concentrations,
the minimal inhibitory concentrations should be determined in a next step. Furthermore, these
concentrations must then be related to the concentrations that prevail in the wood. Some of the
compounds may meet the requirements in potency and concentration to play an outstanding role
for natural durability. Nevertheless, consideration should be given to the entire extractive mixture
of the wood species. Some of them play a role as an elicitor, regulator or water repellent and may
have important influence on the natural durability (Wanschura et al. 2020).

Fig. 6: Fragment pattern of bicuculline at Rt 18.61 from Zone E (Mezillaurus itaúba)

Summary and Conclusions

The combination of the bioautographic agar overlay method and the hyphae agar method was
found to provide a possibility to benefit from the advantages of a direct bioautography (rapid, easy
to implement), while testing wood extractives against commonly used basidiomycetes, which are
not readily sporulating. It provides a possibility to examine the direct fungicidal activity and was
successfully implemented for basidiomycete fungi using R. placenta and T. versicolor, which
recovered rapidly from the treatment. The added vital stain contributed to the visible assignment
of the inhibition zones, containing antifungal agents in a rapid and clear way. The chemically
complex mixtures of semipolar and polar tropical wood extracts from A. graveolens, Intsia spp.,
S. laevis and M. itauba were resolved by 2D-TLC and analyzed by GC/ MS. In most of the
bioactive zones, major substance classes including several known fungicidal compounds could be
identified. It was shown that the method represents a straightforward analysis tool to test extracts

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from wood for bioactive substances even in complex mixtures. The hyphae-agar bioassay provides
a more rapid method for the investigation of bioactive wood extracts, enabling isolation and
identification of possible key substances. This might accelerate the elucidation of potential
structures, for example for biocidal, pharmaceutical or chemical uses. Furthermore, the
isoquinoline alkaloids bicuculline and norbicuculline were detected, which have not been
described in M. itauba yet.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Mathias Baumgartner, Claudia U. Lindner, Valerija Erceg, Selina
Götz and Martina Schwarzmüller for their valuable contribution by performing parts of the
analysis.

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Biography

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Wednesday, July 15

Wood in Health and Well Being

Chairs:
Mike Burnard, InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia
Eva Haviarova, Purdue University, USA

Building Wooden Hives for the Wellbeing of Honeybees

Anna Dupleix1
[email protected]
Delphine Jullien1
[email protected]
Emmanuel Ruffio2
[email protected]
Bertrand Schatz3
[email protected]
Pascale Moity-Maizi4
[email protected]

1 LMGC, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France

2 TREFLE, I2M, France
3 CEFE, France
4GRED, France

Abstract
Life sciences have proven that the honey bee (Apis mellifera) is an animal species presently threatened
by human activity. The human-bee relationship involves a third part, the beehive, which concentrates
local traditional knowledge, conditions beekeeping practices and defines the living environment closest to
the bees. Historically, the first hives were shaped during the Middle Ages in Western Europe from a
variety of locally available materials (wood of different species, trunks, cork bark, straw, basketry,
ceramics and stones) in the form of small cavities to imitate the "ideal nest" found by wild colonies in the
wild: crevices in cliffs, walls, hollow tree trunks. This diversity was gradually reduced during the
19th century with the invention of mobile frames, which allowed a tenfold increase in honey production. To
meet the constraints of human exploitation, the hive was then designed after the Second World War in
rectangular shape with wooden planks of light and inexpensive species (e.g. maritime pine) that were
summarily assembled (nailed), but not manufactured according to a know-how integrating wood species
chosen for their quality or to meet the needs of the bees.
However, recent discoveries in anthropology reveal a category of beekeepers ("beekeeper-
manufacturers") who design hive models on their farms that imitate living things. At the source of their
innovative approach lies the observation that "the box hive is unsuited to the biology and ecology of
bees". Already denounced from the end of the 19 th century, this statement was relayed by ethno-
ecological surveys which revealed a better vitality of colonies reared in chestnut trunk hives.
The research work presented here questions the direct (chemical action) and indirect (facilitated
hygrothermal regulation) properties and mechanisms that are brought into play by wood material when it

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is used to build hive and which make it possible to promote the well-being and biological development of
the bees living in. The first results show that: (i) the volatile chemical substances of chestnut wood have a
repellent effect on Varroa destructor (parasitic bee mite), (ii) wood hygroscopicity and thermal properties
quantitatively regulates the temperature and humidity, facilitating the regulating activity of the bees on the
in-hive climate.

Biography

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Human physiological responses during tactile and visual contact with

densified and laminated wood

Dean Lipovac
[email protected]

Jure Zitnik
[email protected]

Michael Burnard
[email protected]

InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

Abstract
Tactile and visual contact with different materials can lead to diverse physiological responses in
people. It has been shown that touching untreated solid wood is associated with decreased
physiological arousal, when compared to other common materials (i.e., marble, tile, and stainless
steel) (Ikei et al 2017b). These results indicate that people tend to be in a more relaxed state during
contact with wood. Recently, wood modification has gained interest due to its improved properties
(Sandberg et al 2017). Compression is a modification method that creates a densified material with
altered properties, including surface properties. Differences in surface properties can influence human
physiological response to wood. For example, lower physiological arousal was observed after tactile
contact with untreated wood than after coated wood (Ikei et al 2017a). However, we are not aware of
any existing study that investigated physiological responses to laminated and densified wood in
comparison to untreated solid wood.

Our objective was to compare human physiological responses to wooden materials with different
surface characteristics. We prepared six samples approximately 30 cm x 20 cm in size. Three of those
were made of solid poplar wood, and were either untreated, densified, or resin-impregnated and
densified. The other two wooden samples were made of particleboard that was either veneered with
poplar or laminated with a wood imitation covering. Finally, we included a sample made of mineral
filled thermoplastic composite (Kerrock®), to serve as a reference material.

We conducted a pilot study where 20 participants sat on a chair with their dominant hand resting on
one of the materials, while their heart rate, heart rate variability, blood pressure, and electrodermal
activity were measured. Each participant spent five minutes with their hand touching each material
and was tested at all six materials in a single session, with one-minute breaks between the materials.
Afterwards, the participants rated their tactile and visual preference of the presented materials on a
Likert-type scale. Finally, they ranked the presented materials from most to least preferred for
everyday use as a desk top material.

The presented results will show how modified and laminated wood samples compare against untreated
wood and mineral filled thermoplastic composite in terms of human physiological responses. In

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addition, we will present associations between preference ratings and rankings with physiological
data.

References

Ikei H, Song C, Miyazaki Y (2017a) Physiological effects of touching coated wood. Int J Env Res Pub
He 14(7):773.

Ikei H, Song C, Miyazaki Y (2017b) Physiological effects of touching wood. Int J Env Res Pub He
14(7):801.

Sandberg D, Kutnar A, Mantanis G (2017) Wood modification technologies - A review. Iforest 10:895-
908.

Biography

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Preparation of Kenaf based nanobiocomposite as sustainable adsorbent for

the removal of organic and inorganic and pathogenic contaminants

Sujata Mandal
[email protected]
Sheldon Shi
[email protected]
Sreekar Marpu
[email protected]

University of North Texas, USA

Abstract
Water contamination due to rapid industrialization and increased population by multiple pollutants
ranging from pathogens, organic and inorganic chemicals impose a major threat to human health and
the environment. This study focuses on the potential use of nanotechnology to reduce cost and
improve efficiency in pollution control and water treatment. Kenaf promises ecofriendly diverse
pollutant remediation and in this research, kenaf based activated carbon will be first prepared by the
self - activation process. The activated carbon will be then used as a bio adsorbent for the removal of
congo red (CR), an anionic dye and divalent metal lead (Pb) from aqueous solution. The bio adsorbent
will be impregnated with nanosilver and antibacterial efficacy will also be explored. Adsorption study of
lead will be carried out and quantified using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Surface
morphology of the activated carbon before and after adsorption of lead and congo red to be
investigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Experimental equilibrium data will be fitted
to Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm and values of the parameters of the isotherm will be
reported. The optical and chemical properties of nanocomposite will be characterized extensively using
UV Vis and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. Effect of contact time, pH and initial
pollutant concentration on adsorption will also be investigated.

Keywords: human health, contamination, pathogens, toxic metal, congo red, nanocomposite

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wood as a Building Material Affects the Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ)

and Well-being of Occupants

Riina Muilu-Mäkelä1
[email protected]
Ann Ojala1
[email protected]
Martin Ohlmeyer2
[email protected]
Tytti Sarjala1
[email protected]

1 Natural Resources Institute Finland

2 Thunen Institute Germany

Abstract
Wood as a building material has good acoustic, hygroscopic and antibacterial properties that affect the
quality of indoor environments. The odour of wood is typically well accepted, positively evaluated, and
wood reflects warm wavelengths, which also creates a pleasant atmosphere. These multisensory
perceptions potentially mean that wood has positive effects on mood. Accordingly, in previous studies,
wood has been shown to affect the activity of the human autonomic nervous system and to relieve
stress. Especially after working, people have been shown to have more positive feelings in wooden
than in non-wooden environments. However, more investigations are needed to enhance the effects of
materials, especially wood on human well-being, which has an economic value too.

As a hygroscopic material, wood absorbs and releases moisture and stabilizes room humidity.
Primarily, wood and wood-based panels emit volatile extractives (primary emissions) that affect the
odour of indoor space. In the present study the effect of the wooden materials, like wooden floor, wall
panels and furniture’s on indoor environment quality (IEQ) was evaluated in two different working
environments. The fluctuation of the room humidity and temperature were continuously measured and
VOC contents and acoustics of the environments analysed. Furthermore, the IEQ parameters were
linked with the psychological analyses from experiences that occupants had in the particular test
environments.

Moreover, VOC profiles vary, depending on the wood species and process conditions. Thus, in the
present study soft wood specific volatile terpenes were measured from Norway spruce and Scots pine
blocks and the effects of time and moisture level on evaporated terpene contents were analysed.
Health effective properties of main terpenes were tested in an eye epithelium cell model system and
by antioxidativity tests. Commercially important soft wood species Pine wood was used in interior of
the working environment and as such the role of terpenes in IEQ was specifically evaluated.

The results indicated that some individual terpenes can be harmful in very high contents, but such an
amount of terpenes is hardly evaporated from the wood constructions. Instead, some antioxdative
effects were detected, indicating that some terpenes have protective effects against free radicals that
are released in cells especially under stress. The highest and lowest peaks in moisture contents
measured from the test environments were cut down faster in the room with wood than in the room

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with synthetic materials. Volatile terpenes gave a specific odour to the wooden room which was easily
recognised by the occupants. The fragrant was well-liked.

The present study is part of the ongoing research project (Wood for Good, W4G) where the aim is to
evaluate the role of wood on human well-being by psychological and physiological analyses. During a
test series modelling multitasking computer work stress the effect of indoor wood material on
physiological stress levels and on attentional functioning are investigated. The beneficial effects of
wood for individual health and a healthier society will be formed into economical values and taken into
consideration in designing, consuming and decision-making.

Biography

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Demonstration of REED- Restorative Environmental and Ergonomic Design

principles on InnoRenew CoE building architecture

Aarne Niemelä1
[email protected]
Eva Prelovšek Niemelä1
[email protected]
Michael Burnard2
[email protected]

1InnoRenew
CoE, Slovenia
2InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia

Abstract
Restorative Environmental and Ergonomic Design (REED) is a building design paradigm that
can provide guidance for architectural design focused on multiple aspects of sustainability:
environmental, social, individual wellbeing, and economic. Individual wellbeing is enhanced
through the restorative capacity of the building and ergonomic interventions to support
safety and activity. One of the key elements of restorative living and working environments
is wood as a basic design element. Restoration is increasing in importance, since urban life-
style is increasingly concentrated indoors; we spend up to 90% of our time indoors. While
clinical practice focuses on treating illness, newest research suggests that, the indoor
environmental quality has an important role to play in sustaining human wellbeing. Studies
have demonstrated that wooden surfaces in human spaces have a calming effect, helping to
reduce stress. Wood may indirectly help to improve occupant health through by improving
air quality, visual comfort, olfactory aspects of the environment, and through the connection
to nature it triggers in occupants.
To demonstrate and further refine the REED paradigm, we designed a mass timber building
that is currently under construction in town of Izola, Slovenia. The building (8,200 m2)
consists of office, meeting space, and laboratory facilities. The principles of using natural
materials, particularly massive wood, natural light, quality of air, heating and ventilation,
acoustic elements, open spaces of social interaction and physical movement, views through
the building interior zones and to outdoors, outdoor areas with particular microclimatic
zones, green roofs, terraces and park design are demonstrated in the InnoRenew CoE
building’s complex design. Users are motivated to use sustainable and healthy means of
transportation through urban design of the building complex and its environment. This
represents a shift in building design (and urban neighbourhood/community design) from
minimizing environmental harm towards creating positive impacts for the natural
environment, building users, and society in general. The presentation will include an
overview of the REED design elements in the building and how their effect on occupants will
be tested.
Keywords: sustainable architecture, mass timber buildings, restorative environment,
connection to nature, wellbeing

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Acknowledgement:
Authors gratefully acknowledge the European Commission for funding InnoRenew CoE
(grant agreement #739574), under the H2020 Widespread-Teaming programme and
Republic of Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European
Union’s European Regional Development Fund).

Biography

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Biodegradation and the Impact of Forest Disturbances

Chairs:
Yusuf Sudo Hadi, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia
Francesco Negro, DISAFA, University of Torino, Italy

Population distribution and structure of Afzelia species in

Southwestern Nigeria
Adejoke Akinyele 1*– Akintunde Solomon 2

Senior Lecturer, Department of Forest Production and Products, Faculty of

1
Renewable Natural Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria *
Corresponding author
[email protected]
2 Department of Forest Production and Products, Faculty of Renewable Natural
Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
[email protected]

Abstract
Afzelia species are among the threatened multipurpose tree species in Africa because they have
socio-economic importance. There are loss and fragmentation of the species due to different forms
of disturbances. These species undergo increasing human pressure and are threatened because of
their overexploitation or by the lack of natural regeneration by seedling, or just simply as a result
of the loss of their ecological environments. Therefore, investigation was conducted to assess the
population distribution and structure of Afzelia species in three forest reserves of Southwestern
Nigeria namely Omo Biosphere Reserve, Gambari Forest Reserve and Akure Forest Reserve.
Systematic sampling method was used with 10% sampling intensity on a straight line alternating
transect line in the study areas. Adult trees (dbh ≥ 10 cm) were measured within square plots of
2500m2 sizes (50x50) in 125 plots in the three forest reserves. Nest transects of 50 x 0.5 m2 was
laid within each plot for total enumeration of the species at sapling stage (dbh ≥ 5 <10 cm). Another
nest transects of 10 x 10 m2 were established at the four corners of the 50x50m2 plots to enumerate
seedlings (dbh < 5 cm). Collected data were sorted to generate diameter size classes. ANOVA was
used to show differences in tree dbh and variation in the number of individual trees in each study
area. Tree variables such as Blackman and Green indices, basal area, average diameter, height of
Lorey and density were calculated and interpreted.
Density (0.06), diameter (0.01 cm), basal surface area (0.01 cm), Lorey height (0.07 m) and Green
index (0.03) were significant across locations. Density (0.23), stand /hectare and stand diameter
(cm) (0.01) were significant for regeneration status while basal surface area (cm 2) (0.00) was not
significant for saplings. Seedlings had significant diameter /hectare (0.01) and basal surface area
(cm2) (0.23) while stand density /hectare (0.01) was not. Akure Forest Reserve had highest
Shannon index (1.54), Simpson index (0.82), and Shannon Maximum diversity index (2.89) while

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Gambari Forest Reserve had the least (0.80 and 0.45, respectively). However, Gambari Forest
Reserve had the highest value for species evenness (0.28).
The high diversity in Afzelia population observed in Akure Forest Reserve could be as a result of
low disturbance of the reserve since its management under the Forestry Research Institute of
Nigeria (FRIN) offer more security against illegal activities.

Key words: Population distribution, Population structure, Afzelia species, Southwestern Nigeria
Introduction
Afzelia species are one of the highly demanded multipurpose tree species in Africa that are under
threat due to its importance as a socio-economic tree species (Traoré et al., 2011). It is highly
valuable for fodder and medicine (Nacoulma et al., 2011) as the leaves are fed to animals during
the dry season and the barks used for the treatment of some human diseases (Arbonnier, 2002;
Assogbadjo et al., 2010). Afzelia species rejuvenation has been adversely affected by human
disturbances and environment pejoration (Ouédraogo and Thiombiano, 2012). The greatest threats
to plant diversity include the loss and fragmentation of tropical forests (du Toit et al., 2004) and
the tropical rainforests are especially vulnerable to deforestation and degradation (Lafrankie et al.,
2006). In Nigeria, population growth and high demand on land have led to excessive logging and
overexploitation and most forest reserves have been converted to farmland of arable and cash crops
or other land uses. Due to the lucrative nature of timber trade, unceasing lumber harvesting in both
the restricted woodland and the unrestricted areas has been instigated. According to Adekunle et
al. (2010), 111,377 lumber stem, from 62 different aboriginal hardwood species of humid tropical
forest, from 16 families, were exploited from Ondo State woodland bionetwork between 2003 and
2005. Despite the importance of Afzelia species to the rural population, the information on Afzelia
species and scientific data on its ecological distribution, regeneration potential, and its
conservation are scarce.
According to Olajuyigbe et al. (2013), although all tree species in every region are threatened due
to climate change, some are more vulnerable than others. The strong anthropogenic weight as a
result of slash-and-burn practiced by about 70% of the agrarian inhabitants of Nigeria and
uncultivated (FAO, 2003) phases progressively disturb the population structure of Afzelia species.
This is further compounded by the fact that the species occurs in natural stands, with no planning
or reinforcement study, therefore, the structure, regeneration, and the possible danger of the loss
of the species in Nigeria are still less considered (Bonou et al., 2009).
Therefore, this study assessed the population distribution and structure of Afzelia species in three
forest reserves in Southwestern Nigeria.

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Materials & Methods

Study Area
The study was conducted in Omo biosphere reserve, Ogun state, Gambari Forest reserve, Ibadan,
Oyo State and Akure forest reserve, Ondo State (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing the locations of the study

Omo Biosphere Reserve (OBR)

Omo Biosphere Reserve is locally called Igbo iyalode by the rural dwellers in Omo forest reserve,
Ogun state. The biosphere lies approximately between latitude 6°55ʹ12ʺ to 7°10ʹ12ʺN and
longitude 4°13ʹ12ʺ to 4°24ʹ0ʺE in the high forest zone of southwestern Nigeria. Omo Biosphere
Reserve has 460 ha core area and 14,200 ha buffer zone and was constituted a Strict Nature Reserve
in 1949 and Biosphere Reserve in 1977 (Onyekwelu et al., 2008). The climate of the area is humid
tropical and it exhibits two distinct seasons: rainy and dry seasons as obtained in the rainforest
ecological zone of Nigeria. The wet (rainy) season commences in March and ends in November
while dry season extends from December to February. Annual rainfall is from 1700 to 2200 mm
while annual temperature and average daily relative humidity are 26°C and 80%, respectively.
Rainfall distribution in Omo Biosphere Reserve is bi-modal with a marked decline in August and
the peaks in July and September. According to Onyekwelu et al. (2008), the average elevation is

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about 123 meters. Nwachokor and Uzu (2008) reported the soils as being predominantly
ferruginous tropical, which is the typical variety found in intensively weathered areas of basement
complex formations in the rainforest zone of southwestern Nigeria. The upper parts of the soil
layer are well-drained, mature, red, stony, and gravely (Onyekwelu et al., 2008).

Gambari Forest Reserve

Gambari Forest Reserve is located on latitude 7°25ʹ and 7°55ʹN and longitude 3°53ʹ and 3°9ʹE in
the low land semi-deciduous forest belt of Nigeria. The total land area of the reserve is 17,984ha
which is divided into two- natural and plantation forests. The natural forest consists of indigenous
species such as Terminalia spp, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Irvingia garbonensis, Treculia africana,
among others, while exotic species such as Gmelina arborea and Tectona grandis made up the
plantation forest. The topography of Gambari Forest Reserve is generally undulating, with an
altitude between 90m and 140m above sea level. The annual rainfall is between 1200mm to
1300mm, and it extends from March to November. The dry season is severe with low relative
humidity and an average annual temperature of 26.4°C (Larinde and Olasupo, 2011).

Akure Forest Reserve

The Strict Nature Reserve (SNR) within Akure Forest Reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria was used for
the study. It was carved out and designated as a Strict Nature Reserve in 1954 by the Forestry
Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN). It covers an area of 69.93 km2 and is situated on latitude
5º45ʹ and 8º15ʹN and longitude 4º30ʹ and 6ºE. The area has a humid sub-tropical climate,
indicating that it is within the tropical rainforest ecological zone which is dominated by
broadleaved hardwood trees that form dense, layered stands. The mean annual temperature is
between 19ºC and 34ºC while the monthly mean temperature is about 27°C, making it conducive
to the growth and development of tropical rain forest (Adeduntan, 2009). The rainy season is
usually between March and November (about 2500 mm with bimodal rainfall pattern), lasting for
9 months annually, while the dry seasons usually last for 3 months, between December and
February (Ola-Adams and Hall, 1987). Plantations of indigenous and exotic tree species were
established at the boundaries and buffer zone of the reserve. The SNR is bounded on one side by
a river making accessibility to the forest very difficult. Several rural communities around the
reserve are involved in its management and protection. Anthropogenic activities, such as organized

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taungya farming, collection of firewood, and gathering of other non-timber forest products
(NTFPs), were restricted to the buffer zone.

Methodology
Sampling techniques and data collection

Systematic sampling method was used with 10% sampling intensity on a straight line alternating
transect line in the study areas. Adults trees (dbh ≥ 10 cm) were measured within square plots of
2500m2 sizes (50x50), a total of one hundred and twenty five (125) plots were laid and sampled in
the three forest reserves. Variables measured on sampled trees are diameter at breast height (dbh
≥ 10 cm), the total and bole height.
Nest transects of 50 x 0.5 m2 were laid within each plot for enumeration and measurement of
saplings. All stems belonging to the genus were identified and enumerated. All stems with girth
greater than 5.0cm but less than 10cm at 1.30 m above the ground with a height greater than 1.5
m were measured and enumerated for total height.
Nest Transects of 10 x 10 m2 were established at the four corners of the 50x50m2 plots for
enumeration and measurement of seedlings. Also, nest transects of 10 x 0.2m2 were established
within the quadrats. All seedlings stems from each transect were identified and enumerated. For
each species, seedlings with a diameter less than 5.0 cm were identified, counted and its collar
diameter measured at ground level for each plant stem with the aid of cloth tape. The height was
measured with meter rule.

Data analysis
Data were sorted to generate diameter size classes and the density in each class was computed.
Pattern of species population structure was established based on the density of species in the
different dbh classes and interpreted as an indication of variations in population dynamics. One-
way Analysis of Variance was used to show differences in tree dbh and variation in the number of
individual trees in each study area.
Species characteristics (number of stems, basal area, and total height) were calculated separately
for each diameter class within the same plot. Simpson evenness and Shannon index were used to
quantify the structural diversity of the Afzelia species in the study areas, based on different
structural attributes. The diversity index was calculated for diameter distribution.

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Stand Density (stand/hectare) 𝐷𝑔 = √1/𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖²……………..1

Medium basal surface area (cm2) G = π ∕ 40000s ∑ni=1 di² …………2
Lorey height of individuals (m) 𝐻𝐿=∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑔𝑖ℎ𝑖/ ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑔𝑖 ……… …..3

Diameter of tree with medium basal 𝐷𝑔 = √1/𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖² ……………..4

surface area (cm)

Blackman index 𝐼 𝑆𝑁2 ……………………………..5

𝐵= 𝑁

Green index 𝐼𝐵=𝐼𝐵−1 ……………………………..6

𝑛−1
Notes: 𝑛, total number of trees within one plot; 𝑑𝑖, diameter of the 𝑖th tree; 𝑆𝑁2, variance of
population trees; 𝑁, mean of population trees.

Basal area (cm2) in each study area was calculated using the formula:

πD 2
BA = .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... ( 7 )
4
Tree Species Classification and Biodiversity Indices

(i) Relative density was computed as:

ni
RD =  100.................
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..( 8 )
N

Where:

RD = species relative density

ni = number of individual of species i

N = total number of all tree species in the entire community.

(ii) Species relative dominance (RDO (%)) was computed using the equation:

RDO =
 Ba  100 ..............................................................................................( 9 )
i

 Ba n

Where:

Bai = basal area of individual tree belonging to species i

Ban = stand basal area

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(iii) Species diversity index was calculated using the Shannon-Weiner diversity index (Kent and

Coker, 1992):
S
H ' = − p i ln (pi ).......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .( 10 )
i=1

Where:

H’ = Shannon-Weiner diversity index

S = Total number of species in the community

Pi = Proportion of S made up of the ith species

ln = natural logarithm

(iv) Shannon’s maximum diversity index was calculated using the relationship:

Hmax = ln(S) …………………………..…………………………………………….. (11)

Where:

Hmax = Shannon’s maximum diversity

S = Total number of species in the community

(v) Species evenness in each community was determined using Shannon’s equitability (EH):
S

H'
 P ln (P
i=1
i i )
EH = = ..........
..........
..........
.........
( 12 )
H Max ln (S)

(vi) Simpson’s index

2
n 
D = 1 −   i  ..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
.......
( 13 )
N
Where:
D = Simpson’s index
ni = number of individual of species i
N = total number of all tree species in the entire community

Results

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Dendrometric Parameters
Table 1 showed the dendrometric characteristics of Afzelia species populations at all population
levels according to locations. There were significant differences in the density, diameter, basal
surface area and Lorey height in the three forest reserves. The diameter, basal surface area, and
Lorey height of Afzelia species populations ranged from 63 to 172 cm, 1 to 3m2/ha, and 21 to 38m,
respectively. High values of diameters, basal surface areas and height were observed in Ondo State
(Akure Forest Reserve).

Enumeration of Sapling
The natural regeneration of the Afzelia Species populations was recorded in the three Forest
Reserves (Table 2). Sapling density (n=8) was high in Akure Forest Reserve when compared with
the other two Forest reserve having 1 sapling stand of Afzelia species per hectare. There was a
significant difference in mean density and mean diameter (𝑃 < 0.01) but there was no significant
difference in the mean basal surface area. Of the three forest reserves, Omo biosphere Reserve had
the highest sapling mean diameter and mean basal surface area. There were no significant
differences in the diameter class distribution in the three Forest Reserves.

Table 1: Tree Growth Variables of Afzelia species according to Forest Reserves in Southwestern
Nigeria
Parameter Omo Gambari Akure Std. Std. Error P-Value
Trees Biosphere Forest Forest Deviation Mean
Reserve Reserve Reserve
Density 1 1 7 0.58 0.33 0.057*
(stand/hect.)
Diameter 132.38 63.41 171.95 0.82 0.33 0.01*
(cm)
Basal
Surface area 1.71 0.91 2.91 0.82 0.29 0.01*
(cm2)
Lorey
Height (m) 30.36 20.57 37.65 1.00 0.58 0.074*
Medium
Basal Area 3.33 x 10-3 4.78 x 10-5 2.04 x 10-3 0.82 0.33 0.001ns
(cm2)
Blackman
index 10.62 0.60 1.40 0.82 0.33 0.001ns

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Green Index 0.57 0.067 0.067 0.45 0.2 0.033*

*significant at P<0.01

Table 2: Density, Diameter and Basal surface area of Afzelia saplings in the study areas
Sapling Omo Gambari Akure Std. Std. P-Value
Variables Biosphere Forest Forest Deviation Error
Reserve Reserve Reserve
Density 1 1 8 1.154 0.67 0. 225*
(stand/hect.)
Dbh (cm) 0.073 0.072 0.067 0.817 0.33 0.01*
Basal Surface
Area (cm2) 2.51×10-4 3.43 × 10-6 2.78 × 10-6 0.817 0.33 0.00ns
*significant at P>0.01

Enumeration of Seedlings
There were significant differences in the diameter and basal surface area (𝑃 > 0.01) in the three
forest reserves (Table 3). Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest basal surface area, 5.9 × 10-6cm2
while seedling density was highest in Akure Forest Reserve (18 seedlings/ha) followed by Omo
Biosphere Reserve (6 seedlings/ hectare) and Gambari Forest Reserve (3 seedlings /hectare).

Table 3: Density, Diameter and Basal surface area of Afzelia seedlings in the study areas
Seedlings Omo Gambari Akure Std. Std. P-Value
Variables Biosphere Forest Forest Deviation Error
Reserve Reserve Reserve
Seedling Density 6 3 18 0.82 0.33 0.001ns
(stand/hect.)
Dbh (cm) 0.015 0.022 0.008 1.00 0.5774 0.01*
Basal Surface 5.9 × 10-6 5.57 × 9.66 × 1.00 0.5773 0.225*
Area (cm2) 10-8 10-8
*significant at P>0.01
Height distribution of saplings in Omo Biosphere Reserve, Gambari Forest Reserve and Akure
Forest Reserve, showed that most of the stems were within the range of 5.0-6.5 cm (figure 2) while
most diameter class distribution of seedlings in the three reserves was within the range of 0.51-1.0
cm (Figure 3).

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Height class (cm)

Akure Forest
Reserve
8.51-9.5
Gambari Forest
7.51-8.5 Reserve

6.51-7.5

5.0-6.5

0 2 4 6 8
Frequency

Figure 2: Height distribution of Saplings in Omo, Gambari and Akure forest reserves (stem/ha)

Akure Forest
Reserve
Gambari Forest
Diameter class (stem/ha)

1.01-1.50 Reserve

0.51-1.0

0-0.50

0 5 10 15 20

Figure 3: Diameter class distribution of seedlings in Omo, Gambari and Akure forest reserves (stem/ha)

Structure of Afzelia tree species in the study areas

The diameter distribution of tree stems in Omo Biosphere Reserve showed that most of the stems
were within the range of 91-130cm (Figure 4), in Gambari Forest reserve were within the range of
10-50cm while the diameter distribution of stems in Akure Forest Reserve showed that most of
the stems fell within the range of ≥211.
Height distribution of the trees in Omo Biosphere Reserve showed that height range from 10 and
35m as shown in figure 5. Height class 30-35m had the highest number of stands (8 stands). Trees
are mainly within 15-20m height class in Gambari Forest Reserve had the highest number of stems,
while in Akure Forest reserve, height class 26-30m and 36 to 40m had 2 stands/ ha each.

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Akure Forest Reserve

Gambari Forest Reserve
> 211 Omo Biosphere Reserve
171.0-210.0
131.0-170.0
91.0-130.0
51.0-90.0
10.0-50.0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 4: Diameter distribution of tree stems in Omo, Gambari and Akure Forest Reserves (stem/ha)

Akure Forest
Reserve
Height class distribution (m)

40.01-45.0
Gambari Forest
30.01-35.0 Reserve

20.01-25.0 Omo Biosphere

Reserve
10.0-15.0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Frequency

Figure 5: Height class distribution of tree stems in Omo Gambari and Akure Forest Reserve (stem/m)

Table 5 showed the diversity obtained for Omo Biosphere Reserve for each diameter class. The
results showed that the Relative density (RD) in the diameter class of Afzelia species ranged from
0.00 to 33.33% in the Biosphere Reserve. Diameter with the highest relative density was obtained
in height class 91-130m, while the least was observed to be between classes 51 to 90m. The
Relative dominance ranged from 0.00 – 28.50%. Height class from 211m and above had the
highest relative dominance followed by height class 171- 210m with relative dominance of 27.5%.
The Shannon-weinner diversity index (H') and Simpson’s index (D) obtained for this Forest
Reserve were 1.5417 and 0.8161 respectively. The Shannon maximum diversity was 2.8904, while
Simpson evenness was obtained as 0.0636
Table 6 showed the diversity obtained for Gambari Forest Reserve for the diameter class. The
results showed that the Relative density (RD) in the diameter class of Afzelia species in the forest
reserve to varied from 0.00 to 71.43 %. Diameter class with the highest relative density was found
in height class 10-50m, while the least was observed to be between diameter class 51 to 90m, 91-

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130m and height above 210m. Relative dominance ranged from 0.00 – 40.93%. Height class from
171 - 210m had the highest relative dominance followed by height class 10- 50m with relative
dominance of 36.24%. Shannon-weinner diversity index (H') and Simpson’s index (D) obtained
for this forest reserve were 0.7964 and 0.4490 respectively. Shannon maximum diversity was
1.9459, while Simpson evenness was obtained as 0.2832.
Table 7 showed the diversity obtained for Akure Forest Reserve for the diameter class. The results
showed that the Relative density (RD) in the diameter class of Afzelia species in the strict nature
reserve to varied from 0.00 to 42.86 %. Diameter class with the highest relative density was found
in height class height above 20mm, while the least was observed to be between diameter classes
51- 90m, and 91-130m. Relative dominance ranged from 0.00 – 78.25%. Height class from 211m
and above had the highest relative dominance followed by, height class 171- 210m with relative
dominance of 13.35%. Shannon-weinner diversity index (H') and Simpson’s index (D) obtained
for this forest reserve were 1.18 and 0.69 respectively. Shannon maximum diversity was 1.96,
while Simpson evenness was obtained as 0.16.

Table 5: Afzelia Species Richness and Diversity Indices in Omo Biosphere Reserve
Dbh Freq. Basal Area Total Relative Relative H D Simpson
Class (stem/ (m) Height Density Dominance -(Pi Evenness
(cm) ha) (m) (%) (%) In(Pi)
10-50 3 0.0306 29.4 16.67 0.10 0.2987 0.0278 0.0096
51-90 0 0.0000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
91-130 6 6.5800 174.41 33.33 21.41 0.3660 0.1111 0.0384
131-170 4 6.8300 127.41 22.22 22.22 0.3342 0.0049 0.0017
171-210 3 8.5300 88.37 16.67 27.75 0.2987 0.0278 0.0096
≥211 2 8.7700 63.55 11.11 28.50 0.2441 0.0123 0.0043
Total 18 30.74 483.14 100 100.00 1.5417 0.1839 0.0636

Table 6: Afzelia Species Richness and Diversity Indices in Gambari Forest Reserve
Dbh Freq. Basal Area Total Relative Relative H D Simpson
Class (stem/ (m) Height Density Dominance -(Pi Evenness
(cm) ha) (m) (%) (%) In(Pi)

10-50 5 2.3020 85.17 71.43 36.24 0.2404 0.5102 0.2622

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51-90 0 0.0000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

91-130 0 0.0000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
131-170 1 1.4500 22.8 14.29 22.83 0.2780 0.0204 0.0105
171-210 1 2.6000 24.71 14.29 40.93 0.2780 0.0204 0.0105
≥211 0 0.0000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Total 7 6.3520 132.70 100.01 100 0.7964 0.5510 0.2832

Table 7: Afzelia Species Richness and Diversity Indices in Akure Forest Reserve
Dbh Freq. Basal Area Total Relative Relative H D Simpson
Class (stems (m) Height Density Dominance -(Pi Evenness
(cm) /ha) (m) (%) (%) In(Pi)

10-50 1 0.0940 22.8 14.29 0.46 0.2780 0.0204 0.0105

51-90 0 0.0000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

91-130 0 0.0000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

131-170 2 1.6200 58.60 28.57 7.95 0.2579 0.0816 0.0419

171-210 1 2.7200 32.80 14.29 13.35 0.2780 0.0204 0.0105

≥211 3 15.9400 118.7 42.86 78.25 0.3631 0.1837 0.0944

Total 7 20.37 232.90 100.01 100.01 1.18 0.31 0.16

Omo Biosphere reserve had the highest frequency of Afzelia species 18 stand/ha among the three
study areas, while the other two had equal frequencies of 7 stems each. Omo Biosphere Reserve
had the highest value for both the basal area and total height of tree stems (30.74 and 483.14,
respectively) within the three study areas. Shannon diversity index showed that Omo Biosphere
Reserve (1.54) was more diverse than the other two study areas. Afzelia species were evenly
distributed in Omo Biosphere Reserves when compared with the other two study areas.
Table 8 showed that Akure Forest Reserve had the highest density of saplings per hectares i.e. 8
stem/ stand while Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest basal area /ha. As for the Shannon
diversity index, the table revealed that Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest value (1.37)
followed by Gambari Forest Reserve (1.18) while Akure Forest Reserve had the least value (0.74).
Gambari Forest Reserve had the highest value for Simpson index (0.69) followed by Omo
Biosphere Reserve (0.68) while Akure Forest Reserve had the least (0.41). For species evenness,

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Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest value (0.52) followed by Gambari Forest Reserve (0.45)
while SNR 2, Akure Forest Reserve had the least value (0.36). Also, both Omo Biosphere Reserve
and Gambari Forest Reserve had the highest value (2.64) for Shannon maximum diversity while
Akure Forest Reserve had the least value (2.08).
Table 9 showed that Akure Forest Reserve had the highest density of saplings per hectares i.e. 18
stands/ stand followed by Omo Biosphere reserve (6 stands/ha) and Gambari Forest Reserve had
the least (3 stands /ha). Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest basal area /ha. As for the Shannon
diversity index, the table revealed that Gambari Forest Reserve had the highest value (1.54)
followed by Omo Biosphere Reserve (0.79) while Akure Forest Reserve had the least value (0.56).
Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest value for Simpson index (0.58) followed by Gambari
Forest Reserve (0.31) while Akure Forest Reserve had the least (0.29). For species evenness,
Akure Forest Reserve had the highest value (0.19) followed by Gambari Forest Reserve (0.005)
while Omo Biosphere Reserve had the least value (0.004). Omo Biosphere Reserve had the highest
value (4.65) for Shannon maximum diversity followed by Gambari Forest Reserve (3.5) while
Akure Forest Reserve had the least value (2.89).

Table 8: Sapling Species Richness and Diversity Indices of Afzelia spp in the Forest Reserves
Diversity Indices Omo Biosphere Gambari Akure Forest
Reserve Forest Reserve Reserve
Density (Stem/ha) 1 1 8
Basal Area(m) 0.06 0.057 0.028
Total Height (m) 145.57 116.66 65.93
Relative Density % 100.01 100.01 100
Relative Dominance % 100 100 100
Shannon Index 1.37 1.18 0.74
Simpson Index 0.68 0.69 0.41
Species Evenness 0.52 0.45 0.35
Shannon Maximum 2.64 2.64 2.079
Diversity

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Table 9: Seedlings Species Richness and Diversity Indices of Afzelia species in the Forest
Reserves
Diversity Indices Omo Biosphere Gambari Forest Akure Forest
Reserve Reserve Reserve
Density (Stands/ha) 6 3 18
Basal Area(m) 0.02 0.012 0.001
Total Height (m) 57.12 40.53 2.14
Relative Density % 100 100 100
Relative Dominance % 100 100 100
Shannon Index 0.79 1.54 0.57
Simpson Index 0.58 0.31 0.29
Species Evenness 0.004 0.005 0.19
Shannon Maximum 4.65 3.5 2.9
Diversity

Discussion and Conclusions

Tree growth variables such as tree height, bole height and diameter at breast height are important
tools used in forestry. The average diameter of a tree has been a useful parameter of interest which
is often recommended in forestry (Sokpon and Biaou, 2002). In this study Afzelia species had a
curve for its diameter size-class distribution. The height distributions of Afzelia trees in Omo
Biosphere Reserve showed an inverse J-shaped distribution which showed that the height class is
increasing steadily. However, height distribution in Gambari Forest Reserve showed a J-shaped
distribution which implied that the trees were under serious threat in the reserve either by man or
anthropogenic factors hampering the growth and development of Afzelia species in the forest
reserve. This is in agreement with the findings of Salami et al. (2016) and Salami and Akinyele
(2017) who further established the degraded nature of the reserve and its poor regeneration
potential. In Akure Forest Reserve, the height distribution had an inverse J-shaped distribution.
Though there were fluctuations between diameter class 10-50cm and 91-130cm having a zigzag
in the graph which could mean that the population of the species has been hampered with in the
past either by man or by anthropogenic factors.
Paradise and Houngnon (1997) and Sokpon and Biaou (2002) observed the same distribution in
Lama Reserve, Benin and Bassila Forest Reserve, Benin, respectively. According to Cunningham
(2001), the curve could be indicating the need for more light or competition-intolerant species as

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well as an unusual reproductive strategy leading to low numbers of seeds. Afzelia species are
known as shade-intolerant species and the absence of individuals with larger diameters especially
in Gambari Forest Reserve and Akure Forest Reserve could be as a result of extensive logging
activities where the trees are under severe pressure or anthropogenic factors such as windthrow,
fire, which could lead to the local extinction of the population of the species. Large-diameter trees
are usually the best seed-bearers of the population, as they ensure the production of seeds, thereby
supporting the regeneration of the species implying that the low density of large-diameter trees
may hamper the regeneration of the population. The density of Afzelia species indicated that the
study areas were sparingly populated especially Omo Biosphere Reserve and Gambari Forest
Reserve. Indeed, Salami and Akinyele (2018) recorded 405 Nigerian tropical timber species in
Omo Biosphere Reserve but Afzelia was only 2 stands/ ha. This could be as a result of the dense
canopy cover in the three study areas and Afzelia being a light-demanding tree species cannot
survive under canopies of other tree species. This could also be accounted for by the increase in
rainfall and relative humidity in the three study areas as Afzelia species do not thrive well in areas
with high relative humidity and high rainfall. Afzelia species are known to thrive well in the
savanna regions where the relative humidity is low and with a little amount of rainfall but if found
in the rain forest, they tend to occupy the drier part of the forest reserve and mountain top or hilly
part of a rainforest. Assogbadjo et al. (2010) in Wari- Maro forest reserve showed that
dendrometric features have implications for Anogeissus leiocarpa stands under low pressure. Kiki
(2008) and Fandohan et al. (2010). In their studies on Vitex doniana and Tamarindus indica,
respectively reported that human pressures have negative effects on dendrometric parameters such
as density and regeneration on adult density but a positive effect on the mean diameter. Bello and
Akinyele (2018), in their study on population distribution and diversity of Pycnanthus angolensis
in Southwest, Nigeria also reported that there has been heavy exploitation of the species and habitat
loss due to deforestation and land encroachment which has resulted in the sparse population of
mature trees in some of their study areas, but and juvenile trees in Osun State, Nigeria.
The existence of species in a community especially under varied environmental conditions relies
solely on the regeneration process. According to Khumbongmayum et al. (2005), regeneration is
an important aspect of forest management, as it ensures the desired species composition and
stocking after various disturbances. The future composition of forests within a stand in space and
time is depicted by the potential regenerative status of tree species (Henle et al., 2004). The

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reproductive status of the population is determined by the ratio of various age groups which
indicates its future course (Odum, 1971). The proportion of seedlings, saplings and trees of
different species could be used to predict any possible change in forest composition (Zubair and
Bhatt, 2016). The observed low number of saplings and seedlings in Omo Biosphere Reserve and
Gambari Forest Reserve could be due to anthropogenic factors, trampling by wild animals and
man, other biotic and abiotic stresses (Bognounou et al., 2009), such as shade unlike Akure Forest
Reserve with high numbers of seedlings and saplings. This emphasizes the partial positive effect
of protected areas in conserving highly valued plant species (Fandohan et al., 2010a). Also, the
differences in sapling and seedling heights in the three study areas could be explained by the high
intra- and inter-specific competitions (Shackleton, 2002) for light.
The reduced canopy cover has a direct effect on seed production, but it may also indirectly affect
regeneration through changes in the understory vegetation and soil properties (Vetaas, 2000).

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, and the
Department of Forest Production and Products, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

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Salami K. D., Akinyele A. O., Adekola P. J. and Odewale M. A. (2016). Tree Species
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Distribution in Omo Biosphere Reserve, Ogun State, Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science Vol.
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competition in South African savannas. Plant Ecology, 158: 65–76.
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management of remnant forests in Benin: case of Bassila forest reserve in North
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population structure and extent of bark and foliage harvest of Afzelia africana and
Pterocarpus erinaceus in Eastern Burkina Faso. International Journal of
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Vetaas, O. R. (2000). The effect of environmental factors on the regeneration of Quercus
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their seedlings in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary and its adjoining areas in Western
Himalaya, India. Tropical Ecology 57(4): 677-690.

Biograpahy

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Termite Resistance of Stem and Branch Wood of Two

Tropical Hardwood Species in Ghana

Antwi Kwaku1, 2, Cremer Tobias 3, Amoah Martin1, and Frimpong-Mensah

Kwasi1, 4
1Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, University of
Education - Winneba, Kumasi - campus, Kumasi-Ashanti, Ghana
2Department of Wood Technology, Tamale Technical University, Tamale -
Northern, Ghana
3Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, Schicklerstr.5, 16225
Eberswalde, Germany
4Department of Wood Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology, Kumasi-Ashanti, Ghana

([email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], and [email protected])

ABSTRACT
An in-ground resistance of Nesogordonia papaverifera and Hollarhena floribunda stem and
branch wood to termite attack was evaluated to determine its service life and branch acceptance.
Five matured trees each with similar diameter at breast height were selected within the middle
belt of Ghana. The European Standard EN 252, 1989 and EN 350-1 1994 were used for the
standard test of natural durability (grave-yard test) for a period of 12 months on termite prone
site. All samples were tested at air-dried moisture content of 14 ± 2 % as specified in the
standard. Stem and branch woods of N. papaverifera are very durable. However, stem and
branch woods of H. floribunda are both non-durable and may need treatments with preservatives
to improve their service life, if it becomes necessary to use them for ground applications. The
heartwood portions could be more useful for structural applications when untreated than the
sapwood portions (used as control). However, the sapwood when treated with preservatives
could be used for similar structural applications. Branchwood of both N. papaverifera and H.
floribunda performed well as compared to the stemwood and could consequently be utilized in
addition to their stemwood for non-structural applications to increase the raw material base
of the wood industry in Ghana.

KEY WORDS: Termite resistance, natural durability, stem and branchwood, Nesogordonia
papaverifera, Hollarhena floribunda, and Ghana.

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INTRODUCTION
The depletion rate of Ghana’s forest has become one major challenge facing the wood-related
industries, foresters and environmentalists. This is because, depletion of forest and wood lands
do not only affect industrial and economic growth negatively, but also disturb the whole forest
ecosystem (Dadzie, P. K 2013). In Ghana, the depletion trend has been attributed to demand for
wood, inefficient logging and processing practices, and misuse of wood secondary resources like
branches (Ayarkwa, J., Hirashima, Y., & Sasaki, Y., 2000). Increasing market demand, both
locally and internationally, has resulted in the overexploitation of these ‘traditional’ market
species, rendering some of them endangered (like odum, sapele, mahogany, etc.) (Poku, K., Wu,
Q. & Vlosky, R., 2001).

As prices of these traditional timber increase, and quality and quantities decline, manufacturers
and producers have little option other than to pay attention to the branch wood, root wood, bark
and other lesser-known species that were previously ignored if they were to remain in business
(Boampong, E., Effah, B., Antwi, K., Boadi Asante, A., Nti A. J., 2015). One of the crucial
questions in tropical forest management is the future of branch wood, root wood, bark and lesser-
known timber species. Hundreds of potentially valuable trees are being left behind, often simply
to be burnt in forest clearing operations (Effah, B., Osei, J. K., & Antwi, K.,2013).

Branch is an important wood resource with many applications, it represents 25-32% of the total
wood volume and is a secondary resource with a potential for high-value applications that has
been inadequately explored (Hilton, M. 2001). In Ghana, H. floribunda is used mostly for
carving traditional stool for Kings, Queen mothers, Fetish priest and other prominent persons in
the society and considered to be the best white wood available for these purposes (Abbiw, D. K.
1990). N. papaverifera is mostly used in furniture production and other structural purposes.

Natural durability of timber may be defined as resistance of timber to attack by wood

deterioration agents such as wood decaying fungi and wood destroying insects. It is interesting to
know from literature that, not much has been studied in respect to investigate the natural
durability of N. papaverifera and H. floribunda stem and branch wood in spite of their important
contribution to wood resource. The aims of this research are to determine the natural durability
of these wood species and assess performance of naturally durable wood species in above ground
test for ground application. The natural durability (percentage mass loss and visual durability
ratings) of the species tissues (heartwood) and sapwood as control and axial positions (base,
middle and top for stem) of the tree component (stemwood) and branchwood for N.
papaverifera and H. floribunda were determined and their results analyzed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Area of Study

Five matured trees of N. papaverifera and H. floribunda were acquired from New Koforidua, in
the Ejisu – Juaben Municipality, in the central part of Ashanti region within the middle belt of
Ghana to provide wood for characterization of the species. The trees were obtained from a cocoa
farm in the same locality within the open forest of the area, which lies within Latitudes 1o 15’ N
and 1o 45’ N and Longitude 6o 15’ W and 7o 00 W. It occupies a land area of 637.2 km2 (EJMA,
2015). The Municipal Assembly has bi-modal rainfall pattern. The major rainfall period begins
from March to July peaking in July. The average annual rainfall for the major season is about

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1200 – 1500 mm per year. The minor rainfall period begins in September and tapers off in
November with an average minor annual rainfall of 900 – 1120 mm per year. December to
February is usually dry, hot and dusty. Mean annual temperatures in the Municipal area are
lowest around 25 o C in August and highest around 32 o C in March. Relative humidity is
moderate but quite high in during the rainy season. The topography of the municipality area is
generally undulating, dissected by plains and slopes with heights ranging between 240 - 300
meters above sea level (EJMA, 2015).

Research Design and Data Collection

In this study, the sampling approach by Bao, F. C., Jiang, Z. H., Jiang, X. M., Lu, X. X., Luo, X.
Q. & Zhang, S. Y. (2001) was adopted. Trees of similar diameters at breast height were selected
for harvesting for both N. papaverifera and H. floribunda species. The trees were first identified
by a technical officer from the Forestry Commission, Juaso District who worked on the
identification of most less utilized species with the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana. Fresh
dry leaves and seeds from the trees were collected and sent to the laboratory in Forest Research
Institute of Ghana for the confirmation of the field identification using the field guide to the
forest trees of Ghana by Hawthorne, W. & Gyakari, N (2006).

The natural durability classification referred only on the heartwood of timber species as sapwood
of almost all timbers is susceptible to wood deterioration agents as a result makes the sapwood
non-durable. However, in this study, the sapwood portions of stem and branch wood of both
species were used as control, to determine the extent and the rate of attack by termites as
compared to their heartwood portions. The research compared the natural durability of stemwood
of N. papaverifera (danta) and H. floribunda (sese) to their branchwood by applying soil block
(graveyard) test for a period of 12 months based on European standard EN 252, (1989). Quartey
A. G. (2009) and Dadzie, P. K., & Amoah, M., (2015) have acceptably evaluated the natural
durability of some lesser known Ghanaian hardwood species within 6 months and 12 months
based on this standard EN 252 (1989) and EN 350-1 (1994) respectively.

Moisture contents were measured with a moisture meter (MO210 designed to measure wood
moisture content up to 44%, as specified by the manufacturers) which was found to have
accuracy of ±2 % upon validation with sampled oven-dry method using 40 samples drawn from
stem and branch wood of the species (10 stem samples + 10 branchwood samples each species).
Ayarkwa, J., Hirashima, Y., & Sasaki, Y., (2000), Amoah, M., Appiah-Yeboah, J., & Okai, R.
(2012) and Dadzie, P. K., & Amoah, M., (2015) have also acceptably used moisture meters in
wood property studies. Mass loss was quantitatively measured on a 4-point percentage scale as:
0-5 % loss Very durable; 6-10 % loss Durable; 11-40 % loss Moderately durable; and 40-100 %
loss Non-durable (Eaton and Hale 1993). The extent of attack was however, quantitatively
measured on 5-point visual rating scale based on EN 252 (1989) and EN 350-1 (1994) as: 0, No
attack; 1, Slight attack; 2, Moderate attack; 3, Severe attack; and 4, Failure.

The test site was located at the South - West physiological region of the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. The field has medium to fine texture soil with
pores spaces varying from 40 to 60 % and it is a domain to many of termite mounds (Kumi-
Woode, B. G 1996). The test field has temperature range of 20 °C minimum to a maximum of 34
°C, and average humidity of 60 % at 1500 GMT and 80 % at 0900 GMT. There is also a

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double maximum rainfall pattern (214.3 mm in June and 165.2 mm in September) which has
direct effect on the environment, including soil organisms’ activities and agriculture. As a
result, it is reported that the site is generally a very high decay hazard zone that has high
decay index (Ministry of Food and Agriculture 2013; Kumi-Woode, B. G 1996).

The trees for the study were selected based on their availability in the farmland, a diameter at
breast (dbh) height greater than 45 cm and the overall straightness of the trunk. The average
diameters of the trees at 1.3 meter above ground (dbh) were 64.4 cm for N. papaverifera and 53
cm for H. floribunda. The selected trees were harvested using chain-saw. The average length of
the clear bole between where the first branch begins and the terminal point of buttresses of each
species were measured and recorded. The recorded average lengths were 1809 cm and 1468 cm
for N. papaverifera and H. floribunda. The full lengths of the trees were divided into three equal
parts and demarcated with permanent makers and 50 cm from the knot, a branch bole of 1.5 - 2
m were extracted from the first and second branches of each tree to obtain varied diameters of
branch wood for the study.

This criterion was adopted to ensure straightness of branch disc and possibly avoid the inclusion
of obvious tension wood. In all, 50 branch boles (i.e. 5 branches × 5 trees for each species) with
diameters ranging from 260 - 560 mm. Stemwood samples were also obtained from a total of 30
stem boles (i.e. 5 bottom + 5 middle + 5 top for each species). All stem and branch wood
samples were conveyed from the farmland to Boadu Wood Mill for processing. Both quarter and
through-and-through sawn methods were used for the conversion of the logs to lumber using
band saw.

All samples were conditioned in an air-drying shed of Fabi Timbers to an average moisture
content of 14 ± 2 % at same temperature and relative humidity as used by the company to air-dry
wood. After drying, both branch and stem boards were re-sawn into strips and crosscut to the
required test sample sizes 25x 50 x 500 mm (EN 252, 1989). There were 10 replicates from each
billet division (5 heartwood samples and 5 sapwood samples), totaling 360 samples for the test.
Clear heart and sap wood samples were critically examined to ensure that they are free from both
natural and artificial defects (i.e. samples free of knots, fuzzy and woolly surfaces which are
evidence of reaction wood and any other visible defects) All samples were randomly selected
and carefully inserted at a leveled and well drained test field (60 x 60 m) such that two-thirds of
their lengths were above the ground on the demarcated termite prone site as shown in “Figure
1and 2”. The plot was demarcated into six equal blocks. Each block contains 60 samples.

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Figure 1: Stakes planted on the field (Source: Field photograph)

A B C

D E F

Figure 2: Samples after 2 weeks of planting; A (N. papaverifera heart), B (N. papaverifera sap), C (H
.floribunda) and D, E and F Samples after 3months of planting (Source: Field photograph)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Mass loss and visual rating for stemwood and branchwood of N. papaverifera and H.
floribunda
The percentage mass loss between the stemwood and branchwood of N. papaverifera was 4.18
% and 6.30 % respectively. Percentage mass loss is marginally higher in branchwood than in
stemwood making the stemwood more durable than the branchwood “Table 1”. Contrary, H.
floribunda stemwood recorded 43.09 % higher than the branchwood 42.34 %.

However, both stem and branchwood is rated non-durable “Figure 3”. And for species tissues,
the percentage mass loss along the stem heartwood portions of N. papaverifera was 2.82
(0.76) and the branch was 4.70 (0.71). Statistically there is a significant difference between

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the stem heart and the branch heart (P < 0.05). However, both stem and branch heart values
falls within one classification. This could be ascribing to a greater total extractives and lignin
content recorded in earlier study of these species (Antwi, K., 2018). Similar observations were
reported by Eaton, R. A., & Hale, M. D. C., (1993), Quartey A. G. (2009) and Antwi-Boasiako,
C., & Damoah, A., (2010) that durability of individual wood species depend on the amount of
the extractives and lignin content as well as some physical properties. Similarly, the sapwood
portions also recorded a percentage mass loss of 7.89 (1.11) for the branch and 5.54 (0.73)
for the stem “Table 1”. The heartwood portions of the stem and branch were however rated very
durable while its sapwood portions used as control rated durable after 12 months of field
exposure according to durability classifications by Eaton, R. A., & Hale, M. D. C., (1993).

The percentage mass loss along the heartwood portions of H. floribunda branch recorded a
value of 20.40 (1.63) and the stem also recorded a value of 20.55 (1.66). Statistically, there
is no significant difference between the branch heart and the stem heart (P < 0.05).
Similarly, the sapwood portions also recorded a percentage mass loss of 64.28 (9.50) for
the branch and 65.63 (9.40) for the stems which shows no significant difference at 5% level
of probability between the branch and stem “Table 1”. The heartwood portions of both stem
and branch were rated moderately durable while its sapwood used as control was rated non-
durable “Figure 4”.

A visual durability rating shows the heartwood from the stem and branch of N. papaverifera
slight attack by termites “Figures 5a and b” after 12 months of field exposure. However,
sapwood used as control, from the stem and branch of N. papaverifera were moderately attacked
by termites “Figures 5 c and d”. For H. floribunda, the heartwood portions of both stems and
branch division were moderately attacked by termites “Figures 5 e and f”. However, the sapwood
portions used as control from both stem and branch were severely attacked “Figures 5 g and h”.
In both species, the sapwood portion used as control had a greater termite attack than the
heartwood portions. The heartwood from the bottom of the N. papaverifera and H. floribunda
stem were most resistant to attack by termites than the top and the branch divisions of the trees
“Table 1”. Similar to earlier research by DeBell, J., Morrell, L. L., & Gartner, B. L., (1999) that
the most durable heartwood is often present at the heartwood of the base of the stem, since it has
the highest concentrations of extractives.

Table 1: Mean percentage mass loss and durability ratings along the stem and branch of N.
papaverifera and H. floribunda after 12 months of field exposure (%)
Species Species Axial Percentage Mass Loss (%) Visual Durability
Tissues Position Stemwood Branchwood Stemwood Branchwood
Heartwood Base 2.15 (0.38) Slight 4.70 (0.71) Slight Very durable Very durable
attack attack
Middle 2.69 (0.83) Slight __ __ Very durable __
attack
Top 3.63 (1.07) Slight __ __ Very durable __
attack
N.
papaverifera
Sapwood Base 4.73 (0.76) Moderate 7.89 (1.11) Moderate Durable Durable
attack attack
Middle 4.67 (0.63) Moderate __ __ Durable __
attack

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Top 7.22 (0.81) Moderate __ __ Durable __

attack

Heartwood Base 20.40 (1.56) Moderate 20.40 Moderate Moderately Moderately

attack (1.63) attack durable durable
Middle 20.58 (1.55) Moderate __ __ Moderately __
attack durable
Top 20.69 (1.87) Moderate __ __ Moderately __
attack durable
H.
floribunda
Sapwood Base 64.99 (8.61) Severe 64.28 Severe Non-durable Non-durable
attack (9.50) attack
Middle 65.93 (11.33) Severe __ __ Non-durable __
attack
Top 65.97 (8.25) Severe __ __ Non-durable __
attack
~Standard deviations in parentheses (Source: Field experimental results)

HF-Mass loss

Branch
Stem
NP-Mass loss

0 10 20 30 40 50
Mass loss (%)

Figure 3: Tree components (stem and branch) of N. papaverifera & H. floribunda

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HF-Mass loss

Sapwood
Heartwood
NP-Mass loss

0 20 40 60 80

Mass loss (%)

Figure 4: Tree tissues (heart and sap) of N. papaverifera & H. floribunda

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A B

C D

Figure 5: N. papaverifera stem heart (A) and branch heart (B) and N. papaverifera stem sap (C) and
branch sap (D) samples after 12 months field exposure (Source: Field photograph)

E F

G H

Figure 6: H. floribunda stem heart (E) and branch heart (F) and H. floribunda stem sap (G) and branch
sap (H) samples after 12 months field exposure (Source: Field photograph)

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CONCLUSIONS
The heartwood of N. papaverifera stem and branch resisted most attack by termites and could
be more useful for structural applications when untreated. However, the sap when treated could
be used for similar structural applications. Stem and branch wood of H. floribunda, may need
treatments with preservatives to improve their service live, if it becomes necessary to use them
for ground applications. Branchwood of both N. papaverifera and H. floribunda could
consequently be utilized in addition to their stemwood to increase the raw material base of
the wood industry.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors wish to thank Mr James Boakye Acheampong and Ohene Micheal for their assistance
during field test.

REFERENCES
Abbiw, D. K. (1990) Useful plants of Ghana: West African uses of wild and cultivated plants.
Intermediate Technology Publications. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond,
UK.
Amoah, M., Appiah-Yeboah, J., & Okai, R. (2012). Characterization of physical and mechanical
properties of branch, stem and root wood of iroko and emire tropical trees. Research
Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 4(12), 1754-1760.
Anon, (2015) Town and Country Planning Department, Ejisu-Juaben Municipal in the
Regional Context
Antwi, K. (2018) Characterisation of stem and branch wood of Nesogordonia papaverifera and
Holarrhena floribunda species for structural and non-structural applications. Thesis in the
Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, Faculty of Technical
Education, submitted to the School of Research and Graduate Studies, University of
Education, Winneba, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for award of the Doctor of
Philosophy (Wood Science and Technology) degree
Antwi-Boasiako, C., & Damoah, A., (2010). Investigation of synergistic effects of extracts from
Erythrophleum sauveolens, Azadirachta indica, and Chromolaena odorata on the
durability of Antiaris toxicaria. Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of
Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation (Impact Factor: 2.24).
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Ayarkwa, J., Hirashima, Y., & Sasaki, Y., (2000). Potential Contribution of Branchwood
Quantity Left after Logging Operations, Towards Reducing Depletion Rate and
Preserving Ghana’s Forest Ecosystem. American Journal of Agriculture and Forestry.
1(2), 32-39.
Bao, F. C., Jiang, Z. H., Jiang, X. M., Lu, X. X., Luo, X. Q. & Zhang, S. Y. (2001). Differences
in wood properties between juvenile wood and mature wood in 10 species grown in
China. Wood Science and Technology 35(2001)363-375. Springer.
Boampong, E., Effah, B., Antwi, K., Boadi Asante, A., Nti A. J., (2015). Factors Influencing the
Choice of Timber for Furniture and Joinery Production in Ghana. European Journal of
Engineering and Technology, 3(5), 12-16

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Dadzie, P. K. (2013). Potential Contribution of Branchwood Quantity Left after Logging

Operations, Towards Reducing Depletion Rate and Preserving Ghana’s Forest
Ecosystem. American Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. 1 (2), 32-39.
Dadzie, P. K., & Amoah, M. (2015). Density, some anatomical properties and natural durability
of stem and branch wood of two tropical hardwood species for ground applications.
European Journal of Wood and Wood products. Springer-veklag Berlin Heidelberg.
DeBell, J., Morrell, L. L., & Gartner, B. L., (1999). Within-stem variation in tropolone content
and decay resistance of second-growth western red cedar. Forest Science. 45 (2): 101-
107.
Eaton, R. A., & Hale, M. D. C., (1993). Wood decay, pests and protection, 546. Cambridge:
Chapman and Hall, University Printing house.
Effah, B., Osei, J. K., & Antwi, K., (2013). Examining the physical properties and within tree
variability in the physical properties of two lesser-known timber species in Ghana.
International Journal of Science and Technology, 3 (8): 328-332.
EN 252 (1989) Field test method for determining the relative protective effectiveness of a wood
preservative in ground contact. European Committee for Standardization.
EN 350-1 (1994) Durability of wood and wood based products-Natural Durability of solid wood-
Part 1: Guide to the principles of testing and classification of the natural durability of
wood. European Committee for Standardization.
Hawthorne, W. & Gyakari, N. (2006). Photo guide for the forest trees of Ghana: tree spotters
guide for identifying the largest trees, Oxford Forestry Institute, UK.
Hilton, M. (2001) In Dadzie, P. K. (2013). Potential Contribution of Branchwood Quantity Left
after Logging Operations, Towards Reducing Depletion Rate and Preserving Ghana’s
Forest Ecosystem. American Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. 1 (2), 32-39.
Kumi-Woode, B. G. (1996). Natural decay resistance of some Ghanaian timbers and wood
decay hazard potential for Ghana, 98. Msc. Thesis. Faculty of Forestry. Lakehead
University Thunder bay, Ontario: Canada.
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2013) Ashanti Region, Kumasi metropolitan, background
and location, ministry of food and agriculture, Republic of Ghana. Retrieved from
https://mofa.gov.gh/site/?page_id=818. Accessed 11th October, 2018.
Poku, K., Wu, Q. & Vlosky, R., (2001). Wood properties and their variations within the tree
stem of lesser-used species of tropical hardwood from Ghana. Wood and Fiber Science
33 (2): 284-291.
Quartey A. G. (2009). Doctoral Thesis: Relationships between some anatomical, physical and
durability properties of the wood of some lesser utilised Ghanaian hardwoods. Faculty of
Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
library, Kumasi

Biography

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Accelerated Biodegradation of Kenaf Fiber/Soy Protein Composites Using

Pectinase under Soil Burial Condition

Yu Fu
[email protected]
Sheldon Shi
[email protected]
Liping Cai
[email protected]

University of North Texas, USA

Abstract
Kenaf bast is one kind of popular natural fibers used as reinforcement of composites. Compared to
synthetic or petroleum-based fibers, it is biodegradable and environmentally friendly. However, the
biodegradation time of kenaf fiber composites can be long according to the environmental condition. In
many cases, it would be important that the degradation time could be controllable. Pectinase is an
enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of pectin. This study investigates the biodegradation behavior of
kenaf fiber and soy-based composite (KSC) under soil burial conditions with and without pectinase. The
specimens were buried in soil and kept at constant temperature and humidity. The thermal, mechanical,
morphological properties and weight loss of composites were evaluated as a function of time. The results
indicated that the pectinase enzyme could be used to accelerate the degradation process of KSC
significantly.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Impact of forest disturbances on wood quality: a review

Francesco Negro
[email protected]
Davide Ascoli
[email protected]
Matteo Garbarino
[email protected]
Raffaella Marzano
[email protected]

DISAFA, University of Torino, Italy

Abstract
Climate and land use changes are triggering an increase in frequency and severity of natural
disturbances in forest ecosystems (fire, wind and ice storms, insect and fungi outbreaks, avalanches,
floods and droughts). These events can strongly affect the quality of wood coming from disturbed sites,
where quality is intended as its capability to meet the requirements of specific products and end uses.
The presentation illustrates how the scientific literature of the last 20 years has been studying the impacts
of forest disturbances on different aspects related to wood quality (e.g. density, mechanical properties,
storage methods, etc.). To this purpose, a bibliographic search was run on the Scopus database by
matching different terms related to forest disturbances and wood quality. Based on the consistency with
the topic, 37 documents were extracted, of which 30% published in the past five years. Wildfires and
droughts resulted the most studied disturbances. Three main fields of research, evidently interconnected,
can be identified: (i) impacts on wood quality, e.g. physico-mechanical properties of wood exposed to
disturbances; (ii) changes in the anatomical features of wood, e.g. vessels size and density change
depending on environmental stresses; (iii) effects on the timber market, e.g. relation between delay in
salvage and timber costs. Severe disturbances can restrict the use of wood to the less value added
applications, up to limiting it to the energy uses only as time passes since disturbance.
Overall, the outcome indicates that various aspects have been addressed, but several knowledge-gaps
remain to be investigated. In the coming years this could represent a relevant field of research in the
forest-wood sector.

Keywords: climate change, forest disturbances, research, wood quality

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wood Modification and Preservation

Chairs:
Anna Sandak, InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia
Dick Sandberg, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden

Investigation on Thermo-Hydro Mechanical Treatments effects to densify

Tasmanian planted and native timber species

Michelle Balasso1
[email protected]

Andreja Kutnar2
[email protected]
Eva Prelovšek Niemelä3
[email protected]
Marcia Mikuljan3
[email protected]
Gregory Nolan
[email protected]
Nathan Kotlarewski5
[email protected]
Julianne O’Reilly5
[email protected]

1School
of Natural Sciences, ARC Training Centre for Forest Value, University of
Tasmania, Australia
2InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia
3InnoRenew CoE, Slovenia

4 School of Technology, Environments and Design, University of Tasmania,

Launceston, Tasmania, Australia, Centre for Sustainable Architecture with Wood,

University of Tasmania, Australia
5 School of Technology, Environments and Design, University of Tasmania,

Launceston, Tasmania, Australia ARC Training Centre for Forest Value, University of
Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia

Abstract
Young and fast grown plantation timbers differ in quality and product performances due to the higher
amount of juvenile wood and the presence of features, which are deemed to decrease the overall wood
density and structural performances, hindering their adoption and use in structural applications.
Wood modification treatments as densification have been developed to address the major issues related
to wood properties such as density, durability, insulation capacities and workability, as well as overall in-
place performances. In particular Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical treatments (THM) have been the innovation
for wood densification, as the combined use of pressure and high temperatures in a steamed

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environment has shown great advantages in lowering the damages to the timber while maintaining the
shape effect of the treatments.
In this study, three Australian timbers were used to test the effects of THM treatments and their potential
to densify fibre-grown plantation hardwood and softwood (Eucalyptus nitensH. Deane & Maiden
and Pinus radiata D. Don) as well as native Tasmanian eucalypts, commercially known as Tas Oak (a
mixture of E. regnans F. Muell, E. obliqua L'Hér and E. delegatiensis L'Hér). Samples with a thickness of
8mm were densified under THM treatments to a final thickness of 5mm, and the effects of the
densification were studied through the evaluation of Post-THM density, densification ratio, mass loss,
spring-back, set recovery after a cycle of water soaking and drying, dimensional change and water
absorption rate.
Marked differences were observed for the three species, which compressed at different degrees; the
treatments remarkably increased the densities of the timbers, with E. nitensobtaining the highest degree
of densification (+153%) and the lowest mass loss (2.42%). Similar results were found for the other fast-
grown species, P. radiata, while the native specimens achieved, on average, the lowest degree of
densification and the highest mass loss (4.13%). The evaluation of the shape recovery after water
soaking revealed the strong reaction of the softwood species, which achieved the highest set recovery
(75%) due to the extremely high water-absorption rate. E. nitens and Tas Oak specimens showed higher
performances in maintaining the final thickness, with both presenting less than 30% of set-recovery.
This first investigation of effects of THM treatments on Tasmanian timber species, especially fibre-grown
plantation wood, has shown the opportunity to achieve satisfactory outcomes to ameliorate the timber
properties through densification and the main areas where further investigation is needed. These results
open to future structural properties investigation for a full characterisation of the quality of modified timber
and additional studies on possible uses of densified plantation timbers for Engineered wood applications,
such as high-quality floorings.
The authors acknowledge the Society for Wood Science and Technology which funded the Short-Term
Scientific Mission in which the project was developed.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Prospects for powder coatings

Olha Baranova1
[email protected]
Olena Pinchevska1
[email protected]
Kravchenko Olga2
[email protected]
Valentyn Sviderskiy3
[email protected]
Denis Zavialov1
[email protected]

1 National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine

2 LLC "UHL-MASH", Ukraine
3 National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute,
Ukraine

Abstract
Modern methods of creating protective and decorative coatings make it possible to produce high-quality,
resistant and durable films. There is a wide range of choice of protective and decorative coatings for
wood and wood materials. Painting material is chosen depending on the conditions of product material.
Today paints and varnishes, which consist high-quality films with decorative and performance indicators,
and also satisfy environmental indicators - complex multicomponent systems. Some of them have a
number of mandatory components that cause a negative impact on the environment. Today, there is
great potential for powder coatings for MDF wood-based panels, which due to their homogeneous
structure. It is important to select the necessary material, as well as the corresponding technological
process, which will provide the necessary quality indicators of the coating and their low costs, in
particular, the finishing of profile surfaces.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

CHARACTERIZATION OF SPRUCE LOG SOAKING

WATER AND ITS ANTIFUNGAL AND WOOD
PRESERVING PROPERTIES

Aitor Barbero-López1, Viljem Vek3, Virpi Virjamo1,2, Ida Poljanšek3, Miha Humar3,
Primož Oven3, Antti Haapala1.

1 School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, FI-80101,

Finland * Corresponding author
[email protected], [email protected]
2 Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern
Finland, Joensuu, FI-80101, Finland
[email protected]
3 Departmentof Wood Science and Technology, University of Ljubljana,
Ljubljana, 1000, Slovenia
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
In this experiment, spruce log soaking liquid that is a residue from veneer
manufacturing was characterized. Its antioxidant activity, antifungal activity
against Gloeophyllum trabeum and Trametes versicolor, and its wood preserving
potential when exposed to T. versicolor were evaluated. The results showed that
spruce log soaking liquid contains several phenolic compounds, including tannins,
that are known to inhibit fungal growth. The industrial specimen tested did not
inhibit the fungal growth nor protect wood from decay. The presence of sugars is
suggested as a reason of the inefficiency against the fungi in parallel to the
structure of the phenols. It is concluded that the chemicals dissolved in spruce bark
soaking liquids are not useful ingredients for wood preservative formulations
against wood-decaying fungi, but further tests are warranted as several chemicals
found on this side-stream are known inhibitors of fungi in more purified form.
Key words: log soaking extracts; wood degradation; wood decay; biorefining

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1 INTRODUCTION
Log soaking is a standard pre-treatment before debarking and lathing of logs when
making veneer, and plywood thereof. During this process, the logs are submerged in
pits with warm water—different wood species will require different water
temperature (Rohumaa et al. 2016)—for several hours or days until the bark and
wood is softened and logs can be processed further. In Nordic countries, such as
Finland, the temperatures used for the water are between 20°C and 70°C, but they
depend a lot on the outdoor conditions (Rohumaa et al. 2016) and the company
specific practices in manufacturing the veneer (Dupleix et al. 2013). The water used
in log softening turns into yellowish to brown, depending on the process and wood
species, indicating the dissolution of some constituents of the bark and wood during
the process. During the year, considerable concentration of chemical compounds
enrich in log soaking waters as the bark residues are seldom cleared and water is
replaced either very gradually or only a few times each year.
Wood industry is looking for green antifungal compounds to be used in wood
preservatives due to increased public awareness and legislative issues. Many of the
traditional chemicals are under pressure from European and national environmental
agencies to have limitations related to chemical legislation as with the case of
chromated copper arsenate in 1990s (Liu et al. 2018), especially in Europe and North
America. Wood-derived chemicals are considered as an interesting alternative to
traditional wood preservatives because some have demonstrated antifungal
properties, such as tannins (Anttila et al. 2013), beech wound-wood methanolic
extracts (Vek et al. 2013) and pyrolysis distillates (Barbero-López et al. 2019). The
extractives used for wood preservative formulations should ideally come from
industrial residues to reduce the costs and promote the material efficiency
highlighted as a goal of i.e. bio- and circular economy initiatives. Thus,
characterizing wood industry side-streams, such as the pit water is a key step in
valorizing the thus far unused chemical streams of wood processing.
The aim of this study is to characterize the spruce log soaking pit water (SPW), to
test its fungicidal properties against wood-decaying fungi and the effects on wood
decay if the condensed pit water is used to impregnate wood.

2 METHODOLOGY
The specimen of 100 L of soaking water was obtained from a plywood mill site.
The total amount of dry extracts in SPW was determined gravimetically. The
sucrose, D-fructose and D-glucose was analyzed from filtered (Whatmann 42
ashless) liquid samples with K-SUFRG enzymatic assay kit (Megazyme, Ireland)
according to the manufacturer's protocol. The concentration of small molecular
weight phenolics was done using a High Performance Liquid Chromatography

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(HPLC) and compared to commercial standards for quantification following the

same method as in Barbero-López et al. (2020). Condensed tannins (i.e.
proanthocyanidins) were analyzed from HPLC-samples with acid-butanol assay
and UV-Vis colorometry according to Hagerman (2011). Purified Picea abies bark
tannins (Hagerman 2011) were used as a standard for quantification of tannins in
SPW.
The antioxidant activity of the SPW was evaluated by measuring its DPPH radical
scavenging activity (Brand-Williams et al. 1995; Mensor et al. 2001). An agar
diffusion test was performed in petri dish (Humar and Pohleven 2007; Vek et al.
2013) to test the antifungal activity of the log soaking water and Silvanolin—a
commercial reference—against Gloeophyllum trabeum and Trametes versicolor.
Lastly, Scots pine sapwood (Pinus sylvestris) and European beech (Fagus
sylvatica) wood was impregnated with a dilution of SPW containing 1% of
dissolved solids and exposed to the white rot fungus T. versicolor during 16 weeks,
according to mini block procedure explained in Lu et al. (2016), to determine
fungicidal properties of treated wood.

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3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The total dissolved material concentration in the SPW was 1.3%. None of the
tested samples gave sufficiently high composition for quantitative analyses of
sucrose, D-fructose and D-glucose. However, other sugars that were not tested may
be present in the spruce log soaking liquids. The HPLC results showed that lignans
were the most common phenolic compounds in SPW, but procyanidins, flavonoids,
stilbenes and phenolic acids were also present at low concentrations. The results of
the acid-butanol assay showed a concentration of condensed tannins of 372.3
mg/L.
The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the SPW was lower than with the
reference antioxidant; butylated hydroxyanilsole, ascorbic acid and gallic acid at
concentrations of 500 mg/L, or lower. However, at a concentration of 1000 mg/L,
SPW’s antioxidant activity was 77 %, similar to tested references, between 84 %
and 88 %.
The SPW had no antifungal activity against the tested wood-decaying fungi while
the commercial reference sylvanolin was able to inhibit both fungi (Table 1).
Additionally, the SPW solids at higher concentration caused a little promotion of
the fungal growth in both fungi species. Similar results were found in the
miniblock test, where the European beech wood blocks mass loss was 41 ± 3 %
when impregnated with distilled water (controls) and 40 ± 3 % when impregnated
with 1% SPW dissolved solids. In the case of Scots pine sapwood, distilled water
impregnated wood lost 33 ± 5 % mass, very similar to the 26 ± 2 % mass loss that
happened in the SPW impregnated wood.
Table 1: Antifungal activity of the spruce log soaking liquid (SPW) against
Gloeophyllum trabeum and Trametes versicolor. The values are given in mean
inhibition % ± standard error, calculated from a total of 6-9 replicates, depending
on the fungus and treatment.
Inhibition (% ± S.E.)
G. trabeum T. versicolor
SPW 5% -8 ± 3 -8 ± 4
SPW 1% 3±2 9±5
Sylvanolin 5% 47 ± 1 73 ± 2
Sylvanolin 1% 33 ± 3 49 ± 7

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The results of this study indicate that the SPW are rich in chemicals with known
antifungal activity, such as tannins and have antioxidant activity. However, these
liquids did not inhibit the wood-decaying fungi tested neither in the diffusion nor
in miniblock test, and their antifungal activity decreased when their concentration
was increased. This may indicate that other chemicals that can promote fungal
growth, such as sugars, might be present and hinder their effects, as previously
found and discussed in other bio-based extracts (Barbero-López et al. 2018,
Barbero-López 2020). In addition, some fungi has developed the ability to tolerate
some of the phenolic compounds, predominately the ones similar to the structure of
lignin.
Thus, further tests are needed to identify the presence of other constituents in
soaking liquids, as well as testing their properties and antifungal efficiency after
being purified.

4 REFERENCES
Anttila A-K, Pirttilä AM, Häggman H, Harju A, Venäläinen M, Haapala A,
Holmbom B, Julkunen-Tiitto R (2013) Condensed conifer tannins as antifungal
agents in liquid culture. Holzforschung 67: 825–832.
Barbero-López A (2020) Antifungal activity of several vegetable origin household
waste extracts against wood‑decaying fungi in vitro. Waste Biomass Valorization.
Barbero-López A, Chibily S, Tomppo L, Salami A, Ancin-Murguzur FJ,
Venäläinen M, Lappalainen R, Haapala A (2019) Pyrolysis distillates from tree
bark and fibre hemp against wood-decaying fungi. Ind Crops Prod 129: 604–610.
Barbero-López A, Monzó-Beltrán J, Virjamo V, Akkanen J, Haapala A (2020)
Revalorization of coffee silverskin as a potential feedstock for antifungal
chemicals in wood preservation. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation.
Barbero-López A, Ochoa-Retamero A, López-Gómez Y, Vilppo T, Venäläinen M,
Lavola A, Julkunen-Tiitto R, Haapala A (2018) Activity of spent coffee ground
cinnamates against wood-decaying Fungi in vitro. BioResources 13: 6555–6564.
Brand-Williams W, Cuvelier ME, Berset C (1995) Use of a free radical method to
evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT - Food Science and Technology 28: 25-30.
Dupleix A, Denaud L-E, Bleron L, Marchal R, Hughes M (2013) The effect of log
heating temperature on the peeling process and veneer quality: beech, birch, and
spruce case studies. Eur J Wood Prod 71: 163–171.

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Hagerman AE (2011) Tannin Handbook. Department of Chemistry &

Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH.
http://www.users.muohio.edu/hagermae/tannin.pdf
Humar M, Pohleven F (2007) Experiences with non-standard test methods for
estimation of fungicidal properties and mode of fungicidal action Pro Ligno 3: 17-
25.
Liu M, Zhong H, Ma E, Liu R (2018) Resistance to fungal decay of paraffin wax
emulsion/copper azole compound system treated wood. Int Biodeterior
Biodegradation 129: 61–66.
Lu J, Venäläinen M, Julkunen-Tiitto R, Harju AM (2016) Stilbene impregnation
retards brown-rot decay of Scots pine sapwood. Holzforschung 70: 261–266.
Mensor LL, Menezes FS, Leitão GG, Reis AS, dos Santos TC, Coube CS,
Leitão SG (2001) Screening of Brazilian Plant Extracts for Antioxidant Activity by
the Use of DPPH Free Radical Method. Phytother Res. 15: 127‐130.
Rohumaa A, Yamamoto A, Hunt CG, Frihart CR, Hughes M, Kers J (2016) Effect
of Log Soaking and the Temperature of Peeling on the Properties of Rotary-Cut
Birch (Betula pendula Roth) Veneer Bonded with Phenol-Formaldehyde Adhesive.
BioResources 11: 5829-5838.
Vek V, Oven P, Humar M (2013) Phenolic extractives of wound-associated wood
of beech and their fungicidal effect. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 77: 91–97.

Biography

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Integrated Flattening and Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Modification of

Bamboo Split

Yu Luan
[email protected]
Changhua Fang
[email protected]

International Center for Bamboo and Ratten, China

Abstract
Bamboo is an abundant, sustainable resource in the tropics and subtropics. Owing to faster growth,
shorter rotation and higher mechanical strength compared with other species, bamboo, as a
supplement to timber, has gained increasing attention for its economic and environmental values over
the last three decades. One of the most used engineered bamboo products is laminated bamboo board
made of bamboo splits. However, due to the arc shape, bamboo splits have to be planed on four sides
to get uniform and rectangular strips before assembling and gluing. During the four-side planing
process, a large part (more than 60%) is removed and wasted. On the other hand, the non-uniform
distribution of vascular bundles embedded in the matrix makes bamboo non-homogeneous along
radial direction of bamboo culm wall with decreased density and mechanical strength from outer to
inner portion. In order to increase bamboo split utilization rate and homogeneity, this study explored
an integrated treatment of flattening and thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) densification on arc-shaped
bamboo splits. Green bamboo splits with high moisture content were compressed at 170°C and 190°C
with a special vapor releaser for 20 minutes. After treatment, arc-shaped bamboo splits were
flattened. The compression ratio was around 44%. The average density increased from 0.7 g/m 3 for
control samples to 1.15 and 1.16 g/m3 for treated samples at 170°C and 190°C, respectively. The
density and mechanical strength increased significantly with much less differences along the radial
direction of bamboo culm wall. The hygroscopicity decreased significantly with much lower moisture
adsorption rate after treatment. The compress set recoveries of samples treated at 170°C and 190°C
were 4.2% and 2.5%, respectively, which are very low.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Manufacturing and Optimization of a Cellulose-Based “Green” High-

Performance Material

Matthias Jakob
[email protected]

Ivana Czabany
[email protected]

Johannes Konnerth
[email protected]

Wolfgang Gindl-Altmutter
[email protected]

Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, BOKU-University of Natural

Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Abstract
Although wood and natural fibers exhibit an advantageous combination of good mechanics at comparably
low density, they are clearly inferior to well-established structural materials such as metals or polymer
composites in terms of absolute strength and stiffness.
Densification is a well-known strategy to enhance the mechanical properties and the homogeneity of
wood-based materials and has been known for decades. The transverse compression of wood is the
most prominent method. The main challenges using this process are the avoidance of cell wall damages
and set-recovery due to heat and moisture. One successful way to compress wood without cell wall
damages is a partially delignification of wood to create a more flexible cell wall.
Veneers from different wood species, delignified by two different delignification procedures (organosolv
and alkali), were compared to each other before and after delignification and compression procedure.
Tensile and bending tests showed that these mechanical properties could be improved.
Lap joint shear test results showed no increase in bonding performance compared to native wood
veneers. The characterization of the densified surfaces will be an essential step forward improving
bonding performance and thus enable the manufacturing of “green” high-performance materials.
Keywords: alkali treatment, delignification, mechanical properties, organosolv treatment, veneers, wood
densification, wood modification

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Parameter Study on a Wood Impregnation Process

Mariana Frias
[email protected]
Pierre Blanchet
[email protected]
André Bégin-Drolet
[email protected]
Véronica Landry
[email protected]

Laval University, Canada

Abstract
Wood is a renewable resource that has been used as material in interior design products for years.
Despite its superior mechanical resistance, different modification processes were developed in order to
enhance wood’s hardness and make it an even more durable material. Impregnating wood pores with a
monomer solution is a common method for that purpose. However, most implemented impregnation
processes can be considered wasteful both on used materials and process duration. The comprehension
of the parameters that influence monomer penetration through wood may enable an optimization of the
process and the chemical impregnation in a specific location of interest in wood instead of the entire
piece. For this study, monomer solutions were disposed on the surface of thin samples of hardwood
species under different conditions. The analyzed parameters were the pore pattern of each species, the
level of vacuum applied in the process and the viscosity of the monomer solution. After the impregnation
process, the weight gain of the samples was calculated, and the penetration depth of the fluid was
evaluated through density profiles and micro X-ray tomography imaging. Results showed that surface
density of wood was increased after the monomer impregnation for all conditions and that the introduction
of a level of vacuum for a short period of time already enhanced the penetration depth. Samples imaging
and 3D digital reconstruction allowed the comprehension of the process allied to the anatomy of wood. It
made it possible to observe that the preferred path of a fluid in wood is through the longitudinal direction
but that it can also permeate through the vessel’s pits and flow into deeper vessels only with surface
impregnation as opposed to industrial’s current method of submerging wood pieces into chemicals. An
improved impregnation process would make the use of wood products an even smarter and more
sustainable choice.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Inspired by nature: a novel impregnation process for wood preservation

Shujun Li
[email protected]
Xiongfei Luo
[email protected]
Ben Dang
[email protected]
Zhhijun Chen
[email protected]

Northeast Foresty University, Harbin,China

Abstract
Conventional wood impregnation processes adopt the full cell method, which requires vacuum and press
combined treatment to push preservatives into the wood. In this work, a novel impregnation process is
proposed. Plant transpiration can generate pull power, which has been used for the researches on
stumpage modification of wood, usually with borehole infusion method or tree sap replacement method.
Bionic tree transpiration device makes the novel impregnation more suitable for wood preservation with
water-borne preservatives .

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Microbial Dyeing—Infection Behavior and Influence of Lasiodiplodia

theobromae in Poplar Veneer
Yuansong Liu1, Zhiming Yu1,*, Yang Zhang1,*, Chusheng Qi1, Ruilin Tang1, Boshi Zhao1, Haowei Wang1,
Yiyun Han1
1College of Materials Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
*Corresponding author: [email protected] (Z. Yu), [email protected] (Y. Zhang)

Abstract: To seek a greener and more environmentally friendly wood dyeing method, this paper
conducted a 35 days microbial dyeing test on bleached poplar by reversely utilizing the blue-strain fungus
lasiodiplodia theobromae in poplar. The effects of microbial dyeing on the color properties, chemical
composition, micromorphology, and surface properties of poplar veneers were studied. The brightness
value and the reflectivity of bleached poplar gradually decreased with the dyeing time, the reflectivity of
the front of the veneer was generally maintained at about 5% after more than 14 days dyeing time, and the
K/S values gradually increased in the range of 400-700 cm-1, which were all greater than four. After 35
days of biological staining, the hypha of lasiodiplodia theobromae has generally penetrated the poplar
veneer with a thickness of about 0.5 mm through the transverse structure (wood ray, vessel) but showed
little effect on the chemical composition of poplar. The subtle difference of the chromatic aberration
between the light and water wash could be observed after the dyeing time exceeded 14 days, and the
chromatic aberration after illumination and washing was below 3NBS and 1NBS, respectively. In
addition, the wettability and tensile modulus of veneer after dyeing showed minor changes.
Key words: Microbial dyeing; poplar; stain fungi; lasiodiplodia theobromae

Biography

337
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Effect of Moisture Content and Preservatives on Discoloration of Oil Palm

Lumber

Prosper Mensah
[email protected]

CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Ghana

Abstract
The subject of deforestation and degradation of tropical forests has attracted a lot of attention in the
last two decades culminating in the 1992 Rio Declaration of Forest and Environment. Considering the
current rate of expansion of lumber processing industries in Ghana, the current Annual Allowable Cut
(AAC) of one million cubic meters of round logs is considered to be insufficient to satisfy the increasing
demand of timber industries. one major area which has been highlighted in the forest policy is the
introduction of lesser-used species to widen the natural resource base of the forest and to address the
imbalance between supply and demand for the resources. in other to properly promote a particular
lesser-used species (LUS), it is necessary among other properties to establish their chemical
characteristics or behavior, which is making the industry very often shun their use. As a contribution
to addressing these problem, oil palm lumber a lesser used species was subjected to different
moisture content variation to find out its behavior with respect to discoloration. Samples of oil palm
trunk were extracted at Norpalm Oil Mill in the Western Region and Juabeng Oil Palm in Ashanti
region. Wood samples of oil palm were condition in a kiln to a moisture content of 15%, 20%, 25%,
30%, 40% and 50%, while other samples were condition to serve as control. The results obtained
cover discoloration, mildew, surface checks, end checks and splits. the effect of the extractives on the
discoloration of oil palm lumber was also investigated by means of immersing some samples of oil
palm lumber into sea water and clear water for 48 hours respectively. Though, Dusban 4E is a widely
used preservative in the timber industry, oil palm lumber samples of 40 mm thick immersed in
Dusban 4E for 48 hours and conditioned in a kiln to a moisture content of 30% discolored from week
2. However, oil palm lumber samples of 40 mm thick immersed in clear water for 48 hours and
thereafter immersed in Dusban 4E for another 48 hours and kiln dried to a moisture content of 15%,
20%, 25% and 30% did not show any discoloration from week 2 to week 18. It was discovered that in
the utilization of oil palm lumber, it should be immersed in clear water for 48 hours before any
chemical treatment is given and thereafter kiln drying. From the general results, the species has
proved to be good substitute for some of the 'noble' species that are getting extinct from the forest of
Ghana.

Keywords: Clear water, Discoloration, Dusban 4E, Elaeis guineensis, Moisture Content, Se

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Irregular treatment during wood modification (furfurization,

mineralization and acetylation) for hardwood from tropical species
growing in fast-growth conditions

Roger Moya
[email protected]
Johana Gaitán-Alvarez
[email protected]
Alexander Berrocal Jimenez
[email protected]

Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica, Costa Rico

Abstract
Wood modifications may involve impregnation of chemical substances. New technologies have been
developed to improve the durability, dimensional stability or mechanical properties of wood, non-biocide
treatments and chemical modifications. Many studies on wood modifications have focused on softwood.
But hardwoods species growing in many tropical region, differ from softwoods in their hierarchical and
chemical structure. Softwoods have a more uniform hierarchical structure consisting mainly of parallel
hollow tubes called tracheids (85–95%), with a thick cell wall of cellulose microfibrils and are a conduction
path for fluids. Meanwhile hardwoods are composed of fiber cells (35-70%) which give mechanical
support, while liquid flow is carried out by the vessels (6-55%) that are enlarged cells with thin walls and
large pore spaces. Then liquid flow inside the wood is different between softwood and hardwood species.
Liquid flow mechanisms in hardwoods are more complex by large variability in anatomical structures,
which affects chemical treatment or modification of this species by impregnation of chemical substances.
Several wood modifications have been tested in many tropical species from fast-growth plantations, as
furfurization, mineralization and acetylation. The results of evaluation of chemical retention and
penetration by SEM, confocal images, FTIR spectrum and XDR showed that large variability in two
parameters, therefore great difference can be found in wood properties of treated wood. Then complex
hierarchical structure of the hardwood species characteristic of each of the species. The highest
penetration and retention of chemical substances during modification process occurred near or around to vessel
lumina, after ray lumina and scarcely in the fiber lumina.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Characterization of some properties of fast-growing Masson pine

wood subjected to two-step freeze–silicone oil treatments
Kufre Edet Okon 1 - Ubong Ime Udoakpan 2 - Koko Sunday Daniel 3 - Idiana-
1* 1 1

Abasi Kufre Okon4 - Chukwuemeka Onyinyechi Daphne 5

2 3

1Lecturer,Forest
Superintendent, Lecturer, Department of Forestry and Natural
Environmental Management, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria*
[email protected],
[email protected],[email protected],chukwuemeka.onyinyechi
@mouau.edu.ng

2Graduate Student and Mrs., Department of Geography and Regional Planning,

University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
[email protected]

Abstract

This study investigate the properties variations of Masson pine wood undergoing two-step freeze-
silicone oil treatments. Seven treatments were performed and compared to control: Freeze-
treatment (FT), freezing followed by silicone oil treatment at 150, 180 and 200 oC (FTST150,
FTST180 and FTST210) and silicone oil treatment at 150 180 and 200o (ST150, ST180 and
ST200). The effect of the treatments on the dimensional stability, chemical structure, thermal
degradation and wettability were evaluated. Results indicated that the freeze-silicone oil treatments
improved the dimensional stability and decreased the hygroscopicity relative to those of the control
wood. Freeze-silicone oil treatments also changed the chemical structure by degrading the wood
components. The treatments significantly influenced the thermal degradations of the wood as
freeze-silicone oil treated samples at 150, 180 and 210oC presented sharp peaks. The wettability
of the treated wood increased, thus preventing the spread of water onthe wood surface.

Key words: Thermal modification, contact angle, crystallinity, masson pine

Introduction

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The hygroscopicity of wood is responsible for many constraints of utilizing wood for various
outdoor applications.This is because, as a natural material containing cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin, wood is susceptible tohygro-expansion and anisotropy (Rostand et al. 2013). Wood
modification by two-step freeze-silicone oil treatments is among the various techniques used to
improve the quality and serve life of wood.
Thermal modification of wood is the most suitable commercial process for improving wood quality
by reducing the affinity of wood to water uptake. The dimensional stability of wood and other
characteristics of wood can be improved because wood components undergo degradation under
high-temperature treatments (Cui et al. 2017). Although, the techniques of thermal modification is
well developed, there is the need to explore other wood modification process in combination with
thermal treatment.
Freeze treatment in combination with thermal treatment is a woodmodification technique which
has been used recently in the treatment of different species of wood (Missio et al. 2015a, Missio
et al. 2016, Okon and Okon 2018). Freeze treatment of wood increases wood permeability (Hur
and Kang 1997), reduces shrinkage, collapse and checking in wood (Ilic 1995). According to
Awoyemi et al. (2010), during freeze treatment there is the movement of moisture from the cell
wall to the lumen water resulting in the expansion of liquid water in the lumen with consequent
compressive stress to the cell wall, increase rigidity of the wall and reduction in shrinkage The aim
of this study is to investigate the properties variations of wood undergoing two-step freeze-silicone
oil treatments. Familiarity with physiochemical properties of modified wood is important because
they can significantly influence the performance and broaden the used of the wood in structural
application.

Materials & Methods

Masson Pine (Pinus massoniana (Lamb.) Hook), a fast-growing wood species was used for this
research. Samples were obtained from Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China. The dimension of the
samples was 20 mm (radial) × 20 mm (tangential) × 50 mm3 (longitudinal) made up of straight
grain and cut from the heartwood.
Two-step freeze-silicone oil treatments
Freeze Treatment (FT): Freeze treatment was carried out according to the method described by
(Okon and Okon 2018, Missio et al. 2015) with slide modification. Freeze treatment of the samples
was performed in refrigerator. 140 samples were frozen from room temperature (21.5oC) to -22oC
with an average cooling rate of 0.07oC min-1. The freezing rate ranged from the temperature of
freezing water (∼3oC) to the final freezing temperature (∼22oC). The treatment time was 7-days,
measured after temperature was stabilized at -22oC. All freeze treated samples were allowed to
defrost, then oven-dried at 60oC to ~12% moisture content.
Silicone oil Treatment (ST): Parameters of silicone oil treatments performed in this research were
defined based on a pilot experiment and previous scientific works (Okon et. al 2017, Okon and
Okon 2018).
Two-step freeze–silicone oil treatment (FTST) was performed considering the same parameters
described above for the freeze and silicone oil treatments. Seven treatments was performed and
compared with the control (Table 1).

Table 1: Experimental procedure for two-step freeze-silicone oil treatment of masson pine wood

Freeze treatment step Silicone oil treatment step

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Temperature Time
Treatments Condition Temperature (oC) Time (h) Condition (oC) (h)
Control - - - - - -
FT Wet -22 168 - - -
FTST150 Wet -22 168 Climate chamber (20oC and 65%) 150 4
FTST 180 Wet -22 168 Climate chamber (20oC and 65%) 180 4
FTST 210 Wet -22 168 Climate chamber (20oC and 65%) 210 4
ST150 - - - Climate chamber (20oC and 65%) 150 4
ST 180 - - - Climate chamber (20oC and 65%) 180 4
ST 210 - - - Climate chamber (20oC and 65%) 210 4

FT: freeze treatment, FTST: two-step freeze-silicone oil treatment, ST: silicone oil treatment

Dimensional stability: Anti-swelling efficiency (ASE) and swelling for the control and treated
samples were determined according to ASTM-1037 (1999). Water repellent efficiency (WRE) and
water absorption (WA) were determine according to Okon and Udoakpan (2018).The thermal
stability of the control and treated samples were determined using thermogravimetric analyzer
(NETZSCH 44, Germany) under nitrogen atmosphere. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) of the control
and treated samples were obtained using (Rigaku Ultima IV, Japan) X-ray diffractometer. Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) of the control and silicone oil treated wood were obtain
using Nicolet 6700 infrared spectrophotometer equipped with an ATR accessory with
scanning range of 4000–650 cm-1 at the 4 cm-1 resolution for 32 scans.Contact angle of control and
treated wood was measured using Drop Shape Analyzer DSA100.Swelling, water repellant
efficiency and water absorption data were analyzedusing Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

Results and Discussion

Dimensional stability: The results indicated that the dimensional stability of the treated samples
improved significantly (Table 2) and enhanced dimensional stability than the control samples.
FTST 210 and ST210 treatments presented the highest dimensional stability (swelling and anti-
swelling shrinkage). Swelling varied from 10.00% to 3.34%, reflecting a reduction of 66.60%.
Anti-swelling shrinkage presented the highest value (66.86%) at ST200 treatment (Table 1).
Treatments with a heating step (FTST and ST) were more efficient than the freeze treatment (FT)
to modifying swelling and anti-swelling shrinkage parameters, this is in line with the report
by(Missio et al. 2015). FTST210 and ST210 treatments presented the highest decrease in swelling
(3.71% and 3.34%) compared to the control, indicating a reduction of 63.23% and 66.90%
respectively (Table 2). Freeze - silicone oil treatment reduced the swelling of the wood, thus
increasing its dimensional stability. This is due to the elimination of the OH groups of
hemicelluloses of the wood caused by degradation as a result of the heat applied in the treatments.

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70
14

60
12
F-value : 6.37***
50
10
Swelling (%)

ASE (%)
40
8

30
6

c 20
4
bc
2
ac 10
a ac
a ab a
0 0

0
FT

0
0

0
FT

0
0
ol

0
0

0
0

15

18

21
15

21
15
21
18
18

15

18
21
ntr

ST

ST

ST
ST

ST
ST
ST
ST
ST

ST

ST
ST
Co

FT

FT

FT
FT

FT

FT Treatments Treatments
Figure 1: Swelling and anti-swelling efficiency of control and two-step freeze-silicone oil treated Mason Pine wood

Water repellent efficiency and water absorption of control and treated Masson pine wood are
present in Figure 1, providing information on the dimensional stability of the wood. WRE values
increased marginally with the highest values obtained at FTST210 and ST210. Water
absorptionvalues decreased with increase in treatments temperature recording the highest value at
ST210.Treatments with a heating step (FTSTand ST) were more efficient than the freeze treatment
(FT) to modify WRE and water absorption. This is in line with the investigation by Missio et al.
(2016).Based on these results, it is evident thattwo-step freeze-silicone oil treatments applied in
this study affectedthe WRE and water absorption of the wood.The loss of methyl radicals of some
guaiacyl and syringic units as well as increase in phenolic groups was responsible for the increase
in the dimensional stability of wood(Tjeerdsma et al. 1998).

100
140

80 120 Control
FT
Water absorption (%)

100
FTST150
FTST180
WRE (%)

60
FTST210
80
ST150
ST180
40 60 ST210

40
20
20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0

0
FT

0
15
18

18
15

21

21

Time (h)
ST
ST

ST
ST

ST

ST
FT
FT

FT

Treatments

Figure 2: Water repellent efficiency and water absorption of control and treated Mason Pine wood.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of the control and treated Masson pine wood are presented in
Figure 3. Relative significant modification between the spectra of control and treated samples were
observed. The diffraction peaks at 2θ in the XRD patterns were observed at 12.38o, 15.72o, 22.22o,
35.28o corresponding to (1-10), (110), (200) and (040) of the crystallographic plane of cellulose
with regards to the characteristic diffraction peaks of cellulose Iβ while definite peak occurred at
the maximum of 22.2°. The intensity of diffraction peaks at 35.28o were stable, this is because the
glucan chains of cellulose were not destroyed. The treatments of wood does not alter cellulose
crystallinity or cellulose crystallinestructure, but could affects the size of microfibril bundles and
the accessibility of cellulose to water(Sik et al. 2010).

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

(200)
(110)
(110)
040
Intensity (a.u.)

Control
FT
FTST150
FTST180
FTST210
ST150
ST180
ST210

10 20 30 40 50 60

2 (degree)

Figure 3: X-ray diffraction pattern of control and treated Masson Pine wood using two-step freeze-silicone oil
treatment.

The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) curves are presented in Figure 5. Weight loss was observed
from the TGA curves,in the first stage (dehydration stage) ranging from 27 to 124oC, relating to
the evaporation of water in the wood. In the second stage, ranging from 124 oC to 282oC some
wood components have degraded,followed by the breakdown of bonds of some complex
structures.Thermal degradation of wood was highest in the third stage, between temperatures 282
to 367oC. The wood mass reduction was higher in control and FT samples compared to the treated
wood. In the fourth stage, TGA curves werenearly characterized by a flat region and approach zero
(gradual mass loss), implying that lignin is almost completely depleted(Lin et al. 2018).

110

100

90

80
Control
70
FT
TGA (wt%)

60 FTST150
FTST180
50
FTST210
40 ST150
ST180
30
ST210
20

10

0
100 200 300 400 500 600
o
Temperature (C )

Figure 5: TGA curves of control and two-step freeze-silicone treated Masson Pine wood.

Figure 5shows the FTIR spectra of control and treated Masson pine wood.The absorption bands at
2912 cm-1 and 2950 cm-1 are attributed to C-H and CH3stretching (Popescu et al. 2013). The
absorption band of treated samples increased remarkably at 1253 cm-1corresponding to Si-
CH3stretching in silicone oil. The band at 895 cm-1 in the fingerprint region showed reduction in
intensity due to treatmentsand is assigned to C-H out-of-plane bending vibration in lignin,
cellulose and hemicelluloses (Zheng et al. 2015) as well as Si-C, Si-O and Si-O-
CH3groups(Selamoglu et al. 1989).Therefore silicone oil was absorbed by wood, decreasing the
hydrophilicity and enhancing the dimensional stability of wood.

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Control
FT
O
FTST150 C
O
FTST180 C
O
FTST210 C
Absorbance

O
ST150 C
O
ST180 C
O
ST210 C

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber

Figure 6: FTIR spectra of control and two-step freeze-silicone oil treated masson Pine wood.

The contact angle of the control and two-step freeze-silicone oil treated masson pine wood is
presented in Figure 7, to evaluate the wettability of the wood after treatments. The two-step freeze-
silicone oil treated samples presented significantly higher contact (>90oC), compared to less than
90o obtain in control and FT treatments. The freeze treatment step showed low contact angle
(Missio et al. 2015a) while the control and FT treatments presented spreading droplet with contact
angle (<90oC) i.e high hydrophilic surface. This indicates that the two-step freeze-silicone oil
treatments has an excellent effect on enhancing the surface hydrophobicity of the treated wood.
High contact angle >90◦ obtained in FTST150 –FTST210 and ST150 – ST210 treatments implied
that the surface of the treated wood becamehighly hydrophobicwith high water repellency.The
differences between the contact angles in radial and tangential directions are not significant,
however the contact of FT on the radial direction was greater compared to that of the tangential
surface.

Radial Tangential
120 120

110 110
100
Contact angle ( )

Control 100
o

90
FT Control
Contact angle ( )

FT
o

90
80 FTST150
FTST180 FTST150
70 80
FTST210 FTST180
60
ST150 FTST210
70
50 ST180 ST150
ST210 60 ST180
40
ST210
30 50
20
40
10
30
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (S) Time (S)

Figure 7: Contact angle of control and two-step freeze-silicone oil treated Masson Pine wood in the radial and
tangential sections.

Summary and Conclusions

Two-step freeze-silicone oil treatments significantly modified the physical and chemical properties
of Masson pine wood. The modification pattern of the physical properties were similar in the
combined treatments. The treatments enhanced the dimensional stability of the wood by reducing
the swelling and water absorption and increased the anti-swelling efficiency and water repellence
efficiency of the wood. The relative crystallinity of the wood was increased as a result of the effect
of the combined freeze-silicone oil treatment. The TGA curves clearly showed the major

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components of the wood were degradation in the control and the treated wood.A significant
changes were observed in the FTIR spectra of the treated wood compared to control indicating
modification of the wood due to two-step freeze- silicone oil treatments applied. We found that
the contact angles of the treated wood were increase due to combined treatments, thus confirming
a reduction in hydrophilicity degree of wood surface.

Acknowledgements

Some parts of this study were carried out in Bio-material Research Group Laboratory at the
College of Material Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China.The authors
are grateful to Prof. Biao Huang.

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Okon K E, Lin F, Chen Y, Huang B (2017) Effect of silicone oil heat treatment on the chemical
composition, cellulose crystalline structure and contact angle of Chinese parasol wood.
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Popescu M C, Froidevaux J, Navi P, Popescu, C M (2013) Structural modifications of Tilia cordata

wood during heat treatment investigated by FT-IR and 2D IR correlation spectroscopy.
Journal of Molecular Structure 1033:176-186.
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Experimentation and modelling approaches. Engineering Fracture Mechanics105:182-199.
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Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ionic-liquid based fire retardant for wood-based panels

Jussi Ruponen1*– Jari Kukkonen2

1 Director, Customer Applications at Palonot Ltd. and Doctoral student at Aalto

University, Espoo, Finland* Corresponding author
[email protected]
2 Chief Technology Officer, Palonot Ltd., Espoo, Finland
[email protected]

Abstract

An ionic-liquid based fire retardant “Palonot F1” was applied to manufacture fire-retardant
treated LVL from Norway spruce (Picea abies). The main objective was to study, whether the
globally most strict combustion performance requirements would be met by immersion treating
the face veneers at green condition. According to the results, fire retardant treated spruce LVL
had the performance of a quasi-non-combustible material (Q-NC) determined by the Building
Standard Law of Japan. Additionally, Palonot F1 fire retardant reduced by ca. 39% the charring
rate of spruce LVL in comparison to the non-treated reference.

Key words: B-s1,d0, fire retardant, ionic liquid, quasi-non-combustible, wood-based panel
Introduction

The latest and forthcoming developments relating to the use of wood-based panels and to the
regulations associated with construction, require that attention be paid to the available fire-
retardant technologies. Several established fire-retardant technologies provide B fire class
(reaction to fire classification EN 13501-1) for various panels, e.g. plywood and LVL. However,
the use of chemicals tends to be very expensive. Another negative feature of conventional
technologies is that their chemical compositions contain inorganic phosphate salts, such as
monoammonium phosphate (MAP), diammonium phosphate (DAP), or boron containing agents,
such as borates, which are not environmentally acceptable or are not powerful enough to fulfil B-
s1,d0 fire class at low retention levels. Also, wood items treated with fire retardants of the MAP
and DAP type, are prone to physical and chemical deterioration if the treated wood panels absorb
moisture.

A novel fire-retardant technology solution “Palonot F1” (F1), provides exceptional fire safety at
a remarkably low retention level compared to conventional fire-retardant technologies. The fire-
retardant technology embodied in F1 is based on protic ionic liquid (ILs). F1 is composed of an
aqueous solution of bisphosphonate acid, an alkanol amine, and optionally an alkaline agent. The
solvent applied is water. F1 contains no substances of very high concern and is a sustainable and
non-corrosive fire-retardant solution for wood-based panels and natural-fibre based products. F1
provides the highest B-s1,d0 fire retardancy according to EN 13501-1 whilst decreasing the time
and effort needed for treatment and reducing the need for drying time and space. In the case of
treating hot-pressed plywood after sanding, the panels can be stacked directly after the post-

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manufacture treatment, i.e. in the wet condition – as the penetration of the chemical continues
within the stack. F1 meets the requirements for EU fire retardant durability standard (DRF INT
2) and, additionally, F1 treated products achieve emission classes M1 and E1 for building
materials.

The urbanised area in Japan is divided into two fire protection districts, i.e. into districts of fire
protection and quasi-fire protection. According to the Building Standard Law of Japan, a
building with three stories or more must be fireproof within these two fire protection districts.
The Japanese fire regulations are based on international standard fire tests including the cone
calorimeter test ISO 5660-1. Nowadays, the Japanese Government promotes wooden structures
and wooden interior decorations in public buildings as much as possible. Therefore, it is
important to develop fireproof structural products such as fireproof LVL, preferably classified at
least as a quasi-non-combustible material (Q-NC). The current technologies that base on
crystalline salt lead to unsatisfactory changes within the wood product constitution due to excess
use of chemicals. The changes include losses in mechanical properties weakening the
possibilities of structural use. Additionally, it is desirable to lower the charring rate of LVL. So
far, the best practice to secure the fire resistance in large wooden buildings, has been to cover the
wood with non-combustible materials, e.g. gypsum boards and by excessive use of expensive
sprinkler systems. Finally, the best available techniques for fire proofing pose a dilemma: The
wooden buildings are unattractive to the investors, constructors and consumers – either the
wooden buildings are very costly, difficult to maintain or the wood itself may be hidden from the
bare eye.

F1 provides new possibilities to solve the dilemma. The load-bearing LVL could be overlaid
with wooden veneers, impregnated or immersion treated with F1 fire retardant. Another
approach would allow the face veneers, i.e. the outermost veneers, to be non-treated, if the LVL
is laid up at the production so that the F1 treated veneers are directly next to the surface veneers.
In other words, the F1 treated veneers would be placed as the second veneer layer from both the
top and the bottom. These applications would enable us to construct fire resistant wooden
buildings with real wooden surfaces. With this technology, a fire would not progress inside the
load supporting parts, because of the surrounding fire-stop layers.

In order to be classified as a fireproof material in Japan, the heat release rate and the total heat
release of a construction product must not exceed 200 kW/m2 and 8 MJ/m2, respectively, in a
cone calorimeter test (ISO 5660-1) at the heat exposure level of 50 kW/m2 in horizontal
orientation. The time of evaluation depends on the class pursued, being 20 minutes for non-
combustible (NC) materials, 10 minutes for quasi-non-combustible (Q-NC) materials and 5
minutes for fire retardant (FR) materials.

The objective of this study was to determine the combustion properties of F1 treated LVL from
Norway spruce (Picea abies), according to the Building Standard Law of Japan.

Materials & Methods

Preparation of the specimens

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A veneer of Norway spruce (Picea abies), treated with F1, was applied on one surface of hot-
pressed LVL panels (Figure 1). The thickness of the veneer was 3 mm. Diffusive impregnation
was the method to treat green (never dried) veneers. The moisture content (MC) of the green
veneers was approximately 100%. Absorption of the impregnation solution in the green veneers
was determined by weight percentage gain (WPG), which is a simple measure for chemical
uptake in wood. Fire-retardant impregnated veneers were applied as the face veneer to
commercially obtained and industrially manufactured LVL panels from Norway spruce (Picea
abies). A commercial phenol formaldehyde film was used for adhesion. The lay-up was then hot
pressed in a laboratory press under the following pressing parameters: press pressure 2.0 MPa,
press temperature 130°C, press time 10 min.

a) before fire test b) after fire test

Figure 1: LVL specimen with F1-treated surface veneer

Testing the combustion performance

The combustion performance of the hot-pressed and cooled LVL, was evaluated with a cone
calorimeter (ISO 5660-1) using a heat flux of 50 kW/m2. The test duration was 30 minutes. The
cone calorimeter test is a fire test method to assess the contribution of the product tested to the
rate of evolution of heat during its involvement in fire. The main parts of the apparatus are a
cone-shaped radiant electrical heater with a temperature controller, a spark igniter, a weighing
cell, a specimen holder, and an exhaust gas system. A picture of the cone calorimeter is
presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: A picture of the cone calorimeter

The speed, at which the charring depth advances in the material, is called the charring rate and it
is an essential parameter to depict the fire resistance of wooden structures. The charring rate

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allows the determination of the residual cross-section of the load-bearing wooden structure. After
the fire tests, the specimens were cleaved to measure the total charring depth during the test. The
charring rate was calculated by dividing the measured charring depth by the test time.

Results and Discussion

Regarding the final panel properties, the diffusive impregnation of green veneer with F1, is
characterised by nil salting-out of the fire-retardant on the veneer surface and by its
homogeneous distribution inside the veneer. According to the results, the fire retardancy of LVL
was greatly improved by F1 treatment. In order to meet the Japanese fire requirements for
building materials, which are said to be globally the strictest, the total heat released must be 8
MJ/m2 or less, in 600 seconds for a quasi-non-combustible material, and in 1200 seconds for a
non-combustible material. Spruce LVL overlaid with one F1 treated veneer (dry weight of 68.8
kg/m3) exceeded 8 MJ/m2 in 1172 s, which is depicted in Figure 3. Hence, the studied LVL
performed as a quasi-non-combustible material (Q-NC) and almost like a non-combustible
material (NC), according to the Building Standard Law of Japan. The margin to NC was not
more than 28 s. Additionally, the rate of heat release never reaches the threshold value of 200
kW/m2 during the test, and hence the LVL in general fulfils the requirements for a construction
product (Figure 4).

Figure 3: The total heat release according to ISO 5660 illustrated cumulatively. The
determinative value of 8 MJ/m2 is reached after 1172 seconds.

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Figure 4: The heat release rate over the observation according to ISO 5660. The threshold
value of 200 kW/m2 is never reached.

Finally, the results indicate that F1 significantly reduces the charring rate of LVL in comparison
to the non-treated LVL reference material. The charring rate of F1 treated LVL was reduced by
ca. 39% compared to that of non-treated LVL within the testing time of 30 min at a heat flux of
50 kW/m2. The charring rate of F1 treated LVL was 0.48 mm/min and the charring rate of
original LVL was 0.79 mm/min. The observed charring rates of non-treated LVL are in good
agreement with the previous research completed for spruce LVL (Hakkarainen, 2010) and
massive spruce (Beikircher, Hartmann and Kögl, 2014).

Summary and Conclusions

An ionic-liquid based fire retardant “Palonot F1” was applied to manufacture fire-retardant
treated LVL from Norway spruce (Picea abies). The main objective was to study, whether the
globally most strict combustion performance requirements would be met by immersion treating
the face veneers at green condition. Regarding the final panel properties, the diffusive
impregnation of green Norway spruce veneer with F1, is characterised by nil salting-out of the
fire-retardant on the veneer surface and by its homogeneous distribution inside the veneer.
According to the results, the fire retardancy of LVL was greatly improved by F1 treatment: the
fire retardant treated spruce LVL had the performance of a quasi-non-combustible material (Q-
NC) determined by the Building Standard Law of Japan. Additionally, the margin to be classified
as non-combustible material (NC) was not more than 28 s. Such a minor margin could most

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probably be overcome by increasing the retention of the fire retardant within the veneers; in this
experiment the chemical dry weight was 68.8 kg/m3. Finally, Palonot F1 fire retardant reduced
by ca. 39% the charring rate of spruce LVL in comparison to the non-treated reference. In
industrial scale, this reduction within the charring rate would lead to optional advantages. On the
one hand smaller dimensions and thus lower weights of the load-bearing structures could be
enabled if current combustion performance is aimed at, and on the other hand indeed greater
combustion performance is achieved if the current dimensions on load-bearing structures are
maintained.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to Kalle Kiviranta and Emmi Närhi from
Savonia University of Applied Sciences for performing the combustion tests.

References

Beikircher W., Hartmann P. and Kögl J. (2014): Charring rate of intumescent fire protective
coated Norway spruce (Picea abies L.). Proceedings of World Conference on Timber
Engineering, WCTE 2014. Quebec City, Canada.
Hakkarainen, T. (2010): Thin thermal barriers for wood based products to improve fire
resistance. Research Report VTT-R-07061-09.
available at https://www.vtt.fi/inf/julkaisut/muut/2009/VTT-R-07061-09.pdf
Hasegama, T. (2013): Introduction to the Building Standard Law – Building regulation in Japan.
Building Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan.
available at https://www.bcj.or.jp/upload/international/baseline/BSLIntroduction201307_e.pdf
Yuko, S. (1992): Fire rating procedure in Japan. Proceedings of the Asia-Oceania Symposium
on Fire Science & Technology AOFST 1: 60-68
available at https://www.iafss.org/publications/aofst/1/60/view/aofst_1-60.pdf

Biography

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Bioinspiration as a source for alternative wood modification, protection

and functionalization

Anna Sandak
[email protected]
Jakub Sandak
[email protected]

InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

Abstract
Living organisms use smart, optimized and elegant solutions to survive, thanks to continuous
selection and mutation processes. Therefore, systems created in nature might be valuable sources of
inspiration for development of new concepts, materials, and solutions in various fields (structural
engineering, robotics, medicine, materials science). In the last years, possible benefits from
denouements developed by nature have also become more interesting for sustainable materials design
as well as wood protection and modification.

Recent advances in materials research have delivered several solutions for the construction sector.
However, operational durability is still a limiting factor in many applications and environments. Wood
is a versatile, natural and environmentally friendly material that has attracted attention as a material
for sustainable building for many years. As a biological material, wood is sensitive to environmental
conditions and microorganisms; therefore, wood products require protective measures to extend their
service life in outdoor applications. This contribution will provide an overview of selected solutions that
can be transferred from nature in order to develop an efficient protection system for wood in various
applications.

Acknowledgment: The authors gratefully acknowledge the European Commission for funding the
InnoRenew project [Grant Agreement # 739574] under the Horizon 2020 Widespread-Teaming
program and the Republic of Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the
European Regional Development Fund).

Key words: biomimicry, bioinspiration, wood modification, wood protection

Biography

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Hardness Determination in Surface-densified Wood: The Influence of the

Hardness Test Method and the Density Profile

Alexander Scharf, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden

[email protected]

Abstract
An increase in the density of low-density wood species can either be achieved by transverse compression
under non-destructive conditions (densification) or by filling the lumens with polymerising chemicals. In
surface densification – as opposed to bulk densification – only a thin layer beneath the wood surface is
compressed. This approach consumes less resources and results in a lower overall weight of the product.
The density profile of the product can be altered through the choice of material and process parameters,
in order to achieve the intended product performance. The increase in density in the surface layer makes
low-density wood species more suitable for applications like flooring, as the exposed surface will have a
similar resistance to mechanical stresses as high-density hardwood species.
The resistance of a material to penetration of a harder test body is called hardness and is used as one of
the main evaluation criteria for densified wood. It is well-known that the hardness of a wood surface
correlates nearly linearly with its density, however, the test results are dependent on the used test
method. Previous research has pointed out deficiencies of the commonly used Brinell hardness test
method. When studying materials with an inhomogeneous density profile – such as surface-densified
wood – a less dense core beneath a thin and dense surface layer will influence the Brinell hardness value
with increasing penetration depth and test force. To achieve a hardness value for surface densified wood
that reflects the product-in-use properties, e.g. resistance to indentations from users and wear resistance,
it is necessary to improve the hardness test method for surface-densified wood.
Indenter geometries such as wedges and cylinders have been used for hardness testing of solid wood,
but have not yet been tested for surface-densified wood. These tools provide a linear relationship
between contact area and penetration depth which could prove beneficial for the hardness testing of
surface-densified wood.
The objective of this project was to study how the hardness of surface-densified wood is influenced by the
choice of the hardness test method and the density profile, as well as to investigate the influence of set-
recovery on the former. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) specimens were surface-densified in a hot press
with the process parameters (press temperature, press time, compression ratio and plasticisation with
ionic liquids prior to densification) chosen to achieve density profiles that differ in the peak density, peak
width and distance of the peak from the wood surface. The set-recovery was induced by three humid-dry
cycles at RH 75%. The hardness was tested according to the Brinell method, and with a 136° wedge
indenter. Correlations between hardness, process parameters and density profiles were evaluated by
principal component analysis. The outcome of this study allows an improved comprehension of hardness
in surface-densified wood, facilitating comparisons between and within studies.
Key words: Wood compression, densification, wedge hardness, set-recovery, ionic liquids

Biography

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Coupling THM treatments with phenol-based resin for reduced set-recovery

Matthew Schwarzkopf1
[email protected]
Mike Burnard1
[email protected]
Marica Mikuljan2
[email protected]
Andreja Kutnar1
[email protected]

1 InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

2InnoRenew CoE

Abstract
Wood modification techniques have been used to help valorise under-utilised wood materials and
increase their performance with respect to durability, mechanical characteristics, and new forms and
functions. One group of modifications are thermal-hydro-mechanical (THM) treatments. THM densification
uses only heat, water, and mechanical force to compress and densify the wood material. This results in
increased density, hardness, abrasion resistance, and some strength properties. During the THM
densification process, wood is softened and compressed, resulting in densification without fracturing the
cell walls. The main challenge associated with this type of densification is the fixation of the compressive
deformation when the densified wood is exposed to moisture. The objective of this study was to couple a
low-molecular weight phenol resin with THM treatments to reduce set-recovery in solid wood of some
common wood species.
THM treatments were performed on poplar (Populus spp.), spruce (Picea abies), and beech (Fagus
sylvatica). Prior to treatment, a low-molecular weight resin was impregnated into the wood structure.
Densification results, mechanical characteristics (modulus of elasticity, rupture, and hardness), and set-
recovery were assessed. All wood species were exposed to the same THM treatment. The mechanical
performance of all specimens was largely dictated by their surface density as seen in the density profiles.
Spruce specimens had high levels of set-recovery after the THM treatment, which is believed to have
been caused by a combination of pit aspiration from kiln drying, limiting penetration of the resin. The THM
treatment used in this study was successfully applied to poplar, spruce, and beech. The resin
impregnation combined with THM treatment led to densified wood with improved mechanical properties.
The improvements were the greatest in poplar, including the largest reduction in set-recovery, which was
the objective of this study. When comparing mechanical properties to commercially available structural
wood-composites the results from this study indicate that resin impregnated THM treated wood could be
used in this application.

Biography

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Wood Physics and Mechanics

Chairs:
Ales Straze, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Mike Wolcott, Washington State University, USA

X-ray computed tomography studies of moisture-content distribution in

spruce boards exposed to liquid water

José Couceiro
[email protected]
Dick Sandberg
[email protected]
Margot Sehlstedt-Persson
[email protected]

Luleå University of Technology, Sweden

Abstract
The use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) as a construction material for high-rise timber buildings has
increased in the recent years especially in Europe and North America; a trend that is expected to
continue. The CLT-elements will often be finished with an impermeable layer, whether it is walls, floors
and, especially, roof. In Sweden, often no weather protection is used during the construction of the
building, allowing the wood to be exposed to liquid water and relaying on later atmospheric conditions
to dry the timber prior to finishing. The Swedish building regulations require a maximum surface
moisture content (MC) of 18% before assembly of the elements and a maximum surface MC of 16%
before the wood is covered. This could drive to high levels of MC within the CLT while the surface is
already dry, which is a highly possible scenario in the case of high buildings where sun and wind
create good conditions for a fast surface drying. At the same time, the regulation requires control of
MC to be made with an electrical pin-type MC-meter, which is problematic because its reliability lays in
part on the device reaching a certain penetration into the wood. The measurement of surface MC
could thus be erroneous and the risk for mould development would be high even if the regulations are
strictly followed. If a CLT with a too high moisture level are covered with an impermeable surface
layer, the moisture is trapped within the CLT and may cause microbiological degradation that could be
problematic to correct later on. An update in the regulation requirements is recommended, but such
update must be based on a proper understanding of how moisture can be distributed in CLT and other
wood-based building material during outdoor construction.

This project aims to establish a method to study (1) the effect of liquid-water-exposure time on the
MC distribution of Spruce timber boards, but that could potentially be used in other wood-based
building materials as well, and (2) the drying process under emulated outdoor conditions. The focus is
set on those elements that are laid horizontally or with a very low inclination, such as floors and roofs.
Sections of methacrylate are glued to the internal side of 43 x 200 mm planed spruce timber, allowing
the wood to be exposed to standing water under a period of several days. CT images of different cross
sections are taken periodically so that the evolution of MC profile can be monitored. The hypothesis is
that the suction of liquid water will not be large and that it can dry quickly once the exposure to liquid

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water ends, but also that a MC gradient will develop beneath the surface which, under drying, may
create regions of high MC that may be unnoticed by measuring with pin-type MC-meters.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Understanding the Energy Dissipation Process on Hardwoods and its

Dependence on the Anatomical Structures

Júlio Amando de Barros1

[email protected]
Gregório Ceccantini1
[email protected]
Victor Sibinelli
[email protected]
Rodolfo Politano2
[email protected]

1University
of Sao Paulo, Brazil
2 Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares

Abstract
In our previous work, presented as a poster on SWST 2018 conference at Nagoya, a trial of linking
anatomical features and mechanical properties of Brazilian hardwoods was done. For that, a set of
dynamic-mechanical analysis (DMA) was performed for 15 species of selected tropical woods. Besides
that we measured several anatomic properties such as vessel diameter and vessel density, fiber wall
thickness, rays density, and others. Formed our data set, a Principal Component Analysis was done in
order to group dependent variables of both mechanical or anatomical origin. The great advance on the
interpretation of wood mechanical behavior was the relation between energy storage and dissipation.
The energy storage, being of elastic nature, is strongly related to wood density which is mainly guided
by fiber cell wall thickness, as is shown on several works throughout the literature. The dissipation,
quantified by the loss factor, on the other hand, is a difficult and not precise property to measure on
usual mechanical test, but in a DMA this can be made with accuracy and its dependencies on
frequency, time and temperature can be checked. Our main result was to relate the energy dissipation
on hardwoods to the wood vessel density, in the same way that fibers wall are related to density and
rigidity.

Now our work is based on the investigation of this finding; in other words we want to assess if the
energy dissipation is mainly linked on vessels features. For that, the same experimental setup was
used: the mechanical properties was measured by DMA and anatomical features by quantitative
microscopy. Trying to vanish the influence of others anatomical parameters two hardwoods species
was selected: peroba- rosa (Aspidosperma polyneuron) and jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril). They were
chosen due to their similarity on fiber cell wall thickness, while being very different in vessel size and
distribution. Aspidosperma polyneuron has a higher vessel density than Hymenaea courbaril but with
smaller thickness in average . This produces for both a similar total vessel area, but different vessel
wall-lumen ratio, once that small vessels creates proportionally less empty space.

After selecting the species, 15 samples of each one was prepared from 3 different individual, all of
them were collected by the Plant Anatomy Laboratory research group and cataloged by the Xylarium
SPFw. From each sample a small piece was cut for anatomical purpose, in such a way that for each of
them both anatomical and mechanical properties were obtained. The loss factor dependences on

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vessel density and thickness was then tested for: each individual by itself, all individual of the same
species and at last comparing both species.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

What Do We Know on Rosewoods Properties? A Wood Mechanics Update

on the Endangered Pantropical Genus Dalbergia

Iris Brémaud1
[email protected]
Patrick Langbour2
[email protected]

1 CNRS, Wood Team, LMGC, CNRS, Univ.Montpellier, France

2 CIRAD, BioWooEB Reseach Unit, France

Abstract
Rosewoods are emblematic of “precious” tropical woods, with major cultural value in several high-end
craftsmanship utilizations. Rosewoods are important both in the wood cultures of tropical regions
where these trees grow, and in cultures of temperate regions where several species have been
imported, sometimes for centuries. True Rosewoods belong to the pantropical genus Dalbergia (circa
250 species), and some species from botanically related genera are sometimes also included under
the term Rosewoods. But uncontrolled demand has led to threats to these species. A dramatic,
exponential increase in international traffic and over-exploitation for industrial-scale uses happened
over the past decade. To safeguard these endangered species, CITES (Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) listed the whole genus in 2017. Much scientific
research is now being conducted on methods of wood identification to help enforcing the regulation of
international trade. Yet, a fundamental question is not yet fully understood: what makes Rosewoods
so particular?

Paradoxically, little scientific data is available on the material properties of these emblematic woods.
Their rich appearance, with deep and variegated colors, is famous. Some literature reviews explore
the chemical nature of their secondary metabolites, due to often important biological/pharmaceutical
activities. Yet, data on their physical-mechanical wood properties are scarce. This presentation aims at
providing an update on this topic, by combining an analytical review of literature data, and new
experimental results. A focus is set on dynamic mechanical properties, given the importance of
rosewoods in musical instrument making of diverse geo-cultural areas.

Results indicate that such data are currently available, in the literature, for only a dozen of species
of Dalbergia (out of circa 250 species in the genus). A wide-scale exploration of the potential relation
between botanical taxonomy and mechanical properties suggest that woods from Dalbergia genus
exhibit singular characteristics as compared to biodiversity: most of these woods have abnormally low
damping coefficient. This feature appears to be shared by closely botanically related genera (belonging
to the Dalbergieae tribe). In a limited number of species (2 Dalbergia and 2 Pterocarpus), this feature
is found to be due to particular heartwood extractives. A wide experimental campaign is being
conducted to verify two main hypotheses: (i) would all species of Dalbergia genus (or even of
Dalbergieae tribe) share atypical dynamic mechanical properties? (ii) would such a singular wood
mechanical behavior of a botanical taxon express particular composition in secondary metabolites?

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Hardwood cutting forces at different speeds up to 80 m/s for an evaluated

real chip thickness

Ondrej Dvoracek1
[email protected]
Stephan Frömel-Frybort1
[email protected]
Daniel Lechowicz1
[email protected]
Thomas Krenke1
[email protected]
Franz Haas2
[email protected]

1 Wood K plus - Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry,
Austria
2 Graz University of Technology, Austria

Abstract
Woodcutting is one of the key processes within the forest-based industry. For cutting force estimation, the
piezo-electric force sensor is commonly used. These dynamometric systems use primarily circular cuts.
Mechanisms taking place during an examination are very complex and hard to describe. Besides its
anisotropy, the examination of woodcutting is additionally complicated by parameters like density and
moisture content. Regarding changes in forest composition, the share of hardwood is increasing. Hence,
there is an urgent need to understand disintegration processes, enabling knowledge-based optimisation
measures of tools for hardwood disintegration. For basic investigations of disintegration processes a
novel test device for analysis of linear cutting process has been developed. The device enables cutting
examinations up to a velocity of 100 m/s. An innovative feature of the device is chip thickness evaluation.
Accuracy of the chip dimension is measured by means of a laser sensor (LAM-F-20, WayCon, Germany)
recording sample height before and after cutting, with a resolution up to 2 μm. The force in all directions
and chip thickness were measured during cutting beech (Fagus sylvatica) with a single knife at speeds
from 10 m/s to 80 m/s. Before the tests, samples (20x50x100 mm) were stored at standard climatic
conditions of 20°C and 65 % of relative humidity until the equilibrium moisture content of approximately
12 % is achieved. The results showed that investigated chip thicknesses (0,05 - 0,6 mm) varied of +/-
15%. The deviation is not commonly taken into consideration especially when the purchased system is
utilized. Therefore, the method for data correction (based on the comparison of apparent and real chip
thickness) was implemented. Due to this fact, the methodology serves more accurate results. Cutting
forces always increased with growing chip thickness. Nevertheless, higher cutting speed does not mean a
higher force. The results indicated that the force did not have linear progression and grew up when
cutting velocity was both increased and decreased.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Advanced X-ray CT Scanning: a Versatile Research Tool for Analyzing Cores

of Living Trees

Tom De Mil1
[email protected]
Joris Van Acker1
[email protected]
Hans Beeckman2
[email protected]
Jan Van den Bulcke1
[email protected]

1 UGCT – UGent-Woodlab, Department of Environment, Faculty of Bioscience

Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
2 Royal Museum for Central Africa, Belgium

Abstract
Density and wood anatomical tissue fractions are crucial variables in wood science. At UGent-Woodlab
we have been working towards the use of X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) scanning to obtain large
datasets of virtual tree cores. A toolchain was developed to scan tree cores with a resolution ranging
from 60 µm down to 4.5 µm. Assessing (i) density and (ii) tree ring growth simultaneously allows to
map wood properties from pith to bark and to estimate how they vary depending on tree age and
climate. When scanned at high resolution, not only wood density, but (iii) wood anatomical tissues
become discernable and measurable. CT also represents a promising way to analyze (iv) grain angle
variation from pith to bark, a timber property appreciated for esthetic reasons such as holographic
effects (e.g. interlocked grain), but also causing undesirable effects on wood drying and processing.
Additional scanning at a resolution of 0.8 µm of a needle-sized sample scanned with a second X-ray
CT system highlights the potential of cell-level scanning. We show how multi-scale scanning offers
unprecedented potential for mapping wood properties without sample manipulation and with limited
operator intervention. Custom-designed sample holders enable simultaneous scanning of multiple
increment cores at resolutions sufficient for tree-ring analysis and densitometry, grain angle
assessment. Single-core scanning enables the study of quantitative wood anatomy, thereby
approaching the conventional thin-section approach. Furthermore, standardized X-ray CT volumes are
ideal input imagery for automated pipelines with neural-based learning for wood property mapping
and measurements of cellular parameters. Efforts are being made for an online platform, and machine
learning techniques are being developed to treat such large datasets (
http://www.dendrochronomics.ugent.be/#database).

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

A Sawmill Simulation Study of the Volume Yield Changes

When Sawing With Thinner Kerfs
Magnus Fredriksson1*– Mikael Svensson2

1 Senior lecturer (PhD), Luleå University of Technology, Skellefteå, Sweden

*Corresponding author
[email protected]

2 Process and Product Development Manager (MSc), LSAB, Långshyttan, Sweden

[email protected]

Abstract
Using thinner sawblades in sawmills has a potential for both increasing volume yield and
decreasing energy usage in the sawing process; possible secondary effects of this are reduced
outtake from forests or at least a better use of what is harvested, lower greenhouse gas emissions
and higher productivity. How much the sawing kerf can be reduced depends on several factors,
such as maintaining the stability of the sawblade, feeding accuracy and so on. This study deals
with the possible volume yield increases when reducing the sawing kerf, based on different
possible scenarios of which some are more realistic to achieve in the near future than others. The
study is based on simulated sawing of 1464 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce
(Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) logs. Tests were made for both circular sawblades as well as for band
saws, deployed in a cant sawing process with a primary and a secondary saw. Both variable
sawing patterns as well as fixed sawing patterns was investigated. In the first case, the choice of
sawing pattern was optimized based on volume yield, while in the latter case, logs were pre-
sorted on top diameter into log classes that were each assigned a specific sawing pattern. The
results show an increased yield of about 1.3 to 1.5 percent units per mm reduced sawblade
thickness, and a maximum theoretical yield of 57-59 % for a 0 mm saw kerf. The latter is of
course not possible to achieve in practice, but it hints at the maximum potential of reducing the
sawblade thickness. In the near future, it is expected that a kerf reduction of around 1 mm is
possible. This would thus result in a possible yield increase of 1.3-1.5 percent units, with further
increases depending on improvements in sawblade design, sawblade stabilization, improved
materials, and machines that are more accurate. Possible future studies include quantification of
secondary effects from the yield increase; effects that can help mitigate deforestation and climate
change, with a retained level of production volumes.

Key words: Computer simulation, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Sawing kerf, Sawing yield,
Thinner sawblades
Introduction
In the sawmilling process, the aim is usually to produce as much valuable material as possible
out of roundwood. The motivation for this is, among other things, that the cost of raw material in
the forestry-wood value chain takes up a large part of the total costs (Lindholm 2006). Many

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times, this aim is expressed in terms of volume yield, i.e. maximizing the ratio of output volume
to input volume. Due to the complex geometry of the raw material, this is a difficult problem and
many different solutions have been proposed. For instance, the sawing pattern used is in most
cases adapted to the geometry of the log in one way or another. Logs can be sorted into different
classes based on their diameter, and assigned a fixed sawing pattern for that class. Alternatively,
the position of the sawblades can be changed between each log based on a geometrical model of
the log, which can be provided by various scanning systems. Even if fixed sawing patterns are
used, the position of the log vis-à-vis the sawblades can be optimized for yield (Lundahl and
Grönlund 2010, Fredriksson 2014). Scanning equipment can for instance be based on laser and
camera equipment (Chiorescu and Grundberg 2001), X-ray (Grundberg 1999, Skog 2009) or X-
ray computed tomography (Giudiceandrea et al. 2011, Fredriksson et al. 2017). These scanners
can be used both for log presorting and for sawing optimization (Skatter et al. 1998). If X-ray
scanners are used, the internal quality of logs can also be taken into account.
Production planning optimization in a more general sense is also employed in most sawmills
(Todoroki and Rönnqvist 2002, Zanjani et al. 2010, Alvarez and Vera 2014).
Other measures to improve volume yield include improving the stability of the mechanics in the
sawing machines (Vuorilehto and Tulokas 2007), since this is a source of error when it comes to
optimizing the sawing (Todoroki 2003, Berglund et al. 2013) and achieving correct dimensions
of the sawn timber.
Another source of volume losses is drying; wood which is dried to a lower moisture content than
desired shrinks more, thus reducing the output volume and therefore volume yield (Ekevad et al.
2011).
Board features can contribute to a lowered volume yield as well; if an undesired feature (defect)
is present, it can in many cases be cut away in the edging or trimming process, resulting in a
lower product volume. Such features can be either of a biological nature or created when
transporting, handling, sawing or drying the wood (Broman and Fredriksson 2012).
Finally, one source of material loss is the cutting itself. As the sawblade cuts into the wood,
material is removed, normally in the form of sawdust. The thicker the sawblade, the larger
volume removed. Efforts have therefore been made to reduce the sawing kerf (Steele et al. 1992,
Steele and Araman 1996, Sun et al. 2000), which in turn can create other problems that need to
be addressed such as reduced sawblade stiffness and stability (Orlowski 2003, Schajer and Mote
2007, Orlowski et al. 2007, Singhania et al. 2019).

To be able to assess whether further reductions of sawing kerf width is viable, from economical
standpoints as well as environmental ones, knowledge of how a reduced sawing kerf affects the
volume yield is needed. The effort spent on solutions for thinner kerfs need to be repaid as either
economical gain, environmental benefits, or a combination of both. Therefore, a quantification of
volume yield gain per millimeter reduced sawing kerf is valuable information.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of thinner sawing kerfs on volume yield,
when sawing Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.)
logs in various sawmill production setups. The study was limited to conditions present in the
Nordic countries, which affected both the choice of species as well as the chosen production
setups.

Materials & Methods

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To study the effect of saw kerf size on volume yield, sawing simulation was used. Twelve
different scenarios were studied, broken down as shown in Figure 1. Differentiation was made on
sawing pattern adaptation; either using fixed sawing patterns for different log diameter classes or
optimizing the sawing pattern individually for each log. Two different types of sawblades were
also studied: circular saw blades or bandsaws. For the circular sawblades, two levels of sawing
kerf width were chosen: 4.4 mm and 3.4 mm. The levels were chosen as a result of discussions
with tool manufacturers; the higher level representing a common saw kerf width today, and the
lower level representing an estimate of what is possible to achieve given better material, better
machinery and better control than is the case today. For the bandsaw case, four levels of saw kerf
were studied: 2.9, 2.0, 1.5 and 0.8 mm. Again, these levels were chosen together with tool
manufacturers. The four levels for bandsaws represent, respectively: 2.9 mm representative of
today’s tools, 2.0 mm achievable with fairly small efforts and in a short timeframe, 1.5 mm
achievable with considerable development to tools and processes, and finally 0.8 mm being seen
as the limit of possible reduction of the sawing kerf.

Figure 1. Breakdown of the sawing simulation scenarios studied. All measures are in mm.

Roundwood Data
The study was based on the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.)
H. Karst.) logs of the Swedish Pine Stem Bank (Grönlund et al. 1995) and the European Spruce
Stem Bank (Berggren et al. 2000). The stem bank trees, from well-documented sites at different
locations in Europe, have been documented thoroughly regarding tree properties and silvicultural
treatments. They were bucked into logs that were scanned with a medical computed tomography
(CT) scanner (Siemens SOMATOM AR.T) to record internal as well as external properties.
Adding to the stem bank data, 87 Scots pine logs from Nordmark (2005) were also used. Of
these logs, one was excluded since it had a large crook and a small diameter, resulting in zero
sawing yield in all cases. 714 Scots pine and 750 Norway spruce logs were thus used in this
study, adding up to 1464 logs in total. The same material was used in all the studied scenarios.

Sawing Simulation
Sawing simulation was performed using the simulation software Saw2003, developed by
Nordmark (2005). The input was log models, based on the CT scanned logs of the stem banks.
The log models were constructed by the outer shape description of the log. There is a possibility

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to use knot models describing the inner quality of the log, but this was not regarded in this study
since the objective was to study the volume yield and not the quality of the sawn timber. The
only quality aspect that was taken into account was wane, since the position of the board in the
log and therefore the amount of wane will be affected by the sawing kerf, in a more predictable
way than the quality due to knots. The wane rules are summarized in Table 1, and they follow
the Nordic Timber Grading Rules where more details can be found (Anon. 1997). Boards were
therefore graded into three quality classes, A, B or C, where A is the class with the strictest
requirements. Only wane exceeding 3 mm was considered.

Table 1: Wane criteria for each quality grade. t = thickness of the sawn timber. All measures are
percentages of either length or thickness. If a measure is exceeded, the board cannot be graded as
the corresponding quality grade.
Quality grade A B C
Length on each edge, t <= 25 mm* 20 30 40
Length on one edge, t <= 25 mm* 30 40 50
Length on each edge, t > 25 mm* 10 20 30
Length on one edge, t > 25 mm* 20 30 40
Depth, per edge** 10 15 20
Width on the outside edge, each edge** 7 12 17
*measured as percentage of timber length
**measured as percentage of timber thickness

Saw2003 models a sawmill that employs cant sawing with two sawing machines, with curve
sawing in the second saw, edging and trimming. The latter two are value-optimized according to
timber prices and grading criteria. An example of a log model used in Saw2003 is shown in
Figure 2, with outer shape and knots.

Figure 2. Example of log model used. The knots were disregarded in this study.

The sawing simulation results in virtual boards with information about knots, dimensions,
quality, value and so forth. Saw2003 has been used extensively in earlier research (Nordmark
2005, Moberg and Nordmark 2006, Lundahl and Grönlund 2010, Berglund et al. 2013,
Fredriksson 2014).

Settings Used for Simulations

The corresponding sawing patterns for different diameters are presented in

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Table 2. They were used both for the case with fixed and optimized sawing patterns. For the
fixed sawing patterns, the top diameter 10 cm from the log small end was used. In the case of
optimized sawing patterns, all patterns were tested and the pattern resulting in the highest
volume yield was chosen. Since Saw2003 employs value-optimized edging and trimming, the
price relation between qualities affects the result. This is for instance shown by Berglund et al.
(2013). The prices used in this study were 185, 160 and 100 € / m3, for center boards of A, B and
C quality, respectively. For the sideboards, the prices were 300, 140 and 110 € / m3, also for A, B
and C quality. By-products were priced at 20 € / m3. Only the wane of the boards affected the
quality.
Sideboards were edged to widths of 75, 100, 115, 125, 127, 150, 175, 200 or 225 mm, with a
fixed thickness of 19 or 25 mm depending on the position in the sawing pattern. All boards were
trimmed to module lengths of 1800 + n × 300 mm modules, n being the number of length
modules. The logs were curve sawn, so in the second saw the sawing kerf followed a second-
degree function that was fitted to the centreline of the cant.

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Table 2: Sawing patterns used in the study. The diameter limits were used when logs were sorted
on diameter and assigned a fixed sawing pattern. Sorting was based on top diameter.

Lower diameter limit Upper diameter limit No. of centerboards Width Thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
0 129 2 75 38
130 149 2 100 38
150 169 2 100 50
170 184 2 125 50
185 194 2 125 63
195 209 2 150 50
210 219 2 150 63
220 229 2 175 50
230 249 2 175 63
250 264 2 200 63
265 284 2 200 75
285 304 2 225 75
305 324 4 200 50
325 344 4 225 50
345 384 4 200 63
385 449 4 200 75

For the green dimensions in the saw, a flat increase of all dimensions by 4 % was used, e.g. a 125
mm nominal width was sawn as 130 mm to reflect drying shrinkage.

For the different scenarios, the corresponding kerf width was set for all sawblades in the first saw
as well as the second saw.

The volume yield was finally calculated for each scenario as the total volume of sawn and dried
timber divided by the total green volume of the logs, the latter using the full outer shape
described by the log model.

Results and Discussion

Fixed Sawing Patterns
In the scenario with fixed sawing patterns, the volume yield for the circular sawblades was 51.1
% for a 4.4 mm sawing kerf, while it was 52.6 % for a 3.4 mm kerf. This corresponds to a
change of 1.5 percent units per mm.

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The volume yields for the bandsaw scenarios are presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Volume yield as a function of sawing kerf width, when using fixed sawing patterns. A linear function has
been fitted to the data points using least squares linear regression.

As can be seen, the function fitted to the data points will cross the y-axis at 57.41 percent volume
yield, i.e. when the kerf width is zero. This can be seen as a theoretical maximum yield for this
setup, when it comes to for instance raw material, sawing patterns, drying shrinkage etc.
Furthermore, the yield change is around 1.4 percent units per mm sawing kerf.

Optimized Sawing Patterns

For the scenario with optimal sawing patterns, the volume yield for the circular sawblades was
52.9 % for a 4.4 mm sawing kerf, while it was 54.2 % for a 3.4 mm kerf. This corresponds to a
change of 1.3 percent units per mm.

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The volume yields for the bandsaw scenarios are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Volume yield as a function of sawing kerf width, when choosing an optimal sawing pattern for each log. A
linear function has been fitted to the data points using least squares linear regression.

As can be seen, the function fitted to the data points will cross the y-axis at 58.88 percent volume
yield, i.e. when the kerf width is zero. This is, in the same way as for the fixed sawing patterns, a
theoretical maximum yield for this setup. Furthermore, the yield change is around 1.4 percent
units per mm sawing kerf.

Volume Yield per mm Sawing Kerf

In Table 3 the different volume yield changes when changing the sawing kerf width are
summarized. The change is fairly consistent, differing between 1.3 percent units per millimeter
to 1.5 percent units per millimeter.
Table 3: Summary of the volume yield changes for the different studied cases, when changing the
width of the sawing kerf.
Sawing patterns Sawblades Volume yield change per mm
sawing kerf (percent units)
Fixed Circular 1.5
Fixed Band 1.4
Optimized Circular 1.3
Optimized Band 1.4

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Difference Between Species

A comparison between the two species, Scots pine and Norway spruce, can be seen in Table 4.
The average yield was calculated as average sawn and dried volume divided by the green volume
of the logs. Maximum and minimum values are calculated from the 12 different scenarios.

Table 4: Comparison between the two studied species.

Species Average yield Maximum yield Minimum yield
Scots pine 53.6 % 56.9 % 50.0 %
Norway spruce 55.5 % 58.5 % 52.1 %

The yield for different kerf widths is presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6, for the two studied species.

Figure 5. Volume yield as a function of sawing kerf width, for Scots pine. Linear functions have been fitted to the
data points using least squares linear regression.

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Figure 6. Volume yield as a function of sawing kerf width for Norway spruce. Linear functions have been fitted to
the data points using least squares linear regression.

As can be seen in the figures, the change in yield depending on sawing kerf width is around 1.3-
1.4 percent units per mm for both species.

Discussion
The results indicate a possible yield increase of 1.3-1.5 percent units per millimeter decreased
sawing kerf.
Results achieved with simulation models will always differ from the real situation to some
extent. In this study, all comparisons have been made using simulation data only, therefore
reducing the effect of any discrepancies with the real systems. The log models used had a
resolution which is lower than many commercial 3D scanning systems, with scans made every
40 mm in the lengthwise direction for the Pine Stem Bank and every 10 mm for the Spruce Stem
Bank. This is also one of the reasons to avoid comparisons outside of the simulation
environment.
In a practical situation, there will always be other factors affecting the volume yield, such the
mechanical stability of machines, the consistency of the drying process, etc.
The study was also limited on conditions present in many Nordic sawmills. The results might
therefore not be fully generalizable, depending both on the raw material and sawing practices.
The exact source of the yield increase when sawing with thinner sawblades was not fully
investigated in this study, but one can speculate that it could be several factors affecting the
yield. The most obvious one is the fact that less material is turned into sawdust. This takes place
between the boards, meaning that the position of boards is shifted somewhat towards the center
of the log. The effect of this is that boards near the periphery, such as sideboards, can be made
longer and wider. Furthermore, for the case of optimized sawing patterns, it is possible that a
larger sawing pattern can be fitted to an individual log than was the case with thicker sawblades.
The results are consistent between both different scenarios and different species, with the range
of volume yield change being 1.3 to 1.5 percent units per mm kerf width. There are several

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potential benefits of this yield increase. First of all, it means a possibility to increase produced
volumes for the same outtake from the forest, or vice versa maintain production while using less
forest material. This is important since the competition for forest raw material will probably
increase as a result of a shift towards a biobased society. Furthermore, the greenhouse gas
emissions from production of timber would decrease since a large part of this is coming from the
manufacturing of the material (Peñaloza et al. 2018). Another effect from thinner sawblades is a
reduction of the needed power and therefore energy consumption in sawing machines
(Wasielewski et al. 2012, Cristóvão et al. 2013).
In the near future, it is expected that a kerf reduction of around 1 mm is possible. This would
thus result in a possible yield increase of 1.3-1.5 percent units, with further increases depending
on improvements in sawblade design, sawblade stabilization, improved materials, and machines
that are more accurate. Possible future studies include quantification of secondary effects from
this yield increase such as reduction of emissions, increased profitability and so on.

Summary and Conclusions

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of thinner sawing kerfs on volume yield.
This was done through sawing simulation using the Swedish Pine Stem Bank and the European
Spruce Stem Bank. The results show that a volume yield gain of just below 1.5 percent units is
possible to achieve for each millimeter sawing kerf reduction, and this result seems to be quite
consistent between different scenarios and species, being limited to the situation in the Nordic
countries.

Acknowledgements
This study was financed with support from s Sweden´s Innovation Agency (Vinnova) as a part of
the strategic innovation program BioInnovation and the project “Swedish wood - Innovation
potential for the bio-based society” (IPOS).

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Biography

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Mechanical Properties versus Structure of Oil Palm Wood (Elaeis

guineensis JACQ.)

Katja Fruehwalk-Koenig
[email protected]

Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences and Art, Germany

Abstract
Oil palms (Elaeis guineensis JACQ.) are mainly cultivated in large plantations for palm oil production to
be used for food, chemicals, pharmaceuticals and bio-energy. Worldwide 25 million ha with 140 palms
per ha and 25-30 years rotation provide almost 150 million m³ of trunks (> 75 % in Asia). After 25 years of
age, the palms are felled and replaced due to declining oil production. Like fronds and leaves, the trunks
remain on the plantation site for nutrient recycling which leads to increased insect and fungi populations.
Many regions where oil palms grow currently suffer from a decline in timber harvested from their tropical
forests. Recent research has explored the commercial uses of oil palm wood with the intension to partly
substitute tropical timber species. In many cases, oil palm wood is good for panels (block-boards, flash
doors, multi-layer solid wood panels) and construction timber. As density varies much within a palm trunk,
grading of the lumber and knowledge of elasto-mechanical properties is an important issue.
Being monocotyledons, palms show distinct differences in the anatomical structure compared to common
wood species. Only lateral and no radial growth of the stem means no growth rings, no wood rays, no
knots. The wood consists of lengthwise oriented vascular bundles (VB) embedded in parenchymatous
ground tissue. The vascular bundles are composed of vessels and sclerenchymatous fiber cells (fiber
caps) with thick walls for structural stability; the density of the VB is high. The ground tissue consists of
parenchyma cells, which are thin walled and contain lots of water and sugars. Their density is low and
under load they easily buckle. Thus, from the structural mechanics point of view, if vascular bundles are
considered as reinforcements (fibers) and ground tissue as matrix, oil palm wood can be seen as
unidirectional long-fiber-reinforced bio-composite.
Within a research project, various elasto-mechanical properties of oil palm wood were determined on
small-size test specimens with the assumption of orthotropic material behavior. Almost all elasto-
mechanical properties correlate with density, which depends primarily on the age of the palm tree, the
location within the trunk (cross section and height) and the size, number, and anatomical structure of
vascular bundles. Shear strength and G-modulus in the three planes were tested using nondestructive
testing methods (ultrasonic velocity of shear waves, natural frequency from flexural and torsional
vibration) on one hand and static, destructive testing (Arcan test, shear test of wood specimen glued
between two plywood plates acc. to EN 789, test on shear blocks acc. to DIN 52187, compression test,
torsional test acc. to DIN 52190). The different test methods were examined with regard to their suitability
for testing oil palm wood. Like for most long-fiber-reinforced composites, the Young´s modulus and
strength in tension parallel to the vascular bundles is high, highly dependent on the density and very
much influenced by the properties of the vascular bundles. In contrast, shear strength, torsional modulus
and G-modulus are low and very much influenced by the (low) properties of the parenchymatous ground
tissue.
Biography

377
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Color Change and Physical–Mechanical Properties of Four Furfurylated

Fast-Growing Tropical Wood Species

Yusuf Sudo Hadi1

[email protected]
Elis Nina Herliyana1
[email protected]
Gustan Pari2
[email protected]
Rohmah Pari2
[email protected]
Desy Mulyosari1
[email protected]
Imam Busyra Abdillah1
[email protected]

1Bogor Agicultural University, Indonesia

2 Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Indonesia

Abstract
Tropical plantation trees cut at young age produce timber that is dominated by sapwood and juvenile
wood. Consequently, the timber has inferior quality in terms of physical and mechanical properties.
Impregnation of the wood with furfuryl alcohol (FA) could improve its physical–mechanical properties.
Specimens of jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba), sengon (Falcataria moluccana), mangium (Acacia
mangium), and pine (Pinus merkusii) wood were impregnated with FA and tartaric acid as the
chemical catalyst, and color change and physical–mechanical properties were evaluated. The densities
of untreated jabon, sengon, mangium, and pine wood were 0.34, 0.36, 0.60, and 0.72 g/cm 3,
respectively. After FA impregnation, the weight percent gain of the wood reached 86.2%, 30.1%,
19.1%, and 15.2%, respectively, and its color was darker than that of the untreated wood.
Furfurylated wood had better physical–mechanical properties than untreated wood in terms of
moisture content (decreased 74%), water absorption (decreased 82%), anti-swell efficiency (69%),
anti-shrink efficiency (62%), MOE (increased 14%), and hardness (increased 44%).

Keywords: plantation forest, sapwood, juvenile wood, furfurylated wood.

Biography

378
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Auto-ignition characteristics of wood

Preimesberger C.1– Rindler A.1 – Pfeifer C.2 – Hansmann C.1*

1 Key Researcher PhD, Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood
Chemistry, Linz, Austria, * Corresponding author
[email protected]
2 Professor PhD, Institute for Chemical and Energy Engineering, University of
Natural Resources and Life Science (BOKU), Vienna, Austria
[email protected]
Abstract

The auto ignition (without external source) and fire behaviour of wood is very complex and
depends on several factors that can influence the ignition behaviour of the material. Accordingly,
it is difficult to apply generalizations regarding the behaviour of the material and supposed laws
to different application scenarios. The investigations and test procedures as well as the results
presented in basic wood science literature where obtained decades ago and differ considerably
from one to another, which illustrates the complexity of the topic already mentioned. However,
the generally accepted auto ignition point of wood (330 °C), only refers to the ignition of
combustion gases and not exothermic behaviour of the material. Dealing with the term ignition
regarding exothermic reactions, it must be differentiated between a glowing and a flaming mode,
where the later represents the point where the gases ignite. Glowing without an auto ignition of
gases also leads to a material combustion beyond 330 °C, at a critical temperature, where an
exothermic reaction, mass loss and light emission of wood starts needs to be defined as the glowing
point. This glowing point not only depends on applied temperature in relation to time but also to
the mass and volume of the treated sample. At this point, literature does not reveal specific values.
Thus, tests on spruce cubes with side lengths of 5, 10, 15 and 20 mm, comparable growth ring
deviation and mass were performed. Samples were fitted with thermocouples at the surfaces and
the center and exposed to isothermal conditions of 240 °C, 270 °C, 300 °C, 330 °C and 360 °C.
Already at this small volumetric variation of samples, different volume related behaviour could be
determined concerning exothermal behaviour and combustion of samples. In addition,
simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) was performed on the three main substances of wood
(cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) as well as different blends, <500 µm milled spruce and
0.56 mm thin spruce veneer discs. The tests were conducted under air atmosphere with varying air
flows (20, 90 and 180 ml/min), heating rates (10 and 50 K/min) in a temperature range of 20-
550 °C to enable a clear fitting of single wood constituents to entire thermogram of spruce wood.
The achieved findings contribute to a better understanding of the ignition behaviour of wood and
are relevant for future applications especially in the wood building sector.

Key words: auto ignition of wood, glowing point, simultaneous thermal analysis,

Biography

379
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Mechanical behavior of a painted wooden panel from the heritage subject

to hygrothermal variations: role of the reinforcement

Delphine Jullien1
[email protected]
Jean-Christophe Dupré2
[email protected]
Franck Hesser2
[email protected]
Luca Uzielli3
[email protected]
Lorenzo Riparbelli3
[email protected]
Paola Mazzanti3
[email protected]
Cécilia Gauvin4
[email protected]
Joesph Gril5
[email protected]
Gilles Tournillon6
[email protected]
Philippe Hazael-Massieux7
[email protected]
Danièle Amoroso7
[email protected]
Pierre Stepanoff8
[email protected]
Marina Bousvarou8
[email protected]

1 LMGC - University of Montpellier – CNRS, France

2Institut Pprime, University of Poitiers – CNRS, France
3 DAGRI, University of Florence, Italy
4 Cécilia Gauvin Consulting, Netherlands
5 Institut Pascal, University of Clermont Auvergne, France
6 ATELIER TOURNILLON, France
7 Atelier AMOROSO WALDEIS, France
8 Musée Fabre, France

Abstract
This collaborative work brings together the Musée Fabre, furniture and pictorial layer restorers as well
as researchers from DAGRI (University of Florence), the PPRIME institute (University of Poitiers) and
LMGC (University of Montpellier). The aim of this study is to characterize the mechanical behavior of a
painted wooden panel from the heritage subject to controlled variations in the hygrothermal
environment.

La Sainte Trinité couronnant la Vierge (16th century, anonymous) is a painted panel showing
mechanical variations for many years, requiring the laying of facings in 1998 to prevent the paint
layer from further tenting. It is made of four vertical thinned oak boards, assembled by horizontal and

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vertical crossbars (reinforcement), probably glued and/or nailed onto them in the 19th c.a. A coating
covered the whole backside of the panel. In 1963, the last conservation report suggested a drastic
treatment consisting in an additional thinning of the panel and in dubbing the paint layer with another
support. In 2017, conservators and curators decided to undertake a new conservation treatment.
However, before any conservation act, a thorough study was decided, aiming to characterize the
behavior of the panel and understand the occurrence of several new cracks.

These tests were carried out in a room of the museum open to the public. This imposed several
constraints, such as the creation of a climatic enclosure and the installation of an adapted optical
measurement device. The shape and the deformations of the panel are monitored by the stereo
method followed by markers. Two pairs of cameras placed on either side of the panel allow tracking on
both sides. Three deformometric devices make it possible to measure, by contact, local deformations
and curvatures. Variations in water mass are obtained using a scale.

Variations in relative humidity of +/- 10% were carried out in stages of around two months. The
position of the markers is measured every hour, which makes it possible to calculate the local
movements of the panel in the three directions. The relief of the panel is concave with an amplitude of
16 mm. The deformations are strongly influenced by the presence of the glued cross-beams, which
can be seen as the result of an inappropriate intervention that strongly contributed to the separation
and cracking of the boards, and to the damages of the paint layers.

The removal of these cross-beams has been operated by restorers, while local deformations and
curvature have been registered by deformometric device, allowing to analyze the mechanical effect of
cross-beams onto the panel. The four boards constituting the panel were glued again, and the
behavior of the “new” panel subject to hygrothermal variations is characterized. As expected, the
panel without cross-bars is much more reactive to the environment. The data obtained by the
deformometric sensors are crossed with the optical measurements. Mechanical behavior is related to
variations in the mass of water measured.

Keywords : painted wooden panel, cultural heritage, mechanical behavior, hygrothermal variations,
image correlation, act of restoration

Biography

381
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Dynamic compensation of load cell response for cutting force

measurements in wood machining

Daniel Lechowicz
[email protected]
Ondrej Dvoracek
[email protected]
Stephan Frömel-Frybort
[email protected]

Wood K plus - Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry

Abstract
Piezoelectric dynamometers are widely used for cutting force measurements. However, the range of
measurable frequencies of commercial dynamometers is not sufficient for machining of wood and
wood-based materials. Although force measurements are conducted under dynamic conditions,
current transducers are calibrated statically which subsequently can result in a distortion of the signal.
As cutting forces prove to be a crucial parameter in the design of cutting tools and the supervision of
machining processes, there is a growing demand for accurate and reliable methods for cutting force
measurement. In this work, a filtering method of the acquired signal, increasing the bandwidth of the
test rig, is proposed. The inverse filter has been applied to distorted cutting forces which was preceded
by thorough examination of the rig by means of an impact hammer. To avoid accuracy loss, an
average of ten impact tests was used. In order to go over the performance of the filtering method, a
number of measurements of cutting forces were done using state-of-the-art pendulum-like test rig
designed by Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH. The assumption behind it was to avoid discontinuous
nature of the rotary cutting process due to successive impacts of the cutting edge. Then, the original
and transformed data were compared. Profound comparison of both signals implies that impacts of the
cutting edge on the workpiece leading to dynamic excitation of the dynamometer affect the value of
the cutting forces, which results in significant discrepancy between what is observed and real
occurring cutting forces. Finally, several cutting tests were performed as the design of experiment
included examination of the influence of different cutting speeds and chip thicknesses on cutting
forces.

Biography

382
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Assessment of Energy-Saving by Using a Membrane-Based Thermal Energy

Recovery System to Improve the Energy Efficiency of Kiln Drying Processes

Ling Li1
[email protected]
Nasim Alikhani1
[email protected]
Jinwu Wang2
[email protected]
Mehdi Tajvidi1
[email protected]

1 School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, USA

2 Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory

Abstract
The moisture content (MC) of woody materials is usually very high. For instance, the MC of green wood
varies from 60% to 80% and in some cases up to 120% (dry basis). Kiln drying is often used as the
process to reduce the MC of lumber. Unlike the air-drying process, kiln drying is a very energy-intensive
process, which consumes much energy to extract water from lumber which is subsequently to the
atmosphere. The thermal energy loss from the venting of dry kilns takes up to 20% of total energy
consumed by the whole drying operation because a considerably large thermal energy is stored in the
moist exhaust air. Harvesting and reusing such waste thermal energy would improve the energy
efficiency of the kiln drying process. We have examined the efficiency of moisture removal of a
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) based membrane system by developing a lab-scale thermal energy
recovery system. The results that were reported at the 2019 SWST Convention revealed that at least
50% of moisture vapor can be removed by the PDMS membrane system at the initial relatively humidity
(RH) in the range of 65% to 85%, vacuum pressure of 26 inch Hg, and airflow rate varying from 600 to
1000 ml/min. In this follow-up study, the goal is to evaluate the energy-saving if a PDMS membrane-
based thermal energy recovery system is installed on a conventional heat-and-vent steam kiln. To
calculate the energy consumption, a drying process was conducted using the small steam kiln with a
capacity of 1500 bdft at the School of Forest Resources of the University of Maine. The wood species
was Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus). The moisture contents of White Pine boards were measured at
each drying step following the drying schedule. The total energy consumption included 1) heat required to
raise the temperature of wood, air (in kiln and supplementary fresh air), and remaining bound water in
wood; 2) heat required to remove free water and bound water; 3) heat loss through walls, roof,
foundation, and door, etc.; and 4) heat loss stored in the exhaust air. The research findings showed that
about 29% of energy-saving would be achieved if the moist, warm exhaust air were first dehydrated by
passing through the PDMS membrane system and then redirected into the kiln.
Keywords: Energy-saving; Kiln drying processes; Membrane thermal energy recovery system; Waste
thermal energy.

Biography

383
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The Steady-State Diffusion of Moisture in Southern Pine Lumber

Guizhou Wang
[email protected]
Perry Peralta
[email protected]
Phil Mitchell
[email protected]
Ilona Peszlen
[email protected]

North Caroling State University, USA

Abstract
Moisture accumulation in a building envelope with cross-laminated timber (CLT) as wall component is
an important consideration in the adoption of CLT in the construction industry. A comprehensive study
was performed to investigate the hygroscopic behavior of CLT constructed out of southern pine
lumber. This report details one aspect of the bigger study: moisture transport in southern pine wood
below the fiber saturation point. Within this moisture content range, moisture transport in wood is
governed by diffusional processes: bound water diffusion in cell walls and water vapor diffusion in the
cell lumen. Although several approaches exist to model this process, the most common one is to use
the Fickian diffusion law. A steady-state experiment using a diffusion cup was performed by exposing
one face of a southern pine sample to 100% relative humidity and the other face to 65% relative
humidity for 60 days. Thereafter, the sample was sliced to determine the moisture content distribution
along the thickness direction. On average, a linear moisture content profile along the thickness
direction was found. Therefore, it was concluded that the moisture conductivity coefficient is
independent of moisture content. Simulations were also performed in COMSOL Multiphysics to verify
the linear moisture content distribution. There was a strong agreement between experimental
measurements and the simulation results, yielding a diffusion coefficient of 3 x 10 -6 cm2/s. The
simulation showed that steady-state condition is achieved within 60 days.

Biography

384
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Review of Physical and Structural Properties of Oak Wood from Historical

Constructions

Ales Straze
[email protected]
Ervin Zveplan
[email protected]
Matjaz Dremelj
[email protected]
Alen Belec
[email protected]
Katarina Cufar
[email protected]
Maks Merela
[email protected]
Zeljko Gorisek
[email protected]

University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and

Technology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
We examined physical, mechanical and chemical properties of oak wood (Quercus sp.) felled 4 to 512
years ago. The wood originated from recently felled trees and from several historical constructions in
Slovenia and was dendrochronologically dated. We made standardized samples and determined wood
density, colour, dimensional stability and sorption properties. Mechanical properties were determined
by static tests of hardness and shear strength, and dynamically by analysing ultrasound propagation
in all anatomical directions. Structural and anatomical properties were studied with light microscopy
techniques. Additionally, FTIR spectroscopy was used to determine the underlying basic chemical
changes during wood service life.
The density of oak wood did not change during the service life; it was positively correlated with tree-
ring width and the proportion of latewood. Visual and CIELab analyses showed that the colour of
heartwood became increasingly darker with age. The wood colour proved to depend on variable wood
anatomy, with different proportions of vessels, tracheids, libriform fibres and rays. The percentage of
hemicelluloses, determined by FTIR spectroscopy, decreased during the process of wood ageing.
Slight degradation of cellulose during the ageing was additionally shown by using polarized light. The
structural changes of historical oak wood influenced its physical properties. We confirmed lower
hygroscopicity and higher dimensional stability of historic oak, especially in the tangential direction, as
well as reduced transverse shrinkage anisotropy compared to recently felled wood. Stiffness and shear
strength of oak wood has not changed during the service life. Regarding mechanical properties, the
wood was weaker only in the case of transverse hardness. Besides ageing, also the location of wood
during its service life and exposure to climate fluctuations seemed to influence the physical and
structural properties of historical oak.

Keywords: wood, oak (Quercus sp.), ageing, physical properties, structural properties

Biography

385
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Bark and wood as raw materials for high performance insulations

Oliver Vay
[email protected]
Maria Busquets Ferrer
[email protected]
Christian Hansmann
[email protected]

Wood K plus – Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry

Abstract
Thermal insulations play a central role for energy savings. For the raw materials environmental
compatibility, recyclability, and renewability are important characteristics from the perspective of
sustainability. Wood exhibits good insulation properties. Wood is sustainable, biodegradable, locally
available and is an economically significant raw material for thermal insulation. Bark, that protects the
wood in the living tree from environmental influences, also with regard to thermal loads, is another
sustainable and abundant resource, quantitatively, however, not as important as wood. Bark is
examined much less intensively and in detail than wood, among other things, due to technical
challenges of examination.

In this study we show performance capability of aspen bark and wood for thermal insulation
applications. Trapped air in a porous structure generates thermal resistance and conductivity is
reduced by a lower density. Therefore, we applied a delignification process to estimate the potential of
both materials. To determine the thermal conductivity on small samples, especially of modified bark or
wood, we constructed a miniature heat flow meter. Reliability of the self-designed test tool
respectively the measured thermal conductivities is demonstrated.

Anisotropic thermal properties were found for both raw materials. Thermal conductivity of bark
(density 450 kg/m³) was lower than of wood (density 310 kg/m³). In radial direction as the direction
the bark has to protect the tree from environmental influences thermal conductivity of 0.07 W/m·K
was evaluated while wood exhibits lowest thermal conductivity of 0.09 W/m·K in tangential direction.
By the chemical treatment, mass losses of approximately 45% for bark and 35% for wood has been
obtained. This delignification yields about 20% to 35% improved thermal insulation properties, what
makes bark and wood an even more interesting raw material for insulations.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Effects of latent heat exchange on water vapor sorption

kinetics
Wim Willems

Research scientist, FirmoLin, Deurne, The Netherlands

[email protected]

Abstract

The rate of moisture content (MC) change after a sudden relative humidity (RH) change reduces
considerably at high RH. This effect has been partly understood by considering the viscoelastic
rheology of the wood cell wall. The present contribution explains the significance of the latent
heat exchange, associated with MC change, on the kinetics of water sorption at high RH. Model
calculations show how this thermal rate-limiting effect can be experimentally disentangled from
the simultaneous rheological effect.

Key words: Non-Fickian, moisture diffusion, coupled heat-moisture kinetics, thermally limited
moisture transfer

Introduction

When wood is exposed to a humid atmosphere, it will obtain an equilibrium moisture content
(EMC) that is mainly determined by the temperature and relative humidity (RH). The complex
dynamics of wood under variable environmental conditions is poorly understood, despite its
scientific and technological significance. The steady-state moisture flow j (mol s-1m-2) across a
thin wood specimen exposed to a constant moisture concentration gradient, ∇c (mol m-4), defines
the preferred method to determine the moisture diffusion coefficient D (m s-1) via j = D ∇c.
Unsteady-state moisture flow experiments using gravimetric methods are easier to perform and
more accurate, however, much more difficult to analyze. The determination of D from the
recorded temporal weight changes after a stepwise change in RH can be in principle obtained
from inverse modelling of Fick’s diffusion equation ∂c/∂t = ∇.(D ∇c). Complexity arises in the
wood domain from simultaneously interacting changes in temperature, moisture, wood polymer
conformations and mechanical stresses (Thybring et al. 2019). In the ambient domain, the
transient heat and moisture transfer to and from the wood surface are subject to physical
limitations. Consequently, the determined D for a given specimen is generally different between
unsteady- and steady-state experiments (Wadsö 1994).

The most surprising difference between unsteady- and steady-state diffusion is the opposite sign
of the large RH-dependence of D, for which there is no generally accepted explanation. Current
research on this subject is mainly devoted to understanding the wood rheological response during
moisture uptake (Thybring et al 2019). Kelly and Hart (1970) investigated thermal effects on the

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moisture transfer rates in wood samples at high RH experimentally, concluding that the wood
temperature changes associated with moisture content (MC) changes have a direct effect on the
local RH at the wood surface, preventing the MC to reach the EMC belonging to the ambient
RH. Willems (2017) applied this mechanism for thermally-limited moisture transfer (TLMT) in a
simplified analytical model, showing that it preferentially retards the moisture kinetics at high
RH. Thybring et al. (2019) correctly criticized the TLMT model on some of its simplifications,
but their rejection of the TLMT mechanism was based on incorrect arguments. In the present
contribution, the TLMT mechanism is alternatively and more fundamentally derived from the
physics of moisture transfer in the ambient domain. This approach provides a better insight in the
TLMT mechanism and how it essentially differs from earlier attempts (King and Cassie 1940;
Armstrong et al. 1966; Crank 1975) to model thermal effects on the moisture transfer rate. For
readability, the theory will be explained for moisture uptake only; it is equally applicable to
drying.

Theory

Water vapor transfer in the ambient is driven by a gradient in the water vapor concentration, c
(mol m-3), which can be expressed in the water vapor pressure p (Pa) by using the ideal gas law:
c = p/RT, where R (=8.31 J mol-1K-1) is the universal gas constant and T (K) the absolute
temperature. p can be written as the product of the saturated water vapor pressure psat(T), which
is a unique function of T, and the relative humidity h (-). Denoting conditions in the ambient and
at the wood surface with indices ‘a’ and ‘s’ respectively, the moisture flow j = km(ca-cs), where
km (m s-1) is a phenomenological water vapor transfer constant. The water vapor supply rate after
a step change of ha from h0→h1 is then expressed as:

ℎ1 𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑇0 ) 𝑎𝑤 (𝑢𝑠 , 𝑇𝑠 )𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑇𝑠 )

𝑗 = 𝑘𝑚 ( − ) (1)
𝑅𝑇0 𝑅𝑇𝑠

where aw(us, Ts) = hs is the water activity for the MC and temperature at the wood surface, which
is the inverse of us=ueq(aw, Ts), where ueq(h,T) is the moisture isotherm, expressing the EMC for a
given RH and temperature. Initially, the MC is equilibrated at h0, hence, aw will gradually change
from h0 to h1, whereas in the ambient, the change from h0 to h1 is immediate (stepwise).

Ts inevitably becomes elevated above T0 by the associated dissipation of heat from the adsorption
of moisture in wood, having a self-limiting effect on the moisture supply rate (Eq.(1)). This is
most evident after linearization of Equation (1) for small temperature differences, ∆T=(Ts-T0) <<
T0, using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, dPsat/dT = PsatH0/RT2, where H0 (J mol-1) is the latent
heat of water vapor at T0:

𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑇0 ) 𝑎𝑤 𝐻0
𝑗 ≈ 𝑘𝑚 (ℎ1 − 𝑎𝑤 − ∆𝑇) (2)
𝑅𝑇0 𝑅𝑇02

Under isothermal conditions (∆T=0) or at very small aw, j is proportional to (h1 – aw), as
expected. At finite aw there is a temperature difference ∆T where the flow is disrupted, despite
the RH gradient:

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𝑅𝑇02 ℎ1 − 𝑎𝑤
(∆𝑇)𝑗=0 = (3)
𝐻0 𝑎𝑤

Equation (3) gives the maximum wood temperature elevation for moisture transfer, but it does
not predict the actual ∆T. The temporal behavior of ∆T is determined from the heat balance
between the dissipation rate, associated with the moisture flow j, and the heat loss from wood to
the ambient. Willems (2017) developed the simplest possible closed analytical model for the
retrieval of u(t) and ∆T(t) from the coupled heat and moisture flow balance with an incorporated
TLMT mechanism. The wood specimen is regarded as infinitely thin, simplifying the heat and
moisture diffusion equations to a system of exactly solvable simultaneous first-order rate
equations:

𝑑𝑢 ℎ1 𝐻0 𝑑𝑢1
= 𝛽 (𝑢1 − 𝑢 − ∆𝑇 ( )) (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑇02 𝑑ℎ

𝑑∆𝑇 𝐻0 𝑑𝑢
= −𝛾∆𝑇 + (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑡

Equation (4) is the equivalent of Equation (2), translated to the moisture content u, where du1/dh
is the slope of the moisture sorption isotherm at h1. β (s-1) is an effective moisture uptake rate
constant and γ (s-1) is an effective heat loss rate constant. The right-most term in Equation (5)
gives the temperature change rate by the heat dissipation of moisture uptake, where M (=0.018
kg mol-1) is the molar mass of water and cp (J kg-1K-1) is the effective specific heat capacity of
wood. Under circumstances where the moisture kinetics are TLMT controlled, the step response
from u0 to u1 becomes (Willems 2017):

𝑢 − 𝑢0 −𝛽𝑡
𝐸= ≈ 1 − exp (6)
𝑢1 − 𝑢0 𝛽 𝑅 𝐻 2 𝑑𝑢
1 + 𝛾 𝑀𝑐 (𝑅𝑇0 ) ℎ1 1
𝑝 0 𝑑ℎ
( )

This provides an analytical expression for the TLMT response time constant τ (s):

1 1 𝑅 𝐻0 2 𝑑𝑢1
𝜏= + ( ( ) ℎ1 ) (7)
𝛽 𝛾 𝑀𝑐𝑝 𝑅𝑇0 𝑑ℎ

Results and Discussion

The dynamic behavior of wood moisture becomes complex when there is interaction with heat,
mechanical stresses and wood polymer rearrangements. The moisture uptake kinetics are
dependent on the final RH level, the RH-step size towards this level and the hold time of the
conditioning at the initial RH before the RH-step, as reviewed by Thybring et al. (2019). The
TLMT theory singles-out the effect of heat exchange on the sorption kinetics, which certainly
cannot explain all non-Fickian features of wood moisture kinetics. However, the TLMT

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mechanism seems to have a generic limiting effect on moisture changes at higher RH, which
should be taken into account in the study of rheological effects on moisture dynamics.

Equation (3) expresses the ∆T condition, needed for the complete disruption of water vapor
transfer in the ambient domain. It is a strong relationship, because it does neither explicitly
depend on any wood property nor on any convective/diffusion parameter for moisture transfer in
the ambient. It shows that near equilibrium (aw→h1) an ever smaller temperature deviation
(∆T)j=0 admits moisture transfer. Since moisture transfer is associated with heat dissipation, it is
self-causing ∆T. When this ∆T is nearing (∆T)j=0, moisture transfer becomes thermally-limited.
Under TLMT control, the moisture uptake rate is self-regulated to maximize ∆T as close as
possible to (∆T)j=0. A semi-empirical relation for the peak elevation can be obtained by
substituting a suitable value (the average of h0 and h1) for aw in Equation (3), to find

𝑅𝑇02 ℎ1 − ℎ0
(∆𝑇)𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ≈ (8)
𝐻0 ℎ1 + ℎ0

A verification of Equation (8) with experimental data of Christensen and Kelsey (1959) is shown
in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Verification of Equation (8) for the TLMT-predicted RH-trend of (∆T)peak for various humidity steps
h0→h1 (abscissa) versus the observed peak temperature (ordinate).

The observed (∆T)peak are dependent on the heat transfer characteristics of the experiment, hence,
Equation (8) is only an estimate (up to some factor) that cannot have general validity. However,
it does confirm and explain the trend of (∆T)peak in various RH-ranges.

In the view of previous authors (Christensen and Kelsey 1959, Thybring et al 2019), the very
small peak temperature at high RH (Figure 1) would prove that there is no thermal effect on
moisture kinetics. Without the moisture transfer considerations of Equation (2), there would
indeed only be a ∆T-effect on the moisture kinetics via a temperature coefficient of the EMC.
This effect would then quickly disappear after the thermal peak has passed and lose significance
at high RH where the thermal peak is small. However, the low peak temperatures at high RH are
the consequence of the limited moisture transfer (and limited heat dissipation) at high RH. In
case of TLMT, the temperature and moisture are completely entangled, meaning that none can

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change without the other. This is rigorously modeled in the simultaneous differential Equations
(4) and (5) under the simplifying assumption of an infinitely thin specimen. The latter
simplification enables an analytical treatment, resulting in a first-order response (Eqn. (6)).

The effect of heat exchange becomes evident, when it is eliminated by setting H0=0 in Equation
(6), yielding E=1-exp(-βt), i.e. τ = 1/β. Comparing this result with Equation (7), TLMT causes an
extra term, which is proportional to the factor h1(du1/dh) that strongly increases at high RH.
Hence, the TLMT model is at least qualitatively capable to explain the opposite RH-trends in the
apparent diffusion constant D obtained from unsteady- versus steady-state experiments: 1/β is
related to 1/D in the steady-state case without TLMT, which decreases with higher RH; the
additional term in Equation (7) accounts for the unsteady-state case with TLMT, increasing with
higher RH. This is illustrated in Figure 2 with dynamic vapor sorption (DVS) data on pine
samples from Altgen et al. (2016), also used in the previous study (Willems 2017). The effective
response time constant is now calculated from the maximum slopes (du/dt)max at each interval
RH-step and moisture step size (Eqn. (9))
𝑢1 − 𝑢0
𝜏 ≝ (9)
𝑑𝑢
|
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥

This definition of the effective response time τ, refers to the initial kinetics rather than the long-
term kinetics. On the other hand, it has the advantage that in this early stage of the response,
potentially interfering rheological effects are considered insignificant. The linear dependence of τ
on the RH-dependent factor h1(du1/dh) (Eqn. (7)) is confirmed in the plot of Figure 2, giving
strong support to the TLMT theory.

The slope in the linear regression of Figure 2 is inversely proportional to γ, the thermal loss rate
constant. γ is partly determined by the experimental design: a poorer heat conductivity to the
ambient increases the slope, i.e. τ will depend stronger on RH. At low RH, τ appears to have an
opposite RH-dependence, which effect is attributed to the RH-dependence of β (steady state
diffusion). This low RH-‘tail’ becomes pronounced in crosslink-modified wood (not shown). An
expanded analytical TLMT model, incorporating typical slow dynamic relaxation components in
wood, besides the main diffusion rate constant, is recently investigated (Willems 2020). The
results from this study suggest that the TLMT retardation effect applies to every dynamic
component in the moisture response, effectively time-stretching the entire response, independent
of the detailed diffusion/relaxation rate distribution. This insight is expected to render a
procedure to separate TLMT effects from the RH-dependent rheological effects.

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Figure 2. Plot of the experimental effective response time constant τ (Eqn. (9)) versus h1(du1/dh), confirming TLMT
behavior (Eqn. (7)). The broken line is a linear regression fit for the data points > 0.05 (abscissa).

Summary and Conclusions

Moisture transfer from the ambient source to the receiving wood surface imposes limits on the
maximum allowed temperature elevation of the wood specimen. This mechanism is at the core of
the TLMT model, explaining retarded moisture kinetics at high RH. Literature data confirm the
TLMT-predicted RH-dependence of peak temperatures. The TLMT mechanism remains
significant after the occurrence of the main thermal peak, as the maximum allowed temperature
deviations for moisture transfer keep decreasing in time and moisture uptake is always associated
heat dissipation. The distinctive linear relationship between the TLMT response time constant
versus h1(du1/dh) was experimentally confirmed in the initial stages of the moisture response of
pine wood, where potential other kinetic effects can be ignored.

In conclusion, the TLMT mechanism is embedded in the wood moisture dynamics in the higher
RH-range. The retardation effect of TLMT must be removed from DVS data, to isolate
rheological effects on moisture dynamics.

References

Armstrong AA, Wellons JD, Stannett V (1966) Temperature effects during the sorption and
desorption of water vapor in high polymers. Part II. Films with special reference to ethyl
cellulose. Macromol Chem Phys 95(1):78-91.

Altgen M, Hofmann T, Militz H (2016) Wood moisture content during the thermal modification
process affects the improvement in hygroscopicity of Scots pine sapwood. Wood Sci Technol
50(6):1181–1195.

Christensen GN, Kelsey KE (1959) Die Sorption von Wasserdampf durch die chemischen
Bestandteile des Holzes. Holz Roh Werkst 17(5):189-203.

Crank J (1975) The mathematics of diffusion. 2nd edition. Clarendon, Oxford.

Kelly MW, Hart AC (1970) Water vapor sorption rates by wood cell walls. Wood Fiber
1(4):270-282.

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King G, Cassie ABD (1940) Propagation of temperature changes through textiles in humid
atmospheres. Part I. Rate of absorption of water vapour by wool fibres. Trans Faraday Soc
36:445-453.

Thybring EE, Glass SV, Zelinka SL (2019) Kinetics of water vapor sorption in wood cell walls:
state of the art and research needs. Forests 10(8):704.

Wadsö L (1994) Unsteady-state water vapour adsorption in wood: An experimental study. Wood
Fiber Sci 6(1):36-45.

Willems W (2017) Thermally limited wood moisture changes: relevance for dynamic vapour
sorption experiments. Wood Sci Technol 51(4):751-770.

Willems W (2020) Heuristic study on the interaction between heat exchange and slow relaxation
processes during wood moisture content changes. Submitted to Holzforschung.

Biography

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
POSTER SESSION
Chair: Rupert Wimmer, BOKU, Austria

Student Posters:

Understanding the Thermodiffusion Properties of Ionic Liquids in a

Cellulosic Medium

Júlio Amando de Barros

[email protected]
Kaline Goutinho
[email protected]

University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Abstract
Nowadays different forms of storage and production of clean energy are being researched and applied
in a broad range of devices. One of the systems that is most often studied in this area is the aqueous
solution of salts, which produces a huge quantity of free charged atoms. This can be used for
production of electric potentials and thus is used in equipment such as supercapacitors and ionic
thermopiles.

A crucial group of energetic mechanisms that uses ionic liquids can be made or have its properties
consider enhanced by cellulose nano products. Our project intends to understand differences in the
thermodiffusion properties of ions in the presence of natural and modified cellulose. For that, a
complete set of Molecular Dynamics simulations was performed and a comprehensive analysis of the
ion-cellulose solution dynamics was done. The software GROMACS was used together with
GROMOS_54a6GLYCAM force field which is developed specifically for sugars.

The first step was to fully characterize the solute solvent interaction of cellulose in water, therefore
simulations of a single cellobiose and a periodic fiber were executed on vacuum and water solution.
Intra and intermolecular hydrogen bonds, and also the main conformation parameters, were
analyzed.

Secondly the ions were included on the solutions, Na+ and Cl- were chosen for that purpose. The
interaction of them in an aqueous medium was analyzed for different temperatures and
concentrations. The analyses were based in comparing the properties of both compounds (ions and
cellulose) isolated and together.

At last, a modified cellulose fiber with propionic acid groups (used on the production of thermoelectric
ionic papers) was formed and properly parameterized. The same set of simulations was again
performed for fibers with different degrees of modification, the results were then compared with
previous systems.

Biography

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
Intra-Tree and Inter-Tree Variations in the Wood of Breadfruit (Artocarpus
altilis, Parkinson Ex. F.A Zorn) Fosberg

Olusola Samuel Areo1

[email protected]
Ayodeji O. Omole2
[email protected]

1Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Nigeria

2Department of Forest Production and Products, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract
Physico-mechanical properties variations in the tress breadfruit wood (Artocarpus artilis,Parkinson) grown
in South-Western Nigeria were investigated in this study. Four matured trees (dbh class of 40-50cm, 45-
55years of age) were randomly selected and sampled at stem height levels (10%, 50% and 90%) and
radial positions (corewood, innerwood and outerwood). Tested samples prepared were dried to about
12% moisture content before tests. Physical test (density, bending strength (MOR), modulus of elasticity
(MOE) and maximum compression strength parallel to the grain (//MCS) shear strength and impact
bending) were carried out in accordance with ASTM standards. Data collected were processed using a
combination of descriptive and inferential statistics. The density ranged between 603kg/m3 to
571kg/m3 from the base to the top with a mean of 581kg/m3. The axial mean value for MOR obtained was
36.05/mm2 ranging from 42.07N/mm2 to 32.99N/mm2 while the radial values ranged was 35.71N/mm2 to
38.89N/mm2. The mean value for MOE is 3354.01N/mm2 ranging from 3992.97N/mm2 to
3145.18N/mm2 from the base to the top along the axial direction and radially, ranges from 3494.09
N/mm2 to 3358.09 N/mm2 from bark to bark. The mean value for //MCS is 20Nmm2 ranging from
23.05N/mm2 to 18.09N/mm2 along the tree height and across radial axes ranges from 20.74N/mm 2 to
18.53 N/mm2. The mean value for shear strength is 8.9N/mm2 ranging from 9.7N/mm2 to 8.5N/mm2 along
the tree height and across radial axes ranges from 0.4m to 0.3m along the tree height and across radial
axes ranges from 0.3m to 0.3m. it was observed that the site factor did not significantly affects the pattern
of variations in the wood properties but the intra-tree variations in the properties were pronounced across
the radial axes in the individual tree while sampling height only affected the density significantly. It was
observed that the correlation of density with the mechanical properties was slightly moderate. Breadfruit
wood can be classified as moderate density with potentials as substitute species to industries with
valuable hardwood timber. The significant differences found between the trees demonstrate the possibility
of selection and improvement for increase wood quality. This study has therefore provided baseline
information on the wood quality and utilization potential of Artocarpus altilis.
Keywords: Variations, Wood properties, Artocarpus, Mechanical properties, Wood density

Biograpahy

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
Investigation on Thermo-Hydro Mechanical Treatments effects to densify
Tasmanian planted and native timber species

See Paper Under Wood Modification and Preservation pg 324

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia

Characterization of Spruce Log Soaking Water and its Antifungal and Wood
Preserving Properties

See Paper Under Wood Modification and Preservation pg 327

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
Porous structures produced from different bark particles by mechanical
foaming

See Paper Under Composites and Adhesives pg 183

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Hardwood cutting forces at different speeds up to 80 m/s for an evaluated
real chip thickness

See Paper Under Physics and Mechanics pg 362

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Simultaneous Chemical and Topographical Mapping of Wood
Ultrastructures by Chemical Force Microscopy

See Paper Under Wood Chemistry and Cell Biology pg 257

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The Importance of Cold Tack of Urea Formaldehyde in Plywood Production

Elfriede Hogger
See Paper Under Composites and Adhesives pg 197

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
Sustainable development – international framework – overview and
analysis in the context of forests and forest products with competitiveness
and new opportunities

Annika Hyytia, Finland

[email protected]

Abstract
The forest sector is in a remarkable role providing significant new sustainable opportunities globally.
Innovations have an important role in the sustainable development, business and competitiveness.
Quality is part of competitiveness. Quality is important for competitiveness. Customers’ role is
important.

This is a qualitative research based on literature. It is based on research articles and literature and
organizational literature including several academic sources, for example Proquest, Academic Search
Complete (EBSCO), Agris, CAB Abstracts, SCOPUS (Elsevier), Web of Science (ISI) and Google Scholar
and Internet sites

Biography

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
Triboelectric Activation of Wood Surfaces by Mechanical Friction

Lena Maria Leiter1

[email protected]
Raphaela Hellmayr1
[email protected]
Roman Myna2
[email protected]
Stephan Frömel-Frybort2
[email protected]
Rupert Wimmer1
[email protected]

1 University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Austria

2 Wood K plus - Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry

Abstract
Previous own research has shown that mechanical friction applied on wooden surfaces is
creating electrical surface charges. In this research, triboelectric activation of wood surfaces
by using a wood brushing machine is investigated. Wood samples from spruce, pine, fir,
beech and oak have been processed with a TWINGO 300 B brushing machine. Afterwards
the electrical surface charges were detected using a KEYENCE SK-H050 electrostatic sensor,
in combination with an Ioniser Monitoring Unit (IMU). Machine settings such as feed speed
and brush-pressure were varied to understand the effects on obtained surface charges. The
interactions between wood species, wood density, wood moisture and surface roughness on
the surface charge status are investigated. First data are showing that softwood is receiving
an overall positive surface charge, while hardwoods have the tendency to be less but also
positively charged. It is further investigated whether or not these differences can be
explained by wood density differences, which are known to be directly connected to the
obtained wood particle sizes while brushing. Another factor could be resin content, or the
orientation of growth rings, i.e. vertical vs. flat-grain orientation.
Keywords
triboelectric surface charge, wood machining, brushing, electrical charge, spruce, pine, fir,
beech, oak

Biography

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July 12-17, 2020 – Hoteli Bernardin, Portorož, Slovenia
Structural, Chemical, and Multi-scale Mechanical
Characterization of Waste Windmill Palm Fiber
(trachycarpus fortunei)
Jing Li1, 2, Xuexia Zhang2, Jiawei Zhu2, Yan Yu2, Hankun Wang2*

1 Graduate student, Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of

Forestry, Beijing, P.R. China.
[email protected]
(International center for bamboo and rattan)
2 Graduate student, Graduate student, Associate Professor, Research Institute of
Bamboo & Rattan Biomass and New Materials, International Center for Bamboo
and Rattan, Beijing, P.R. China. *Correspondening author
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
3 Associate Professor, Professor, College of Material Engineering, Fujian
Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, 350108, P.R. China
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

This study investigated the structural, chemical, and multi-scale mechanical properties of
windmill palm (trachycarpus fortunei) leaf sheath fiber, which were frequently wasted.
Significant variation was observed in fiber diameter and cross-sectional morphology among
different layers in a single leaf sheath, whereas the chemical composition, relative crystallinity
index, and the microfibrillar angle (MFA) of palm fibers were almost the same among different
layers. Windmill palm fibers had low cellulose contents (34.70-35.5%), low relative crystallinity
index (45.7-49.2%), and high MFA (38.8-29.4°), resulting in low strength and modulus, but high
failure strain under tensile load. The tensile fracture surface of windmill palm fibers was
assessed through SEM studies and its ductile fracture was confirmed, which can potentially
enhance the toughness of composites when used as reinforcement material. Nanoindentation was
carried out among different leaf sheath layers, and the results showed the modulus and hardness
values of windmill palm fibers are in the same range as other plant fibers. The experimental
results may help guide selection of suitable reinforcing fibers for use in composites in different
applications.

Keywords: Windmill palm fiber; Fiber morphology; Mechanical properties; Nanoindentaion

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Introduction
Over the last two decades, there has been a growing industrial interest in the development of
lignocellulosic natural fibers as replacements for glass or other traditional reinforcement
materials used in composites (Gurunathan et al., 2015). Natural fibers composites offer
advantages of biodegradability, good accessibility, fast renewability, high specific properties,
and low cost (Shinoj et al., 2011; Berges et al., 2016). However, a better understanding of the
detailed morphology, structural, and mechanical properties of natural fibers is essential for
evaluation of their potential as reinforcing materials in composites and optimization the service
life performance of composites (Tran et al., 2015).

Windmill palm (Trachycarpus fortunei) is the most widely cultivated species at the latitudinal
palm range margin, and distinguished by its large and fan-shaped leaves (Walther et al., 2010).
Every year, a portion of the leaves of the palm dries out to form a mesh of coarse and brown leaf
sheath fiber that clasps the tree trunk, making it appear to be wrapped in burlap (Gilman and
Watson, 2015, Fig. 1a). The palm leaf sheath fiber is considered an abundant agricultural
byproduct due to the necessary regular pruning process of the palm tree by removing loose mats
to keep the tree attractive and safe. Currently, due to their high durability and strength
characteristics, palm fibers are used to make a variety of by-products such as mattresses, sofas,
marine ropes, sacks, and traditional raincoats (Zhai et al., 2013). However, these applications
only utilize a small percentage of the total material produced, and the majority of the material is
discarded directly as waste, causing serious environmental problems (Chen et al., 2015). The
possible use of palm fibers for composite reinforcement may provide a strategy for the efficient
utilization of these waste fibers.

Each palm leaf sheath is composed of a middle layer of coarse fibers which is sandwiched
between two layers of fibers with smaller diameters. There have been only preliminary studies of
palm leaf sheath fibers. Zhang et al., (2015) revealed a unique structure of palm fiber with sub-
cylindrical shape containing abundant fiber cells in the cross section and Si-dots on the surface.
Previously, the mechanical properties of palm fiber were mainly determined through monotonic
tensile tests. Palm fiber exhibits excellent elongation properties, which is able to tolerate
significantly higher stain than other natural fibers (Guo et al., 2014). Chen et al., (2017)
investigated the influence of the chemical treatment of windmill palm fibers on its tensile
properties, and found that alkalized fibers possessed higher tensile properties than untreated
fibers. Nevertheless, none of these studies examined the potential variation in the physical and
mechanical properties of palm fiber from different layers of the leaf sheath. Since there are three
layers in each sheet of palm leaf sheath with some differences in terms of fiber morphology and
tensile properties (Zhai et al., 2012), it is important to assess the properties of these individual
layers for a more comprehensive evaluation of the use of palm fiber as composite reinforcement
material.

To facilitate reliable use of palm fiber in composites, a detailed investigation was performed of
the mechanical properties of windmill palm fibers, separated from the three layers of leaf sheath,
in relationship to their chemical composition and structural properties. First, the mechanical
properties of palm fibers were determined at two scales: tensile tests at the fiber scale and
nanoindentation tests at the cell-wall scale. Next, microscopy (SEM) observation and X-ray
diffraction were conducted to investigate morphology and structure (microfibrillar angle and

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relative degree of crystallinity), followed by chemical composition analysis. Finally, the results
were considered in a detailed assessment of the relationships between the physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties of the fiber.

Materials and methods

Sample preparation
Windmill palm tree trunk covered by leaf sheath was obtained from Anhui province, China (Fig.
1a). The leaf sheath fibers were mechanically separated from the petiole (Fig. 1b), and then
washed with distilled water to remove impurities and dust and further air-dried to remove
excessive water and moisture. Then, the cleaned leaf sheath was sorted into three layers,
(a) (b)

Leaf sheath
fiber

Petio
le
(c)

Figure 1 Photograph of (a) windmill palm tree covered with leaf sheath; (b) leaf sheath; (c) a small piece of leaf
sheath showing the arrangements of different layers of fiber bundle, with inserted images showing the schematic
view of fiber arrangement.
namely the outer, middle, and inner layers, according to their diameters and orientations (Fig.
1c). Comparison of sample preparation of different plant fibers was summarized in Table 1.

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Table 1 Fiber and elementary fiber sizes in different palm leaf sheath layers
Leaf sheath Fiber Elementary fiber
layer
diameter Diameter (μm) Length Cell wall thickness
(μm) (μm) (μm)
Inner layer 230±37 12.1±1.9 932±164 2.2±0.3
Middle layer 516±40 13.1±1.9 1019±160 1.7±0.3
Outer layer 372±75 12.7±1.5 989±178 2.2±0.3

Morphological and chemical analysis

The longitudinal and transverse surface morphology of the palm fiber were investigated through
scanning electron microscopy (SEM, XL30, FEI, USA) operating at 7kV. The tensile fracture
surface of the palm fibers was also analyzed. Before SEM observation, the samples were sputter-
coated with a thin layer of Pt using an Edwards Sputter Coater.

The diameter and length of each palm fiber and elementary fiber were measured with a digital
biological microscope (XTS20G, Fukai LTD. China). In order to extract elementary fiber, palm
fibers were chemically treated using a mixture solution of hydrogen peroxide and glacial acetic
as described by Yu et al., (2011). For measurement of elementary fiber cell wall thickness,
samples were embedded with Spurr resin and cut to obtain smooth transverse section for SEM
observation.

The chemical composition (α-cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and ash content) of the palm fibers
in different leaf sheath layers was analyzed in accordance with the Technical association of Pulp
and Paper industry (TAPPI) standards, as described by Khalil et al., (2010).

X-ray diffraction
A Philips X-ray diffraction system (X’pert Pro, PANalytical B.V., Almelo, NL) was used to
evaluate both the MFA and relative crystallinity index (CrI) of palm fibers. Before measurement,
palm fibers of the same layer were arranged closely to form a mat. Here, evaluation of the entire
fiber was performed instead of examination of the powder samples that are commonly used in
order to preserve the internal structure of the fibers (Marrot et al., 2013).

Using Euqation (1), MFA of the palm fibers was determined by application of the widely used
0.6T method (Stuart and Evans 1994):

MFA = 0.6  T (1)

where T-value was determined as half the width of the peak obtained in azimuthal distribution
(Fig.1).
CrI was calculated as described by Segal et al., (1959), as follows:

( I 002 − I am )
CrI = (2)
I 002

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where I002 is the maximum intensity of the 002 peak at 2θ about 22° and Iam is the minimum
intensity of diffraction of the amorphous materials at 2θ about 18°.

Tensile tests
Tensile tests were first conducted in a universal mechanical testing machine (Instron Microtester
5848, USA) using a 500 N load cell. Before the tensile test, two palm fiber ends were glued with
instant epoxy adhesive onto a piece of Poplar veneer to avoid any specimen sliding from the
clamps. A gauge length of 50 mm was selected and elongation was recorded with a non-
contacting video extensometer by tracking two small black speckles marked on the sample. For
each layer of fibers, at least 30 fibers were tested. Tensile tests were conducted under an
environment of 20 ℃ and 30% relative humidity (RH). To calculate the tensile strength and
modulus of palm fibers, the cross-sectional area of the samples was assessed with a digital
microscope (XTS20G, Fukai LTD. China) and then measured with an image-processing software
(Image-ProPlus 5.0, Media Cybernetics, USA).

Nanoindentation testing
For nanoindentation testing, palm fibers were embedded in Spurr resin and cured in a flat mold
as previous described (Yu et al., 2011). After curing, the embedded samples were polished with a
glass knife and a diamond knife to prepare a smooth surface exposing a transverse section. The
nanoindentation experiments were performed using a Triboindenter (Hysitron Incorporation,
USA) with a diamond Berkovich indenter (tip radius less than 100 nm). The indentation
procedure was performed under load control using a three-segment load ramp: reaching the peak
load of 150 μN within 6s, holding at the peak load for 6s, and then unloading within 3s. In total,
20-25 indentations were conducted for each layer of palm fibers. The elastic modulus and
hardness were calculated from the experimental curves according to the method developed by
Oliver and Pharr (1992).

Results and discussion

Fiber morphology
A windmill palm trunk is covered with a large amount of leaf sheath (Fig. 1a), and each leaf
sheath can be easily separated into three layers of fibers due to the orderly arrangements (Fig.
1c). The fiber size differs in different layers of palm fibers (listed in Table 1): the middle layer
contained the largest size of fibers (516 ± 40 μm), followed by the outer layer (372 ± 75 μm),
and the inner layer (230 ± 37 μm). Also, morphological differences were detected by cross-
sectional SEM observation, as the fibers from the inner layer showed a homogeneous structure
almost completely comprising numerous single elementary fiber (Fig. 2a), whereas the fibers
from the middle and outer layers exhibited clear vessels and phloem tissue (conducting tissues)
surrounded by elementary fibers (Fig. 2b and c). This specific organization of fibers in different
layers is likely related to their different functions, as the small fibers in the inner layer, which
closely clasps the palm trunk, mainly play a structural role, and the large fibers in the outer and
middle layers facilitate the transportation of nutrients through the conductive tissues. Unlike the
observed variability of fiber diameters and morphology, the dimensions of elementary fiber were
similar among the different layers, with average diameters ranging from 12.1 to 13.1 μm, and
fiber length ranging from 930 to 1019 μm, and cell wall thickness ranging from 1.7 to 2.2 μm. A
similar observation was reported by Zhai et al., (2012) previously.

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There was similar surface morphology of palm fibers in different layers. For example, in a fiber
sample from the outer layer, the fiber was sub-cylindrical in shape (Fig.3a) with a large number
of wax and impurities on the rough surface (Fig.3b). In some cleaner areas, the surface was
covered by arrays of protrusions (Fig.3c), identified as silica bodies embedding circular craters
under higher magnification (Fig.3d) which had been confirmed through energy dispersive X-rays
spectrometry (EDS) (D’Almeida et al., 2006). Similar features were also observed in other palm
trees, such as piassava palm fibers (Nascimento et al., 2012), date palm fibers (Bourmaud et al.,
2017), and sugar palm fibers (Rashid et al., 2016). The main function of these silica bodies is to
protect the external surface of the fiber from pathogenic fungi and insects, but the presence of the
silica may interfere with pulping and papermaking (Bourmaud et al., 2017). However, the silica
bodies does not stick firmly onto the fiber and can be removed mechanically, leaving empty
craters that may facilitate mechanical interlocking of the fiber and matrix due to the rougher
surface (Shinoj et al., 211).

Chemical composition and structural properties

The chemical composition of windmill palm fibers in various leaf sheath layers is detailed in
Table 2, and the composition of other palm family fibers and some commonly used fibers are
presented for comparison. Like other natural fibers, analysis showed that the palm fibers were
composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, with similar contents among the
different layers of leaf sheath. The remarkable consistency of the composition was in contrast to
the dramatic variations reported in fiber diameter and cross-sectional morphology.

Windmill palm has a relatively lower cellulose content (34.3-35.5%) compared to other members
of the palm family, such as oil palm (42.7-65.0%, Shinoj et al., 2011), and sugar palm (43.8-
44.5% Huzaifah et al., 2017), but a level comparable with piassava palm (31.6%, Nascimento et
al., 2012). Compared with flax, jute, and sisal fibers (Guen et al., 2016), windmill palm fiber has
a relative higher lignin content that is comparable to that of other palm family fibers, except oil
palm. The high lignin content may contribute to its brown color and useful properties such as
weather, fungal, and bacterial resistance (D’Almeida et al., 2006).

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(a)

Elementary fibers

(b)

Vessels and phloem tissue

Elementary fibers

(c)

Vessels and phloem tissue

Elementary fibers

Figure 2 SEM images of palm fibers in different layers: (a) inner layer, (b) middle layers, (c) outer layer.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Array of
protrusions

Figure 3 Surface morphological characterizations of palm fibers in outer layer: (a) sub-cylindrical shape, (b) waxy
and course surface, (c) arrays of protrusions embedded with (d) silica.

The mircofibrillar angle (MFA), the spiral angle between the cellulose fibrils and the fiber axial,
is considered an influential structural parameter that affects the axial mechanical properties of
natural fibers (Yu Y et al., 2014). The measured MFA values of palm fibers were in the range of
38.8±1.5° for the inner layer to 39.4±1.0° for the outer layer, which were very similar and
Table 2 Comparison of properties of windmill palm fibers with other natural fibers reproducible
values (Table 2). The relative crystallinity index (CrI) of windmill palm fibers was found to vary
slightly for the different layers, with the highest in the middle layers (49.2%), followed by the
outer layers (46.7%), and finally the inner layer (45.7%). These results are similar to those
reported by Zhai et al., (2012) and Zhang et al., (2015).

Tensile properties
The typical stress-strain curves of palm fibers obtained from each leaf sheath layer are presented
in Fig. 4, and their tensile properties are listed in Table 2. The curves show that the palm fibers
all exhibited linear elastic at low stress, and then yielding point at around 2% strain followed by
plastic deformation until breakage, and similar results have been reported for piassava fiber
(D’Almeida et al., 2006) and coir fiber (Tran et al., 2015). There were some evident differences
in the mechanical properties of palm fibers among the different leaf sheath layers, as shown in
Table 2. Some large variations in the tensile properties of palm fibers can be found in all three
layers, which is often observed for natural fibers published by other

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Table 2 Comparison of properties of windmill palm fibers with other natural fibers

Natural fibers Chemical composition (%) Strutural Tensile properties

characterization
α-cellulose Hemicellu Lignin Ash MFA(°) CrI (%) Tensile Tensile Failure
lose modulus strength strain (%)
(GPa) (MPa)
Windmill palm (This study)
Inner layer 35.5 22.5 36.4 1.4 38.8±1.5 45.7 3.5±0.8 132.0±27.8 17.6±2.9
Middle layer 34.3 24.7 36.8 3.9 39.2±1.3 49.2 2.7±0.4 73.7±17.2 10.5±2.9
Outer layer 34.7 25.3 38.3 1.1 39.4±1.0 46.7 2.9±0.5 72.8±21.2 10.0±4.7
Windmill palm 28.2 20.6 44.1 --- 37.8-42.2 30.5-73 0.3-1.3 82.1-170.1 22.6-55.2
(Zhang et al., 2015; Zhai et
al., 2012)
Date palm (Bourmaud et 45±3 28±2 17±0.3 1.7±0.1 26.1±14.2 41±3 1.8±0.6 131±34 20.9±7.6
al.,2017)
Oil palm (Shinoj et al., 42.7-65 17.1-33.5 13.2-25.31 1.3-6.0 46 --- 0.6-9 50-400 4-18
2011)
Sugar palm (Huzaifah et al., 43.8-44.5 8.9-10.0 39.5-41.9 0.9-1.3 --- --- 3.9-4.3 211-233 15.8-20.6
2017)
Piassava palm (Nascimento 31.6 --- 48.4 --- --- --- 2.6±0.4 131.1±27.1 11.9±4.3
et al., 2012)
Coir (Reddy et al., 2010) 34.3-53.6 29.1-22.3 24-36.4 --- --- 37.1-39 4.8-18 94.3-119.8 5.5-6.3
Flax (Guen et al., 2016) 72.6 8.7 3.2 --- 4.5 --- 20.8 520 1.9
Jute (Guen et al., 2016) 46.2 12.5 15.4 --- 8 --- 24.6 390 1.5
Sisal (Guen et al., 2016) 45.3 20.4 15.1 --- 20 --- 18.7 400 2.7

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 180

160 (a) (b)

140 Inner layer
120
Stress (MPa)

100
Middle layer
80

60 Outer layer
40

20

0 5 10 15
Strain (%)

(c) (d)

Figure 4 (a) Typical stress-strain curves of windmill palm fibers in different layers; fracture surface of fiber in (b)
inner, (c) middle, and (d) outer layer of one windmill palm leaf sheath.

(Zhai et al., 2013; Bourmaud et al., 2017). In general, the average tensile modulus, stress, and
failure strain of the fibers in the inner layer were much higher than those in fibers from the outer
and middle layers. As the crystalline cellulose confers the stiffness and strength (around 135
Gpa, Kroon-Batenburg et al., 1986), the superior tensile properties of natural fibers have been
attributed to the high cellulose content and crystallinity, and the comparatively low MFA
(Djafari 2016). However, the cellulose content, CrI and MFA values were in similar ranges
among different layers of windmill palm fibers (Table 2). Therefore, the differences in
mechanical properties between layers may be more associated with the morphological
parameters, as obvious variations in fiber morphology, particularly fiber diameter, were observed
between different leaf sheath layers (Table 1). Fibers in the inner layers had the smallest
diameter and exhibited superior mechanical properties among the three layers. Consistently,
earlier studies showed significant correlations between mechanical properties and fiber diameter,
and a decreased trend in mechanical properties was observed for increasing fiber diameters
(Placet et al., 2012; Zhai et al., 2012). As assayed here, windmill palm fibers exhibited higher
tensile modulus but lower failure strain compared with previously reported results (Zhai et al.,
2012, and Zhang et al., 2015).

As shown in Table 2, windmill palm fibers exhibited significantly lower tensile modulus and
strength compared with those of flax, jute, and sisal (Guen et al., 2016), but values that were
much closer to that of other palm family fibers, such as date palm (Bourmaud et al., 2017) and
especially piassava fiber (Nascimento et al., 2012). This is expected as windmill palm fibers
have lower cellulose content (34.3-35.5%), lower CrI (45.7-49.2%), and higher MFA values
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

(38.8-39.4°). However, unlike these stiffer and stronger fibers that exhibit brittle failure at
relatively low ultimate tensile strain (Table 2), windmill palm fibers showed ductile failure with
a large failure strain of 10.0-17.6% with dissipated strain energy. The ductile behavior of
windmill palm fiber was related to its fracture mode, as shown in Fig. 4b-d. The failure of the
fibers is caused by the fracture of the cell wall with delamination, as shown in the inset in Fig.
4b. Similar intercellular fracture has also been reported for other fibers with a low cellulose
content and high MFA, such as coir and piassava fiber (Satyanarayana et al., 2018).

The use of windmill palm fibers as reinforcement material in composites is perhaps not an
obvious choice due to its relatively lower tensile modulus and strength compared to other widely
used fibers. However, although the addition of windmill palm fiber may not enhance the stiffness
and strength of a composite, it can improve the toughness of the material due to its high failure
strain. Additionally, waste windmill palm fiber can be incorporated with a strong-brittle fiber
(such as jute or flax) into a polymer matrix to produce a hybrid composite, in which the palm
fibers exhibit high failure strain which allows better stress transfer, and provides large diameter
material to increase the effective fiber-matrix adhesion area (Gupta, et al., 2015). As mentioned
above, the windmill palm fibers share strong similarities with coir and piassava fiber, and these
two fibers have been successfully used as reinforcement materials (Reis et al., 2014; Yan et al.,
2016), which strongly suggests that the windmill palm may be an excellent reinforcement
material to improve the properties of composites.

Nanoindentation testing
Nanoindentation is a powerful tool to characterize mechanical properties on a very small scale
(Jäger et al., 2011). The typical load-depth curves of the windmill palm fibers in different leaf
sheath layer were determined and shown in Fig. 5a. Fibers in the inner layers reached a much
lower maximum depth (ca. 96 nm) compared to those from the middle and outer layers (ca. 145
nm), however, the final depth of these fibers were similar (ca. 70 nm) after the unloading
process, which indicated different viscoelastic behavior among different layers. Fig. 5b-d exhibit
the indented areas of the fiber cell wall in three layers, and only indents located in the cell
(marked by red arrows) were considered acceptable.

The longitudinal elastic modulus and hardness of palm cell walls in three layers is shown in
Table 3. Palm fibers in inner layers showed much higher value in elastic modulus (13.2 GPa) and
hardness (0.5 GPa) than that of palm fibers in the middle and outer layers. In general, the
mechanical properties of the fiber cell wall are positively related to lignin content and negatively
correlated with MFA values (Li et al., 2013). However, despite palm fiber in inner and outer
layer exhibited no appreciable differences in chemical composition, MFA, CrI values (Table 2),
as well as elementary fiber size and cell wall thickness values (Table 1), their nanoindentaion
properties exhibited significant differences.

The diameter of fiber in inner layer was much smaller (230 μm) that that of fiber in outer layer
(372 μm), which indicated that fiber diameter could be important contributors to the difference.
Similar results have been observed for the two types of leaf sheath fiber identified

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

(b)
150 (a)
Inner layer

Outer
Load (μN)

100
layer

50

Middle
0
layer
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Depth (nm)
(c) (d)

Figure 5 (a) Typical load-depth curves of nanoindentation tests in cell wall of windmill palm fibers in different
layers; Residual indentations on cell wall of windmill palm fibers in (a) inner, (b) middle, (c) outer layer.

Table 3 Comparison of nanoindentation properties of windmill palm fiber with other natural
fibers
Natural fibers Nanoindentation Nanoindentation
modulus (GPa) hardness (GPa)
Windmill palm(this study)
Inner layer 13.2±1.3 0.50±0.04
Middle layer 8.9±0.8 0.37±0.04
Outer layer 8.5±0.9 0.36±0.03
Windmill palm (Chen et al., 2017) 7.6±4.0 0.13±0.02
Date palm (Bourmaud et al., 2017) 14.3-15.8 0.47-0.53
Crops (Cotton stalk, Cassava stalk, Soybean Stalk, 12.3-20.8 0.41-0.85
Rice straw, hemp stalk) (Wu et al., 2010)
Hardwood (Poplar, Iroko, Alder birch, Manchurian 16.9-24.6 0.44-0.56
ash, Asian white birch, Red oak, White oak,
Monglian oak, Kwila, Keranji) (Wu et al., 2009)
Softwood (Loblolly pine, Spruce) (Wu et al., 2009) 14.2-18 0.34-0.53

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

in date palm, where small fiber bundles (70 – 120 μm) exhibited superior nanoindentaion
properties than large fiber bundles (600 – 1200 μm), which might be related to their mechanical
role in leaf sheath (Bourmaud et al., 2017). The nanoindentaion properties of windmill palm
fiber were in the same range with those of crops and wood, and comparable to those of date palm
(Bourmaud et al., 2017), as shown in Table 2. This may be partly explained by the remarkable
high lignin content in the windmill palm fibers, which makes the fiber cell wall rigid.

Conclusions
The fiber morphology, chemical composition, physical, and multi-scale mechanical properties of
windmill palm fibers in three leaf sheath layers were investigated in this study. The tensile and
nanoindentation properties of fine fibers in the inner leaf sheath layer were highest among the
three layers, which may reflect their mechanical role in leaf sheath. The palm fibers are not as
strong and stiff, but exhibit a high elongation at break. The nanoindentation results revealed that
the modulus and hardness of windmill palm fiber were comparable to those of wood and crops
fibers. These results will help promoting the use of windmill palm fiber as a material from
renewable resources with more high-value applications.

Funding
This work was supported by Basic Scientific Research Funds of International Center for Bamboo
and Rattan (1632018017) and the 12th five years key technology R&D program
(2015BAD04B03).

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Biography

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Differences between hygroscopicity limit and cell wall saturation

investigated by LF-NMR on thermally-modified and lignin-removed
Southern pine (Pinus spp.)

See Paper Under Early Stage Researchers pg 55

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Preparation of Kenaf based nanobiocomposite as sustainable adsorbent for

the removal of organic and inorganic and pathogenic contaminants

See Paper Under Wood in Health and Wellbeing pg 286

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Bioinspired wood protection – evaluation of wood treated with biofinish

Faksawat Poohphajai1
[email protected]
Anna Sandak2
[email protected]
Lauri Rautkari3
[email protected]
Michael Altgen3
[email protected]
Rene Herdiaz4
[email protected]

1InnoRenew CoE, Slovenia

2InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia
3Aalto University, School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Finland
4University of the Basque Country Chemical and environmental engineering department, Spain

Abstract
Wood is a versatile, natural and environmentally friendly material that has attracted attention for
sustainable building for many years. As any biological material, wood is sensitive to environmental
conditions and microorganisms; therefore, wood products require protective measures to extend their
service life in outdoor applications. The typical wood protection systems are not always
environmentally friendly and sustainable. The idea to utilize natural organisms, that are not
deteriorating wood, but their presence inhibit growth of other decaying fungi was motivation for this
investigation. Consequently, such approach for wood protection will contribute toward development of
a new environmentally friendly and sustainable wood treatments and trigger the utilization and
production of green materials in the wood industry.

This research is aiming to use biofilm that is built up by a yeast-like fungus, Aureobasidium pullulans,
for wood protection. Biofinish is a fungal-based wood treatment with protective functionalities and
self-repairing property. It has several advantages compare to the traditional wood coatings and
chemical treatments due to its environmental friendliness, low maintenance cost and absence of
harmful chemicals. The performance of wood protected with biofinish was characterized the at three
different levels: macro, micro and molecular. This extensive evaluation will allow understanding,
developing and optimizing an efficient biological protection system for wood in external applications.

Keywords: wood protection, biofinish, bioinspiration

Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge the European Commission for funding the
InnoRenew project (grant agreement #739574 under the Horizon2020 Widespread-Teaming program)
and the Republic of Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European Union
European Regional Development Fund). Special thanks to Xylotrade B.V. for providing Biofinish
solution.

Biography

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An ionic-liquid based fire retardant for wood-based panels

See Paper Under Wood Modification and Preservation pg 348

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ABES and DMA Cure Monitoring of Tannin Adhesive

See Paper Under Early Stage Researchers pg 67

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Highly Anisotropic Wood-Based Composite with Layered Structure for

Thermal and Electrical Conduction

See Paper Under Composites and Adhesives pg 240

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Low Temperature Adhesive Bonding for Structural Wood Materials

See Paper Under Composites and Adhesives pg 241

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The Vibrational Properties of Catalpa Ovata Wood for the Back Plate of the
Guqin

Yi-Hsuan Tsai
[email protected]
Feng-Cheng Chang
[email protected]

School of Forestry and Resource Conservation, National Taiwan University, Taiwan

Abstract
Wood of Chinese catalpa (Catalpa ovata) is the traditional material of the back plate of the guqin, which
is the prominent musical instrument in ancient China. The guqin, a Chinese seven-string zither known for
its long history, has been designed as solo instrument since antiquity, so it is characterized by the
multiple personal style, which results in multifarious ways of making a guqin. In fact, there is a lack of
scientific and systematic method of deciding materials, and instead, the guqin makers’ experience and
craftsmanship dominate the whole procedure. Thus, the aim of this research is using the nondestructive
testing to measure the physical-mechanical properties of Chinese catalpa plates and trying to elaborate
the correlation between the vibrational properties of Chinese catalpa and the guqin makers’ principle of
choosing materials. In this research, the physical-mechanical properties of Chinese catalpa plates,
collected from an 80-year-old dismantled building and selected as the materials of guqins’ back plates,
were measured with the plate vibration method, and vibrational properties such as the speed of sound,
the sound radiation coefficient, and the loss coefficient could be obtained. According to the results, the
density of plate, which is the immediate parameter consulted by guqin makers, would affect the speed of
sound in longitudinal direction positively and the sound radiation coefficient in transverse direction
negatively, and comparing with the ratio of the sound radiation coefficient to the loss coefficient, the lower
density plate has higher ratio, which means it can produce a loud sound when excited by a given force.

Biography

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Effects of Wood Decay on Deformation Mechanism and

Shear Performance of Screwed and Nailed Joints
Rintaro Ueda1*– Kei Sawata1 – Takanobu Sasaki1 – Yosihisa Sasaki1

1 Graduate Student, Senior Lecturer, Professor, Technical Staff, Graduate School

of Agriculture, Hokkaido University at Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract

Wood decay is an important cause of degradation of wooden construction for the severity of its
damage to the structure. Common countermeasure is to reinforce the degraded wood members
with reinforcing equipment using nails and screws. However, only a limited number of studies
have focused on the difference between the performances of screwed and nailed joints with
sound wood and those with decayed wood and hence the accumulated knowledge is insufficient.
This study was aimed at investigating the performance of screwed and nailed joints with
decayed wood. We conducted decay treatment on Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalinensis) specimens
by exposing for more than 20 weeks to cultured flora of a brown-rot fungus, Fomitopsis palustris
which is a standard test fungus in Japan. After the decay treatment, screws and nails were driven
to the specimens and single shear tests were conducted on the screwed and nailed joints that were
loaded parallel to the grain of the specimens. Observed failure modes of the specimens could be
classified into 2 types with one plastic hinge formed in the fastener (Mode III) and two hinges
(Mode IV) following European Yield Model. The dominant failure modes of the screwed joints
were clearly different between the control (Mode IV) and decayed specimens (Mode III). This
result could be attributed to the degradation of the bearing strength of the decayed main members
and therefore, it is concluded that the deformation mechanism of the screwed joints were
affected by decay. In the case of the nailed joints, only Mode IV of the failure mode was
observed and the effect of decay on the deformation mechanism of the nailed joints was not
confirmed.
As a result of significance tests for strength properties of the joints, it is considered that the
maximum, yield, and ultimate shear resistance of the screwed joints and the maximum and
ultimate shear resistance of the nailed joints were significantly degraded by decay. However, the
difference between control and decayed specimens in the initial stiffness was not significant for
either of screwed or nailed joints.

Key words: wood decay, brown rot, biodegradation, deterioration, fungi, nailed joint, screwed
joint, shear resistance
Introduction

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Wood decay caused by wood-rot fungus is well known as an important cause of degradation of
wooden construction. When degradation occurred in wooden construction, the degraded member
will be reinforced or partly replaced. As it might be difficult or costly to replace a wood member,
reinforcing the structure with reinforcing equipment using screws and nails is more commonly
accepted countermeasure.
Regarding wood decay, many researches have been conducted on causal fungus (Fukuda et al.
1980; Green and Highley 1997; Schmidt 2007), mechanism of decay (Mester T et al. 2004), and
mechanical properties of decayed wood (Mori et al. 2013). These preceding studies have
provided and prevailed the knowledge that properties of wood might be significantly degraded if
attacked by wood-rot fungus and decayed. However, emphasis has long been put on prevention
and control of wood decay. Regarding timber joints that the strength of structure largely depends
on, the actual effect of decay on them have rarely been focused on so that only a limited number
of researches have been conducted on nailed joints (Kent et al. 2005; Toda et al. 2010), screwed
joints (Mori et al. 2015; Takanashi et al. 2018), and dowel-type joints (Sawata et al. 2008) in
recent years and accumulated data is still insufficient.
Considered that effectiveness of reinforcing decayed wood member is unknown and that
screwed and nailed joints are common and widely used, more data and knowledge for
characteristics of screwed and nailed joints with decayed wood member is of necessity. Hence in
this study, we conducted single shear tests on screwed and nailed joints with decayed wood
member to investigate the effect of decay on the deformation mechanism and shear performance
of them.

Materials & Methods

Specimens

Figure 1 shows the outline of the specimens. The main members of the nailed and screwed
joints were prepared from solid lumbers of Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalinensis). The dimensions of
the main members of the screwed joints were 60 mm in width, 60 mm in thickness, and 300 mm
in length and those for the nailed joints were 45 mm in width, 60 mm in thickness, and 300 mm
in length. The number of the specimens for the screwed and nailed joints were 22 (10) and 25
(5), respectively (The figures in parentheses indicate the number of the control specimens
included). Five out of nine control specimens for the screwed joints had a width of 45 mm
instead of 60 mm. The average wood density was 406 kg/m3 (standard deviation 56.0 kg/m3) and
the average moisture content was 9.0 % (standard deviation 1.87 %). These were measured from
the sound part of the specimens after the shear tests.
The side members were steel plates with a thickness of 6.0 mm. The main and side members
were connected by a nail or screw right before the shear tests. Figure 2 shows the screw and nail
used in this study. The screws used in this study were “TBA-65D” screws, having an outer
thread diameter of 6.0 mm (of which the effective diameter was 4.5 mm), core diameter of 4.0
mm, and full length of 69mm (of which the length with screw thread was 55 mm and the
effective length was 65 mm). “TBA-65D” screw was originally designed to be used with hold-
down hardware and made by Tanaka Co., Ltd., Ibaraki, Japan. “TBA-65D” screws were also
used in the previous study of Takanashi et al. (2018). The nails were N125 nails with a diameter
of 4.6 mm and full length of 125 mm, and were cut into 69 mm in full length (of which the

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effective length was 65 mm) so that they have almost the same effective diameter and length as
“TBA-65D” screws.
【Screwed joints】 【Nailed joints】

60 60 45 60

60 φ9 60 φ9

30 30
Main member Main member

130 25 Screw 130 22 Nail

Steel plate Steel plate

80 80

φ9 φ9

Center line Center line (Unit:mm)

Fig.1. Outline of the specimen.

55 4

6.0

4.6

69
Fig.2. “TBA-65D” screw and shortened “N125” nail used in this study.

Decay treatment

The specimens were exposed to cultured flora of a brown-rot fungus, Fomitopsis palustris,
which is a standard test fungus in Japan, for more than 20 weeks. Nutrient agar, floras of
Fomitopsis palustris, and 17 small pieces (W16 x L 16 x H 8 mm) of Sakhalin fir were filled in
each one PP container having a width of 129 mm, length of 89 mm, and depth of 43 mm as
shown in Figure 3. The containers were placed in a closed environment at 28°C and 75% relative
humidity until the hyphae grew sufficiently. Subsequently, each container was attached to two
specimens using stretch wrap so that the center of the container was coincided with the screwed
or nailed point (80 mm away from the end) as shown in Figure 4 and the specimens were placed
under a closed environment at 28°C and 75% relative humidity for more than 20 weeks. After
the decay treatment period elapsed, the containers were detached from the specimens and the
specimens were placed in room temperature and humidity for 2 weeks to be air-dried.

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Nutrient agar
Flora of Fomitopsis palustris
Small piece of Sakhalin fir
(W16×L16×H8 mm)
PP container
(W129×L89×D43 mm)

Fig.3. A rot fungus feeder unit.

【Screwed joints】 【Nailed joints】

36 89 16 129
Rot fungus feeder unit Rot fungus feeder unit

80
80
60 45
129 89

Center line Main member

Center line Main member (Unit:mm)

Fig.4. Outline of decay treatment using rot fungus feeder units.

Containers in which floras of wood rot fungus and small wood pieces were put on congealed
nutrient agar are called “rot fungus feeder units.” Decay treatment using rot fungus feeder units
have been conducted in studies on nailed joints (Toda et al. 2010), multiple screwed joints
(Takanashi et al. 2018), and column-sill joints (Toda et al. 2017), for this method is suited to
conduct decay treatment on a specific and limited part of a wood member.
Decay-treated and air-dried specimens were connected to the steel plates by a screw or nail
without predrilled hole, leaving slight gap to avoid initial friction between the main and side
members. The end distance of the nailed and screwed joints were 80 mm.

Test methods

Single shear tests were conducted on the nailed and screwed joints after the main and side
member were fastened to the testing machine. The load was applied parallel to the grain for the
main member. The relative slip was measured by two displacement transducers located on the
two sides of the main member as shown in Figure 5.

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The relative slip on the centerline of the joints

Loading direction
was calculated from the average of the two
measured slips. The following slips
indicate the relative slip on the centerline φ8 Bolt
of the
joints.
The load was applied to produce a Displacement
relative slip of a certain slip level and transducer Main member
subsequently reduced to 0 mm. This
loading procedure was repeated to produce 2, 4,
and 8 times of the slip level and Nail / Screw

subsequently, the load was kept Steel plate

monotonically applied until the tests were Transducer bed
terminated when the relative slip reached at 30
mm or fastener breakages occurred. The φ8 Bolt slip
levels were determined from 1/2 times of the
yield displacement obtained from the
Fig.5. Outline of the shear tests.
preliminary monotonic loading tests
conducted respectively on the screwed and nailed joints with un-decayed member, which were
0.5 mm for the nailed joints and 1.2 mm for the screwed joints.
After the shear tests, all the specimens were cleaved to observe the failure modes of the joints
and determine the decay depth in the nailed or screwed point. The decay depth was obtained
from the difference between the thickness of the main member and the length of the sound part.
Afterwards, subsamples were cut from the decayed and sound part of the main members to
determine the wood density and moisture content.

Results and Discussion

Failure mode

In the case of screwed joints, 8 out of 10 controls and 10 out of 12 decayed specimens failed,
however, specimen failure due to main-member splitting was observed only in 1 control and the
others were all due to fastener breakage. Whereas in the case of nailed joints, 3 out of 5 controls
and 4 out of 20 decayed specimens failed and they were all due to splitting of the main member.
Deformation of the nailed joints was accompanied by withdrawal of the nail in 3 out of 5
controls and 8 out of 20 decayed specimens.
Following EYM (European Yield Model), failure modes of the screwed and nailed joints could
be classified into 2 types with one plastic hinge formed in the fastener (Mode III) and two hinges
(Mode IV) by observing the deformed fastener (Architectural Institute of Japan 2006). Figure 6
shows the observed failure modes of the specimens. In the case of the screwed joints, 2 out of 10
controls and 9 out of 12 decayed specimens showed the failure of Mode III, whereas the others
showed the failure of Mode IV and the dominant failure modes of the screwed joints were clearly
different between the control (Mode IV) and decayed specimens (Mode III). This result could be
attributed to the degradation of the bearing strength of the decayed main members as reported
before. Therefore, it is inferred that the deformation mechanism of the screwed joints were
affected by decay. Whereas in the case of the nailed joints, only Mode IV was observed and the
effect of decay on the deformation mechanism of the nailed joints was not confirmed.

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Mode III Mode IV

【Screw】

【Nail】

Fig.6. Observed failure modes of the specimens.

The shear performance of the joints

To evaluate the shear performance of the joints, the initial stiffness (Ks), maximum shear
resistance (Pmax), yield shear resistance (Py), and ultimate shear resistance (Pu) were determined
from the envelop load-slip curves as follows (Japan Housing and Wood Technology Center,
2017).
1. Pmax was obtained from the maximum load. A straight line (line I in Fig. 7) was drawn as it
passes through the 2 points on the curve corresponding to 10 and 40 % of Pmax.
2. A straight line (line II in Fig. 7) was drawn as it passes through the 2 points corresponding to
40 and 90 % of Pmax.
3. A straight line (line III in Fig. 7) was drawn as it has the same slope as line II and it is tangent
to the curve.
4. The load and slip corresponding to the intersection of line I and III were obtained and defined
as Py and the yield slip, Dy, respectively.
5. A straight line (line V in Fig. 7) was drawn as it passes through the origin and the coordinate
Dy and Py. The slope of lineV was obtained and defined as Ks.
6. A straight line (line VI in Fig. 7) was drawn vertical to the horizontal axis from the point
corresponding to 80 % of Pmax after the maximum load.
7. The area of the shape surrounded by the curve, horizontal axis, and line VI was calculated and
defined as S.
8. A straight line (line VII in Fig. 7) was drawn parallel to the horizontal axis as the area of the
shape surrounded by line V, line VI, line VII, and the horizontal axis is equal to S.
9. The load corresponding to the intersection of line V and VII was obtained and defined as Pu.

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Y V III II
4 I
0.9Pmax
3.5 VI
Pu 3 VII
2.5 0.8Pmax
Py 2
0.4Pmax
1.5

0.1Pmax
0.5
Ks S
0 X
0
Dy 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig.7. Method of evaluating shear performance of the joints. Ks, initial stiffness; Pmax, maximum
shear resistance; Py, yield shear resistance; Dy, yield displacement; Pu, ultimate shear resistance.

The values of Ks, Pmax, Py, and Pu are shown in Fig.8. Two control and one decayed specimens
of screwed joints showed low rising of the load and could not be evaluated appropriately by this
method, therefore they were excluded from succeeding evaluation. In the case of screwed joints,
the difference between decayed and control specimens in Pmax, Py, and Pu were significant at the
5% level whereas that in Ks was not. Therefore, it is considered that the maximum, yield, and
ultimate shear resistance of the screwed joints were significantly degraded by decay. In the case
of nailed joints, the difference between decayed and control specimens in Pmax and Pu were
significant at the 5% level whereas those in Ks and Py were not. Therefore, it is considered that
the maximum and ultimate shear resistance of the nailed joints were significantly degraded by
decay. In this study, the decayed specimens for nailed joints were considered to be in the stages
of incipient decay as the decayed area were limited to the surface layer part. Therefore it is
inferred that most part of the decayed specimens were almost sound, though, the effect of decay
was reflected as degradation of Pmax and Pu. This result implies that a slight decay on joints can
cause statistically significant degradation on its performance. By comparing the results of
screwed and nailed joints, it is inferred that in the case of screwed joints, the effect of decay that
appeared as the change in the deformation mechanism as described before was on the
performance, reflected to Py and therefore the difference in Py was significant in contrast to the
result of nailed joints.
Besides in this study, the effect of decay on the initial stiffness was not confirmed in either of
the screwed or nailed joints and this result is coinciding with preceding studies for screwed joints
(Takanashi et al. 2018) and nailed joints (Toda et al. 2010). It is inferred that the change in the
deformation mechanism of joints caused by decay such that observed in the case of screwed
joints appears after the yield point and therefore it was not reflected to Ks.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

1.2 8
1.0
***
6
Ks (KN/mm)

0.8

Pmax (KN)
*
0.6 4
0.4
2
0.2
0.0 0
Control Decayed Control Decayed Control Decayed Control Decayed
Nailed joints Screwed joints Nailed joints Screwed joints

8
* ***
4 6

Pu (KN)
Py (KN)

*
4
2
2

0 0
Control Decayed Control Decayed Control Decayed Control Decayed
Nailed joints Screwed joints Nailed joints Screwed joints

Fig.8. Values of Ks, Pmax, Py, and Pu (* = significant at the 5% level, *** = significant at the 1%
level).

Summary and Conclusions

Single shear tests were conducted on screwed and nailed joints with decayed main members of
Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalinensis), and the degradation of shear performance of joints caused by
decay was investigated. Following EYM, failure modes of the screwed and nailed joints could be
classified into 2 types with one plastic hinge formed in the fastener (Mode III) and two hinges
(Mode IV) by observing the deformed fastener. In the case of the screwed joints, both Mode III
and IV were observed and the dominant failure modes of the screwed joints were clearly
different between the control (Mode IV) and decayed specimens (Mode III). Degradation of
shear performance of the screwed joints was confirmed in Pmax, Py, and Pu and degradation in Py
was considered to reflect the change in the dominant failure modes caused by decay. Whereas in
the case of the nailed joints, only Mode IV was observed and the effect of decay on the
deformation mechanism was not confirmed. Degradation of shear performance of the nailed
joints was confirmed in Pmax and Pu. Degradation in Ks was not confirmed in either of screwed or
nailed joints.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 17K07870.

References

Fukuda K, Okayasu Y, Haraguchi R (1980) Influence of Temperature on Growth and Wood-

decomposing Ability of Wood-rotting Fungi. Bulletin of the Experiment Forests, Tokyo
University of Agriculture and Technology 17: 49-55. (in Japanese with English summary).

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Green IF, Highley TL (1997) Brown-rot wood-decay—insights gained from a low decay isolate
of Postia placenta. Trends in Plant Pathology 1: 1-17.
Schmidt O (2007) Indoor wood-decay basidiomycetes: damage, causal fungi, physiology,
identification and characterization, prevention and control. Mycol Progress 6: 261-279.
Mester T, Varela E, Tien M (2004) Wood Degradation by Brown-Rot and White-Rot Fungi.
Genetics and Bio technology, The Mycota vol.2, Berlin, Germany.
Mori T, Yanase Y, Tanaka K, Kawano K, Noda Y, Mori M, Kurisaki H, Komatsu K (2013)
Evaluation of Compression and Bending Strength Properties of Wood Damaged from Bio-
Deterioration. Journal of the Society of Materials Science, Japan 62(4): 280-285. (in Japanese
with English summary).
Kent SM, Leichti RJ, Rosowsky DV, Morrell JJ (2005) Effects of Decay on the Cyclic Properties
of Nailed Connections. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 17(5): 579-585.
Toda M, Mori M, Ohashi Y, Hirai T (2010) Effects of Wood Decay on the Shear Performance of
Nailed Timber Joint. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 56(1): 41-47. (in Japanese with English summary).
Mori T, Noda Y, Azuma T, Mori M, Toda M (2015) Evaluation of Single Shear Performance of
Wood Screw Joint Driving into Compulsive Decayed Wood. Journal of Structural Engineering
61B: 237-241. (in Japanese with English summary).
Takanashi R, Toda M, Miyauchi T, Mori M, Mori T (2018) Shear Strength of Multi-screw Joints
Connected to Decayed Lumber. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 64(3): 122-129. (in Japanese with English
summary).
Sawata K, Sasaki T, Doi S, Iijima Y (2008) Effect of Decay on Shear Performance of Dowel-
type Timber Joints. Journal of Wood Science 54: 356-361.
Toda M, Takanashi R, Azuma T, Mori M (2017) Degradation of Strength of Column-sill Joints
with Decay Treatment. Journal of the Forest Products Research Institute 545: 46-50. (in
Japanese with English summary).
Architectural Institute of Japan (2006) Standard for Structural Design of Timber Structures.
Maruzen-Yushodo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. pp. 26-71. (in Japanese).
Japan Housing and Wood Technology Center (2017) Mokuzou jikugumikouhou jyutaku no
kyoyou ouryokudo sekkei 1: 300-301. (in Japanese).

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

ADDING VALUE TO TIMBER COMPONENTS THROUGH CONSIDERATION OF

DEMOLITION AND DISASSEMBLY

St. John Walsh

[email protected]
University College Dublin, Ireland

Abstract
Consideration of the life cycle of timber products within the traditional construction sector in Ireland
has been extremely limited to date. As a consequence, the majority of timber recovered following
demolition is incinerated and therefore contributing to global warming.

Analysis of the current Irish housing stock has shown that it contains high volumes of quality timber
components in good condition and of significant capital value. In making relatively minor adjustments
to design, construction and demolition practices, opportunities exist to enable disassembly and reuse
which would add value to forestry, timber components and completed constructions.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Preparation of Cellulose Acetate-Polyacrylonitrile Composite Nanofibers by

Multi-fluid Mixing Electrospinning Method: Morphology, Wettability, and
Mechanical Properties

See Paper Under Composites and Adhesives pg 254

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Analysis of VOC’s and odor-active compounds from

veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer
Qifan Wang 11*– Jun Shen 2*

1 Ph.D. candidates, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China

[email protected]
2 Prof., Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China*
Corresponding author
[email protected]

Abstract
To reduce the problem of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and odor emissions from veneered
particleboard coated with lacquer, this study focused on identifying odorant compounds and
exploring the potential influence of environmental factors on VOCs and odor emissions. Veneered
particleboard coated with water-based lacquer was studied via gas chromatography-mass
spectroscopy/olfactometry, and, in total, 10 different odor types were identified, which were
concentrated in 15 to 23 min. The predominant odor impressions were fragrant, leather, and
soybean paste, and the main odorant compounds identified were aromatics and alcohols. The total
VOCs (TVOC) concentration and total odor intensity increased as the temperature increased, but
these decreased as the ratio of relative humidity and the air exchange rate to the loading factor
increased. The ratio of the air exchange rate to the loading factor had a greater impact on the VOCs
released from the veneered particleboard than did either temperature or relative humidity, and,
therefore, this ratio should be the primary factor considered during storage. The proportion of the
odorant concentration to the TVOC concentration decreased with an increase in temperature and
relative humidity, whereas the ratio of the air exchange rate to the loading factor had little effect.
To accelerate the release of VOCs and odors from veneered particleboard coated with water-based
lacquer before its use indoors and, thus, to reduce negative effects on humans, these conditions
were found to be optimal: 40°C, 40% RH, and 1.0 m3·h−1·m−2 (ratio of air exchange rate to
loading factor).

Key words: veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer, gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry/olfactometry, volatile organic compounds, odorants, environmental factors

Introduction

Lacquer-covered, wood-based panels, widely used in interior decorating and furniture

manufacturing, may cause indoor air pollution, odor issues, and lead to consumer complaints
(Schraufnagel et al. 2018; Shen et al. 2018). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can produce
worrisome odors that significantly affect people’s emotional health (Aatamila et al. 2011) and even
their physical health.

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The problem of VOCs emissions from veneered wood-based panels has been widely
researched. Most studies have focused on the components, the testing methods, and the effects of
environmental factors. Liu and Shen (2016) used a rapid test method to detect VOCs emissions
from three-layer parquet and found that the VOCs comprised aromatic hydrocarbons and esters.
The rapid test improved efficiency and reduced the costs associated with VOCs detection. Wal et
al. (1997) found that environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, and flow rate,
affected the rate of VOCs release from different materials. A similar conclusion was drawn by
Wang et al. (2017), who found that temperature had a greater effect on the release of VOCs from
three-layer plywood than did relative humidity or the air exchange rate. Few reports, however,
have focused on the odors from decorative panels or on the odors from solid wood. Díaz-Maroto
et al. (2008) investigated the odor-active substances in American, French, Hungarian, and Russian
oak (Quercus spp.) by gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O). They found that oak not only
contained the typical compounds characteristic of oak’s aroma but also other volatile compounds
that smelled fruity. Similar GC-O studies were performed on poplar (Populus L. spp.), pine (Pinus
L. spp.), and basswood (Tilia L. spp.) by Wang et al. (2017) and on incense-cedar [Calocedrus
decurrens (Torr.) Florin] by Schreiner et al. (2017). Felix et al. (2013) reported that the degradation
of a polymeric matrix produced a characteristic odor associated with aldehydes, ketones, and
carboxylic acids, whereas the degradation of the lignocellulosic component released acetic acid,
formaldehyde, formic acids, aldehydes, and other acids.

Despite the wide use of gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to
identify VOCs and their concentrations (Dincer et al. 2006), the mammalian olfactory system is
still the most sensitive and inclusive odor detector. VOCs may sometimes be present at
concentrations that are below instrumental detection limits but are still detectable to people
(Francesco et al. 2006). The coupling of GC-MS with olfactometry technology (GC-MS/O) was
first proposed by Fuller et al. (1964) and was later improved by Acree et al. (1976, 1984) and
Ullrich and Grosch (1987). Olfactometric techniques are used to identify odor-active compounds
and to relate them to human perception (Davoli et al. 2003). Currently, there are various GC-MS/O
detection methods (Brattoli et al. 2013): (1) the frequency of detection, (2) dilution to thresholds,
and (3) direct intensity. Because of the accuracy and high sensitivity of GC-MS/O, it has been
widely used in studies of food aromas and fragrances (Fur et al. 2003; Ferrari et al. 2004;
D’Acampora et al. 2007). In recent years, researchers have begun to explore GC-MS/O
applications in environmental (Bulliner et al. 2006), medical (Wagenstaller et al. 2013), and
interior decorating (Knudsen et al.2007; Clausen et al. 2008; Burdack-Freitag et al. 2009) arenas.
Because the veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer commonly used in
furniture production and interior decorating is widely known to release VOCs and odors (Zhu et
al. 2015; Que et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2018), there has been increasing public concern. Therefore,
to accelerate VOCs and odor emission from these materials after production, the most suitable
environmental conditions for their storage should be explored. The purpose of this study was to
identify the primary odorants and their sources associated with veneered particleboard coated with
water-based lacquer and to investigate the influence of environmental factors.

Materials & Methods

Materials

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Particleboard samples used in the experiments were produced by Suofeiya Home Collection Co.,
Ltd. (Guangdong, China) (see Table 1 for detailed parameters). After samples were overlaid with
Fraxinus mandshurica veneer (0.25 mm thickness; urea formaldehyde resin and white latex, at a
ratio of 6:4; coating amount, 100 g/m2; hot pressing time, 3 minutes; hot pressing temperature,
100°C), the water-based lacquer (Xinletian Brand) transparent sealer, sky blue barrier coat and
distilled water) was applied by brushing twice with sealer and twice with barrier coat (100 g/m 2).
The samples were cut into round pieces (60-mm diameter), with an exposed area of 5.65 × 10−3
m2. The edges of the samples were wrapped with aluminum foil to prevent the release of
compounds, and then they were stored in polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bags and refrigerated
until needed.

Table: 1 Detail parameters of the particleboard

Option Parameters
Tree species Eucalyptus robusta Smith
Place of origin Guangdong, China
Thickness 12 mm
Hot-pressing temperature 225℃
Hot-pressing time 85s
Pressing pressure 1.4MPa
MC 5.94%
Density 0.64-0.65g/cm3
Adhesive melamine-modified UF resin
Resin content 180-220 g/m2
Adhesive molar ratio 1:1.6
Adhesive pH 7.0-7.5
Solid content of colloid 55%–60%
Adhesive viscosity (Pa.s) 0.35-0.4
Adhesive curing time (s) 55-60

Sample preparation
VOCs (2 L) from veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer were adsorbed by a
micro-chamber/thermal extractor (Tenax tube; Markes International, South Wales, UK), which
could be adjusted from 0 to 250°C. The cell volume was 1.35 × 10−4 m3, and the loading rate (the
ratios of the panel area to micro-chamber volume) was 41.85 m2·m−3. The specific sampling
process is shown below.
Before the experiment, the micro-chamber/thermal extractor was cleaned once with deionized
water and once with methanol. The experimental period was 35 days. The samples were put in the
micro-chamber extractor under the specific sampling condition shown in Table 2. The VOCs
released from the samples were absorbed by Tenax TA tubes on days 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35
and then were identified using GC-MS/O. Purified, humidified air was supplied throughout the
experiment. Four samples were made for an identity condition (three repetitions were performed
for each measurement). The total number of specimens was 24. After sampling, the Tenax TA
sampling tubes were wrapped in PTFE bags until needed.

Table 2: Experimental Scheme

Relative
Experimental Temperature Air Exchange
Research Direction Humidity
Scheme (°C) Rate to Loading
(%)

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Factor Ratio
(m3·m-2·h-1)
A Standard environment 23 40 0.5
B Influence of the temperature 23, 30, 40 40 0.5
C Influence of the relative humidity 23 40, 60 0.5
Influence of the ratio of air
D 23 40 0.2, 0.5, 1.0
exchange rate & loading factor
Temperature values are ± 1 °C; Relative humidity values are ± 5%; Air exchange rate to loading factor ratio values
are ± 0.05 m3/m2h

Test setup of VOCs

A unity thermal analysis desorption unit (Markes International) was used with nitrogen as the
carrier gas and the following parameters: thermal desorption temperature, 280°C; cold-trap
adsorption temperature, −15°C; thermal analysis time, 10 min; and injection time, 1 min.
The DSQ II series quadrupole GC-MS unit came from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Schwerte,
Germany). Chromatography was performed with a DB-5 quartz capillary column [30,000 m
(length) × 0.26 mm (inner diameter) × 0.25 μm (particle sizes); Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara,
CA]. Helium was used as the carrier gas, with a constant velocity of 1.0 ml min −1 by splitless
injection. The chromatographic column was initially kept at 40°C for 2 min; next, the temperature
was increased to 50°C (in 2°C min−1 increments) and was held at that temperature for 4 min.
Finally, the temperature was increased to 250°C in 10°C min−1 increments and was held there for
8 min, with the injection port temperature also at 250°C. The following GC-MS conditions were
used: ionization mode, electron ionization; ion energy, 70 eV; transmission line temperature,
270°C; ion source temperature, 230°C; and mass scan range, 50–650 atomic mass units.
Three duplicate tests were conducted for each sample for repeatability, and the results were
based on the average value. Statistical analysis was used to estimate data. VOCs were identified
by comparison with the MS spectra from the National Institute of Standard Technology (NIST)
and Wiley (Hoboken, NJ) MS libraries, which matched degrees up to 800 or more. An internal-
standard method was used in this experiment, with deuterium substituted for toluene at a
concentration of 200 ng μl−1, which added 2 μl. The internal-standard quantitative-analysis method
used the following equation:
M 
M i = Ai   s  (1)
 As 
where Ms is the mass of the internal standard added to the calibration standard; Ai and As are the
peak areas of the products tested and the internal standard, respectively; and Mi is the mass of the
sample to which the internal standard is added.

Identification and evaluation of odor

GC-O technology was used in this experiment. The Sniffer 9100 Olfactory Detector came from
Brechbühler AG (Echallens, Switzerland). The setup of the gas chromatograph equipped with an
olfactometric detector is shown in Figure 1 (Plutowska et al. 2008). The transmission line
temperature was 150°C, and nitrogen was used as the carrier gas through a purge valve. Moist air
was added to prevent dehydration of the nasal mucosa of the odor assessors. Direct intensity
methods were chosen for analysis of the compounds.

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Figure 1. Scheme of the gas chromatograph equipped with an olfactometric detector (Plutowska
et al. 2008).

Based on specific screening and training recommendations in "panel selection/training in the

automotive industry: ISO12219-7", four assessors (between 20 and 30 years old, with no history
of smoking and no olfactory organ disease) were chosen to form an odor-analysis evaluation group.
The detailed process is shown in Figure 2. The deionized water, n-butanol solution (concentrations
of 2 ml/L, 10 ml/L, 20 ml/L, 30 ml/L), and 99.5% n-butanol solution were prepared and then were
kept under these conditions: insulation from light, heat, and oxygen, 23°C ± 2°C, relative humidity
40% ± 10%. The preparation time and concentration were labeled well. The solutions' storage lives
were 3 days. One hour before the test, the six prepared solutions were put, separately, into six 1-L
jars. The odor evaluation descriptions of the solutions (abovementioned) are shown in Table 3. For
different grades of standard solution, the assessors were required to describe the odor
characteristics correctly within 10 seconds; they were required to remember the distinctive
characteristics after the first smelling. After five minutes, when the labels were hidden, they were
required to distinguish the odor grade correctly within 10 seconds (with >80% rate of correct
answers); the assessors were required to correctly point out the error when the solution was
mislabeled deliberately (with >80% rate of correct answers).

Table 3. Odor evaluation description of n-butanol solution

Classification of solutions Grade Odor evaluation and description
deionized water, 0 No smell, no sense.
2ml/L 1 Perceptible, slight intensity
10ml/L 2 Perceptible, medium intensity, but no irritation.
20 ml/L 3 Strong and irritant odor
30 ml/L 4 Very strong and intensively irritant odor
99.5% n-butanol solution 5 Unbearable odor

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Figure 2. Sniffer detection process of GC-O.

The experimental environment was set to reference standard EN 13725-2003 (NSAI 2003).
The room was well ventilated, and there were no peculiar smells within the room. The temperature
was kept at 23°C ± 2°C throughout the entire experiment. Activities, such as eating, which might
have an effect on indoor odors, were forbidden for 5 h before the experiment. During a GC run
(described above), the human sensory-evaluation assessors recorded the odorants by characteristic
and intensity value as well as retention time. The detection time for each sample lasted about 50
minutes. A six-point scale ranging from 0 to 5 was used for intensity judgment according to
Japanese standards (Ministry of the Environment 1971): 0 = none, 1 = very weak, 2 = weak, 3 =
moderate, 4 = strong, and 5 = very strong. The method of fingerprints span was used
simultaneously to further verify the results. Experimental results were finally recorded when the
same odor characteristics were described by at least two assessors. The intensity value was based
on the average value from the different assessors. Compounds’ refractive index value was
calculated by the retention time of n-alkane (C6-C30) under the same conditions (van den Dool et
al., 1963). Main aroma types and their total relative intensities were shown in the odor profile,
based on the odor characteristics recorded by assessors, through the intensity identification and
method of fingerprints span. The total relative intensities of each odor type were calculated by
adding the intensities of different odorants together.
Results and Discussion
Characterization of odor-active compounds
The odor–time intensity spectrum under scheme A (a standard environment) of particleboard
coated with water-based lacquer tested by GC-MS/O is shown in Figure 3 (a), compared to the
particleboard in Figure 3 (b). In total, 10 types of odors were identified from veneered
particleboard coated with water-based lacquer. Most odors were detected in 15 to 23 min and
reached a maximum odor intensity value at 17.22 min; odors from particleboard mainly were
detected within 10 to 35 min. Using the acute toxicity classification of compounds from the World
Health Organization (WHO/IPCS 1996), the odor compound characteristics and relevant
parameters of the veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer can be determined
(Table 4). The key odor components of this material were primarily from aromatics, alcohols, and
esters. Odorant components were also found in ethers. Alkane was not detected by odor, which
was similar to the results found by Félix et al., who investigated the odor of wood-plastic

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composites and also found little influence of alkanes on the odor of the composites (Félix et al.
2013).

Table 4: Composition of odorant compounds of water paint coating particleboard

Mass Toxicity Odor
Retention
Compounds concentration classifica Odor character inten Possible sources
index
(μg·m-3) tion sity
Aromatics
Benzene 640 9.08 Low Burnt 1 Particleboard
Ethylbenzene 848 209.75 Low Fragrant 1 Particleboard
p-Xylene 857 475.12 Slight Fragrant 1.5 Paint
Styrene 874 87.08 Low Cream 3 Particleboard
1,3-dimethyl-benzene 878 183.84 Low Fragrant, honey 2.25 Particleboard, spice
Plasticizer in
Dimethyl phthalate 1462 146.23 Slight wormwood 1 waterborne lacquer
Alcohols
Leather, soybean
2-butoxy-ethanol 890 71.40 Low paste 3.5 Dye dispersant
1-(2-methoxypropoxy)-2- Unpleasant Dispersant in
propanol 998 1140.99 Slight mixed smell 2 waterborne lacquer

2-(2-butoxyethoxy)-Ethanol 1169 3362.85 Slight Cucumber 1 Diluent of adhesive

Ether
986 1851.48 Slight Alcohol 1 Coupling agent and
Dipropylene glycol active solvent in
monomethyl ether waterborne lacquer

5
1-(2-methoxypropoxy)-2-propanol
1,3-dimethyl-benzene

4
Dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether
Styrene
Intensity

2-(2-butoxyethoxy)-Ethanol

3
Dimethyl phthalate
p-Xylene
2-butoxy-ethanol
Ethylbenzene

2
Benzene

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (min)

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(a)

1-methylene-1h-indene
1,3-dimethyl-benzene
Styrene
Intensity

Acetic acid, butyl ester

1-methyl-naphthalene
Hexanal
2
Ethylbenzene
Benzene

Nonanal
1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (min)
(b)
Figure 3. Gas chromatography (GC) total ion flow chart and odor–time intensity spectrum: (a)
water paint coating particleboard, (b) particleboard.

Key odors were identified as potent smell contributors for the comparative analysis of mass
spectral data, odor identification compare with relevant reference compounds, and parameters
retention index (Xiao et al. 2016; Patcharee et al. 2011). Odor compound characteristics were
identified as follows: ethylbenzene was reported as fragrant, similar to the aromatic odor reported
by Larranaga et al. (2017); ethylbenzene has also been reported to have a pungent character
(Infante et al. 2012). Benzene was found to have a burnt character, in contrast to the gasoline-like
character reported by Sax (Félix. 1984) and the aromatic character reported by the U.S. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, 2010). Our testing found p-xylene to have
a fragrant odor, similar to the aromatic odor reported by NIOSH and the sweet character described
in the CAMEO Chemicals hazardous materials database. The styrene detected in this experiment
had a cream characteristic, whereas its odor was described as gasoline-like and balsamic in Denk
et al. (2017), aromatic in O’Neil (2013), and sweet, floral by NIOSH. Verschueren also found that,
although pure styrene always has a sweet and pleasant character, it usually contains aldehydes that
have a typical penetrating smell; and, thus, its character is sharp, sweet, and unpleasant
(Verschueren. 2001). The dimethyl phthalate in this experiment was reported to have a wormwood
character, whereas O'Neil reported a slight aromatic odor. 2-Butoxy-ethanol showed leather,
soybean paste characteristics; this is somewhat similar to the slight rancid odor reported in
Ashford (1994) and the sweet/ester odor, with a pleasant hedonic tone, reported in Verschueren
(2001). In addition, dimethyl phthalate was also reported to have a mild ether-like odor (NIOSH)
and a weak pleasant odor (Stoye, 2000). In this experiment, 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)-ethanol was
reported to have a cucumber-like smell; other researchers found it to present a faint butyl odor

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(Lewis, 2007) and a mild ether odor (O'Neil, 2013). Research showed that variety of factors could
influence differences of odor characteristics. According to van Gemert (2003), the odor
characteristic is related not only to its concentration but also to the media in which it exists, which
indicating in different concentrations and media, the same compound may show different odor
characteristics. Also, the retention indices of the same compound may vary because different
parameters are used for mass spectrometry. There are some problems to note about the odor
identification results. Three compounds were detected by only a few reporters: 1,3-dimethyl-
benzene, 1-(2-methoxypropoxy)-2-propanol, and dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether. The
subjective nature of smell could lead to differences in assessors’ reports, and assessors might have
difficulty detecting odorants present in low concentrations. Although assessor identifications were
paired with accurate instrumental analysis that has a very low detection limit, it is possible that an
odorant present at a concentration too low to be detected by GC-MS was diverted out along with
identified compounds, leading to failure to identity the compound. To address the problem of
subjective differences among assessors, pretraining must be thorough; also, multiple samples
should be used. Among the compounds released from the particleboard covered with water-based
paint, "benzene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene, styrene, acetic acid, butyl ester, 2-butoxy-ethanol, 2-(2-
butoxyethoxy)-ethanol, and dipropylene glycol monomethyl ether" are included in the list “VOCs
from office furniture in greater than 10% of all products” from UL 2821 (2013), which merits
attention. There was no direct correlation between the odor intensity and concentration of the
different odorant compounds. However, the concentration can affect the odor intensity for certain
types of compounds. Both et al. (2004) also found that odor intensity is logarithmically related to
odorant concentration (Stevens’ law or the power law).

The composition of odorous substances is complex, and different odors can interact. When
the odorants are mixed, there are various ways in which the total odor intensity can be affected: in
fusion, the total odor intensity is equal to the sum of odor intensity of the two compounds; in
synergism, the total odor intensity is greater than the sum of odor intensity of the two compounds;
in antagonism, the total odor intensity is less than the sum of odor intensity of the two compounds;
and, for an unrelated effect, the total odor intensity is determined by one odorant. Considering the
complex interaction among various odorant compounds, the effect of fusion on the total odor
intensity was chosen for use in this experiment. Figure 4 shows profiles of the odor characteristics
of veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer and possible odor sources. Fragrant
was the dominant odor impression, with a rating of 4.75. Leather and soybean paste both have a
rating of 3.5, followed by cream (3.0), honey (2.25), and unpleasant mixed smell (2.0). The
attributes burnt (1.0), wormwood (1.0), cucumber (1.0), and alcohol (1.0) were rated with low
intensities. Overall, the sample was evaluated as being generally comfortable, meaning that most
people would feel comfortable in this environment (with the exception of allergic individuals).
Particleboard (total intensity, 9.25) and paint (total intensity, 7.0) emissions were the primary
sources of odor; spice and adhesive had intensities of 2.25 and 1, respectively.

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Burnt
5
Alcohol 4 Fragrant
3
2
Cucumber Cream
1
0

Soybean paste Honey

Unpleasant
Leather
mixed smell
Wormwood

(a)

Adhesive
Possible sources

Spice

Paint making

Particleboard

0 2 4 6 8 10
Total value of odor intensity

(b)
Figure 4. Odor and sources profile of water paint coating particleboard: (a) odor profile, (b)
sources profile.

Effect of environmental factors on VOCs and odor emissions

Figure 5 shows the changes in TVOC concentration and total odor intensity under schemes B,
C, and D. Time is the most effective factor for eliminating VOCs from veneered particleboard
coated with water-based lacquer; VOCs and odor gradually decreased with time, until a stable
phase was reached. In the early stage, the TVOCs and total odor intensity reached their maximum
values. According to the theory of mass transfer, the VOCs inside the particleboards continue to
be released until the concentration difference disappears (Liu et al. 2017). However, the release
rate and the time needed to reach equilibrium change as environmental factors vary.

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24000 ----- Odor —— TVOCs 25 20000 20

----- Odor —— TVOCs
TVOCs concentrations (μgm-3)

TVOCs concentrations (μgm-3)

Total value of odor intensity

Total value of odor intensity

 23 ℃ 30 ℃ 40
℃
 40%  60%
20000
20 16000
15
16000
15 12000
12000 10
10 8000
8000
5
5 4000
4000

0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 7 14 21 28 35

Time (day) Time (day)

(a) (b)
24000 25
----- Odor —— TVOCs
TVOCs concentrations (μgm-3)

Total value of odor intensity

3 2 3 2
20000 0.2m /hm 0.5m /hm
3 2 20
1.0m /hm
16000
15

12000

10
8000

5
4000

0 0
0 7 14 21 28 35

Time (day)

(c)
Figure 5. TVOCs concentration and total odor intensity of the water-based lacquer veneer
particleboard at (a) different temperatures, (b) different relative humidity values, and (c) different
air exchange rate to loading factor ratios.

The TVOCs and total value of the odor intensity from veneered particleboard coated with
water-based lacquer increased when the temperature increased. At 23°C, 30°C, and 40°C, on the
first day, the TVOCs from the veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer were,
respectively, 8,290.26 μg m−3, 9,158.56 μg m−3, and 10,305.63 μg m−3; the total values of odor
intensity from the water-based coating were 17.25, 20, and 22.5, respectively (Figure 5a). As time
passed, the distinctions between TVOCs and the total value of the odor intensity gradually
diminished. At 23, 30, and 40°C, from day 1 to day 35, the average declines of the TVOCs were
generally large, 94.39, 91.47, and 89.30%, respectively, showing that time was a key factor for
VOCs emissions. Increased temperature could somewhat promote the emissions of VOCs and
odor. Temperature influences VOCs emissions through its effect on the diffusion coefficient (Li et
al. 2013). With increased temperature, the mass transfer resistance decreases and promotes the
release of the VOCs within the material; this may result in an increase in the mass transfer flux
and the release coefficient, which could lead to an increase in the concentration of VOCs within
an enclosure. An increase in temperature also promotes VOCs emissions because, when the
temperature increases, material diffusion, desorption, evaporation, and chemical reactions are also
increased, which can cause rapid and heavy TVOC emissions (Wang et al. 2017).

Figure 5b shows the influence of relative humidity on TVOC concentration and total odor
intensity under scheme C. When relative humidity levels increased, the TVOCs and total value of

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the odor intensity from veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer decreased. From
day 1 to day 21, the relative humidity had a greater effect on the emissions of VOCs and odors.
The TVOC concentrations and the total value of odor intensity were lower at 60% than at 40%
relative humidity. After 21 days, the effect of the relative humidity on the release of TVOCs of the
veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer gradually weakened to the point that no
statistically significant effect was found at different relative humidities. However, odor intensities
were still affected by relative humidity. In water-based paint, the water is used as the solvent; so,
when the relative humidity in the indoor environment increases, the evaporation rate decreases,
resulting in increased residual VOCs concentration (Li 2008). Related research shows that higher
relative humidity could promote release of VOCs from particleboard (Wang 2011); this can be
explained by changes in the pore structure of the particleboard that are caused by the acceleration
of hydrolysis, expansion of the pores in the drying layer, and hygroscopicity (Zhu et al. 2013). The
results of this paper showed that the application of waterborne paint could prevent partial VOCs
emissions from particleboard. Waterborne coatings are the main source of emissions and, thus,
play a leading role in release characteristics.
As the ratio of the air exchange rate to the loading factor increased, the TVOCs and total value
of the odor intensity from veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer decreased
(Figure 5c). In general, when the air exchange rate to loading factor ratio decreased, the TVOC
concentration increased and the time required for the TVOCs to reach equilibrium was shortened.
The samples examined under lower ratios of air exchange to loading factor reached equilibrium
sooner. Yu et al. (2006) and Yang et al. (2007) also found that increased ventilation reduced VOCs
concentrations. Large amounts of fresh carrier gas can dilute VOCs emissions within the microcell
extraction, which then enlarges the concentration gradient between the microcell extraction and
particleboard panels, thereby promoting the release of VOCs and reducing their concentration. To
accelerate the release of VOCs and odors before indoor use and to reach equilibrium in a shorter
time, an environment with relatively higher temperature, lower humidity, and higher air exchange
rate to loading factor ratio is suggested. The optimum storage condition for veneered particleboard
coated with water-based lacquer after production was found to be 40°C, 40% RH, and 1.0
m3·h−1·m−2 (ratio of air exchange rate to loading factor).

Effect of environmental factors on the components of VOCs and odor emissions in the
equilibrium state
Figure 6 shows the TVOC and odor component concentrations in the veneered
particleboard coated with water-based lacquer under different environmental conditions in the
equilibrium state. The TVOC and odor component concentrations in the stable phase changed with
changes in single factors. The main odor components were found to be aromatics, alcohols, esters,
and alkanes. The amounts of alcohols, esters, ethers, and aldehydes increased with increasing
temperature and relative humidity; they decreased as the air exchange rate to loading factor ratio
increased. The emissions of aromatics and alkanes decreased when the temperature, relative
humidity, and the air exchange rate to loading factor ratio increased. When the relative humidity
increased from 40% to 60%, the TVOC concentrations of alcohols, aldehydes, ethers, and esters
increased, respectively, 345.57%, 33.80%, 382.26%, and 3.72%. The concentrations of aromatics
and alkanes were reduced by 57.66% and 44.03%.

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Others
Others
3
) Ethers

)
600 Ethers
Components concentration (g/m

3
Aldehydes

Components concentration (g/m

1200 Aldehydes
Alcohols
Alcohols
Esters 500 Esters
1000 Alkanes Alkanes
Aromatics Aromatics
400
800

600 300

400 200

200 100

0 0
VOCs Odors VOCs Odors VOCs Odors VOCs Odors VOCs Odors
23
℃ 40
℃ 60 ℃
40% 60%
Temperature factor Relative humidity factor

(a) (b)

Others
)

700 Ethers
3
Components concentration (g/m

Aldehydes
600 Alcohols
Esters
Alkanes
500 Aromatics

400

300

200

100

0
VOCs Odors VOCs Odors VOCs Odors
3 2 3 2 3 2
0.2m /hm 0.5m /hm 1.0m /hm
Ratios of air exchange rate and loading factor

(c)
Figure 6. TVOCs and odor components concentrations from veneered particleboard coated with
water-based lacquer under different conditions at an equilibrium state: (a) different temperatures;
(b) different relative humidity values; and (c) different air exchange rate to loading factor ratios.

At 23 °C, 30 °C, and 40 °C, the proportion of the odor compound concentration to TVOC
concentration was 42.94%, 40.96%, and 32.03%, respectively, whereas, at 40% and 60% relative
humidity, the proportion was 42.94%, and 5.77%. The proportion was 40.89%, 42.94%, and
40.17% when the air exchange rate to loading factor ratio was 0.2 m3/m2 h, 0.5 m3/m2 h, and 1.0
m3/m2 h, respectively. The proportion of the odor substance concentration to TVOC concentration
decreased with an increase in the temperature and relative humidity. The air exchange rate to
loading factor ratio had little effect.

Summary and Conclusions

Problems associated with air pollution and odors from decorative wood-based panels have
attracted increased public scrutiny. In this study, evaluation of veneered particleboard coated with
water-based lacquer by GC-MS/O allowed key odorants to be identified and the effects of
environmental factors on TVOC and odor emissions to be explored. These findings are important
in controlling the quality of indoor air.
Based on this study, GC-MS/O can be successfully used to analyze and detect odors from
wood-based panels and furniture materials. In total, 14 different odor types were identified from

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veneered particleboard coated with water-based lacquer; these were concentrated in 15 to 23 min
and reached their maximum odor intensity at 17.22 min. The predominant odor impressions were
fragrant, leather, and soybean paste, and the main odorants were aromatics, alcohols, esters, and
alkanes. The sample was evaluated as being generally comfortable, indicating that most people in
a similar environment would feel comfortable (with the exception of allergic individuals). VOCs
concentration and total odor intensity increased as the temperature increased but decreased as the
ratio of relative humidity and the air exchange rate to the loading factor increased. Throughout the
analysis, the ratio of the air exchange rate to the loading factor was shown to have a greater impact
on the VOCs released from the veneered particleboard than either temperature or relative humidity,
and, thus, this ratio should receive primary consideration during storage. In a state of equilibrium,
the main odor components were aromatics, alcohols, esters, and alkanes. Alcohols and esters
increased with increasing temperature and relative humidity and decreased as the ratio of the air
exchange rate to loading factor increased; however, emissions of aromatics and alkanes decreased
when the temperature, relative humidity, and the air exchange rate to loading factor ratio increased.
To accelerate the release of VOCs and odors before indoor use and to reduce their effect on humans
in a fixed period of time, the optimum storage condition after production for veneered
particleboard coated with water-based lacquer was found to be 40°C, 40% RH, and 1.0 m3·h−1· m−2
(ratio of air exchange rate to loading factor).
The results of this study can be used to explore appropriate environmental conditions for the
storage of veneered particleboard coated with a water-based lacquer after production to reduce the
effect of VOCs and odors on humans. Meanwhile, this study is helpful to establish a database of
decorative wood-based panels. However, note that the perception of odors is subjective and
differed among assessors. At the same time, considering the complex interaction among different
odors, there should be ongoing effort to improve the calculation of the total value of odor intensity.
Further studies will focus on establishing the correlation between VOCs and odors from decorative
wood-based panel and on exploring the method of evaluating total odor intensity.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of The National Key Research and
Development Program of China (2016YFD0600706)

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Biography

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Effect of lacquer decoration on VOCs and odor release from P.neurantha

(Hemsl.) Gamble

See Paper Under Early Stage Researchers pg.79

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Regular Poster:

PROPERTIES OF PARTICLEBOARD MADE FROM RECYCLED POLYSTYRENE

AND Cocos nucifera STEM PARTICLES

Babatunde Ajayi1
[email protected]
Abiola Adeniran1
[email protected]
Ayodeji Omole2
[email protected]
Omolola Akinlalu3
[email protected]

1 Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria

2 University of Ibadan, Nigeria
3 Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo, Nigeria

Abstract
The study investigates the use of Recycled Polystyrene (RP) in the production of particleboard. Boards of
6mm thickness with dimension of 350 mm x 350 mm were produced from mixture of Cocos nucifera stem
particles and RP. The boards were made at varying mixing ratio of 1:1, 2:1, and 3:1 and board densities
of 1000 kg/m3 1100 kg/m3 and 1200 kg/m3. Thickness swelling (TS), Water Absorption (WA), Modulus of
Rupture, and Modulus of Elasticity of the boards were evaluated in accordance to ASTM D-1037
standard. Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 5% probability level. TS and
WA decreases as the mixing ratio increases from 1:1 to 3:1 and board density increases from 1000
kg/m3 to 1200 kg/m3. Also, MOR and MOE of boards increase as the board density was increased from
1000 kg/m3 to 1200 kg/m3. However, MOR and MOE of boards initially increases as mixing ratio
increases from 1:1 to 2:1 and later decreases with further increase in mixing ratio. The strongest and
most dimensionally stable board was produced at board 1200 kg/m3 and mixing ratio 2:1. This study
proves that RP is a good substitute for formaldehyde based resin commonly used in particle boards
industries.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Heterospecific tree density and environmental factors affect Afzelia

africana Sm. population structure in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, West
Africa: Implications for Management and Restoration.

Justin A. Atanasso1 , Sylvanus Mensah1 , Akomian F. Azihou2 , Bruno A. Djossa3 , Romain Glèlè
Kakaï1 , Achille E. Assogbadjo2

Atanasso Akpovi Justin; Laboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations Forestières, Faculté des

Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, [email protected]

Mensah Sylvanus; Laboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations Forestières, Faculté des

Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’AbomeyCalavi, [email protected]

Azihou Akomian; Laboratory of Applied Ecology, University of Abomey Calavi,

[email protected]

Djossa Bruno; Ecole de Foresterie et d’Ingénierie du Bois, Université Nationale d’Agriculture, Benin,
[email protected]

Glèlè Kakaï Romain; Laboratoire de Biomathématiques et d’Estimations Forestières, Faculté des

Sciences Agronomiques, Université d’AbomeyCalavi, [email protected]

Assogbadjo Achille; Laboratory of Applied Ecology, University of Abomey-Calavi,

[email protected]

Abstract.
Information on how abiotic and biotic factors affect species population structures and regeneration
are critical for understanding plant growth in natural habitats. Here, we used data from three
spatially distinct stands of A. africana in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin, to determine
how the species stands’ structures respond to abiotic and biotic factors. A. africana stands’
structures were studied using several parameters including basal area, tree height, density of
successive diameter classes, and size class slope. We tested for individual effects of abiotic (mound
density, soil type, terrain slope) and biotic (heterospecific tree density) factors on the species
stands’ structure. We also tested for similarity of species composition among studied A. africana
stands. Results revealed a tree density structure with over-mature individuals, and size class
distribution indicating a recruitment bottleneck at the juvenile stage (10-20 cm diameter), possibly
due to mammal browsing, natural and artificial fires. Heterospecific tree density was positively
associated with A. africana adult density, but negatively related to the species growth parameters
(mean diameter, basal area and tree height). These results indicate some degrees of niche overlap
between A. africana and coexisting species, but also partly reflect A. africana tolerance and
adaptation to limited resources environment. Soil type significantly influenced both basal area and

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regeneration density, greater values being observed on rock outcrop soils. Basal area was higher
on steeper terrain slope, probably a result of species conservative strategies. These findings were
discussed in line with management and restoration action needs in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve.
Keywords. Afzelia africana, importance value index; stand of Batia; stand of Bondjagou; stand of
Bali; Pendjari Biosphere Reserve; Benin.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Enhancing the fire resistance of cement-bonded

particleboard made of Scots pine and poplar
Fatima Zohra Brahmia1 -Péter György Horváth2 -Tibor L. Alpar3*

1 PhD student, University of Sopron, Simonyi Károly Faculty of Engineering, Wood Sciences
and Applied Art, Institute of Wood Based Products and Technologies, Sopron, Hungary
[email protected]
2 associate professor, University of Sopron, Simonyi Károly Faculty of Engineering, Wood
Sciences and Applied Art, Institute of Wood Based Products and Technologies, Sopron, Hungary
[email protected]
3 associate professor, Institution, City, State, Country * Corresponding author
[email protected]

Abstract

Cement bonded particleboard (CBPB) is well known as building material that has a growing
market in central of Europe, requirements and regulations on both the global and national level
forcing continuous developments. Over the years researchers focused on improving the
hygroscopic and mechanical properties and shortening the manufacturing time of the CBPB but
there was no improvement on its fire resistance. CBPB without any pre-treatment is a material
within the B-s1, d0 classification of fire resistance. Using fire retardants could upgrade it to the
classification A1 or A2 but the fire retardants should not affect the primary properties of CBPB. In
this study, particles of Scots pine and poplar pre-treated with fire retardants (Borax, DAHP 150
g/l and DSHP 77g/l) were used for CBPB production. For the first time FR’s pre-treatment was
used for manufacture CBPB. Sodium silicate (SS) and Polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride+
montmorillonite (PDDA+MM) were used to increase the cement wood compatibility. In total 32
type of CBPB were prepared 8 of them were control with untreated particles. After 15 days from
CBPB’s curing, specimens were cut with the required dimensions for each test and Standard tests
were made in order to investigate the effect of the FR’s on the CBPB properties and if they meet
the standard requirement. A non-combustibility test EN ISO 1182:2010 was made to determine
whether the material will participate directly to fire expansion or not and if it upgraded to
classification of a building products into classes A1 and A2. Results showed that fire retardants
has influence on the mechanical properties of CBPB’s. However, using 5% of SS or 20% of
(PDDA+MM) the boards can full fill the standard requirements. Only boards made of poplar
particles pre-treated of DAHP 150g/l upgraded to A1 classification.

Key words: cement-bonded particleboard, fire retardant, Scots pine, poplar

Introduction

Over the years, building construction have improved from many aspects, starting with design to
construction materials. This product has advantages of both concrete and wood. Its fire resistance

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is better than that of wood. It has a better tensile and bending strength than concrete, and it is also
lighter. For cement-wood composites, it is reinforced by wood fibers, particles, flakes, and wood
wool with different shapes and sizes (Ferraz et al., 2012). The most well-known cement bonded
products are cement fiberboard, cement bonded particleboard (CBPB), wood-wool cement boards
(WWCB), and building blocks (Vaickelionis and Vaickelioniene, 2006). Low density boards are
used as thermal insulation (Frybort et al., 2008).
Cement wood composites (CWC) are building materials that have many influencing factors. The
most important factor on CWC production is the compatibility between wood and cement. The
wood species is the most important factor in cement-wood compatibility because not all species
have the same kind and amount of extractives which are retarding the hydration of cement. Not
only does the wood species have an effect, but the time of harvesting, age, and storing (Nasser et
al., 2016) make a difference because these factors can influence the extractives within the wood
(Alpar et al., 2011; Frybort et al., 2008; Wei et al., 2000). Pre-treatments for wood were used to
decrease the extractives or cement inhibitors in many studies. The most used wood pre-treatments
were hot and cold water, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and alkaline hydrolysis. These
pre-treatments can change the cement wood compatibility from non-compatible to suitable (Castro
et al., 2014; Nasser et al., 2016; Nasser and Al-Mefarrej, 2011; Quiroga et al., 2016)

Mechanical properties and reduction of the curing time are the most important aspects that
researchers are focused on. Usually mechanical properties are increased by using various additives
like calcium chloride and sodium silicate (Alpar et al., 2011). To decrease the curing time of the
CWC, carbon dioxide (CO2) is used (Qi et al., 2010). It is not only used to reduce curing time, but
also improves mechanical properties and water absorption as well (Wang et al., 2017).

A few research projects have examined the fire resistance of CBPB, and they were mostly focused
on proving that CBPB is non-combustible material or the effect of the additives on the thermal
stability of the material (Saval et al., 2014; Yu et al., 2016). Nevertheless, the fire resistance of
CBPB needs improvement especially that CBPB is a construction material and fire safety is
important aspect in buildings. CBPB without any pre-treatment is a material within the B-s1, d0
classification of fire resistance (MSZ EN 13501-1:2007+ A1:2010) (Falco 2020). Using fire
retardants as pre-treatments for wooden particles that be used in the CBPB could upgrade it to the
A2 or A1 classification. However, the used fire retardants should not affect the primary properties
like mechanical performance. In addition, the used fire retardants have to be eco-friendly, as to not
harm people, and cheap as well because the CWC have to remain on budget. The known wood fire
retardants that seem to have potential as pre-treatment agents are the phosphorus, boron
compounds and polyethylene glycol.

The aim of this research is to increase the fire resistance of CBPB’s made of poplar and Scots pine
by using fire retardants pre-treatments for the used wood particles in the CBPB production. Since
there was no previous researches on increasing fire resistance of CBPB with fire retardants pre-
treatments the used fire retardants were chosen carefully to be effective for fire retardation of
poplar and Scots pine (Brahmia et al., 2020).

Materials & Methods

A poplar hybrid (Populus cv. euroamericane I214) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) particles,
Portland cement CEM I 42.5, and sodium silicate SS (Na2SiO3) were used as basic raw materials.

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Fire retardants: Borax (Na2B4O7), DSHP (Na2HPO4), DAHP ((NH2)4HPO4). Alternate wood-
cement compatibilizers: montmorillonite (MM) (Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2.nH2O),
Polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (PDDA) (C8H16NCl)n. The fire retardants used were in
powder form. They were dissolved in distilled water to become liquids. Chemicals were prepared
with concentration of 150g/l for DAHP, 77g/l for DSHP and 25g/l for Borax under solubility
temperature of 20°C.

Particles of Sots pine and poplar were treated with fire retardants by spray gun in a drum blender.
The initial moister content of wood particle was around 18%. 1L of FR were sprayed for 3kg of
wood. CBPB were produced from treated Scots pine and poplar particles. The boards have three
layers, the core layer with big particles and two surface layers with small particles. Sodium silicate
was used as additive to increase the cement wood compatibility first with 2%, then 5% of the
cement weight. A mixture of PDDA and MM were used as well with different amount 0,2% and
20% of the cement weight. The used additives well known as bender for Scots pine and poplar
with cement and as well good fire retardants. The following recipes (Table 1) manufactured all 32
CBPB’s.

Table 1: CBPB recipe production.

Recipe R1 R2 R3 R4
Wood 1 1 1 1
Cem 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6
SS 0.052 0.13 0 0
PDDA 0 0 0.001 0.1
MM 0 0 0.001 0.1
CS 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52
Total 4.172 4.25 4.122 4.32

Steel plate was covered by plastic in order the mixture do not stick. Wooden mould with dimension
(400x400x200 mm) put above steel plate and the surface layer of the cement wood mixture was
spread by hand after that the core layer then another surface layer. Then pressed with wooden
cover by hand, the wooden mould was removed and steel spacers with thickness of 12 mm was
put to ensure final thickness, another steel plate was put above the board and it was pressed with
press machine under pressure of 7.9 MPa for 24 hours in a Siempelkamp laboratory press.

Mechanical properties

After 15 days, all produced CBPB’s were cut for tests to specimens with dimension of
(50x250x12mm). Bending strength (Bending test) EN 310 was made Fig.1.

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Fig.1: INSTRON IN5566 bending machine (a), specimens (b)

Fire performance

Specimens form CBPB’s were taken in order to make Fire tests. The non-combustibility
tests were made by a Wazau test apparatus corresponds to standard EN ISO 1182:2010. It was
used to determine the classification of the CBPB specimens. EN ISO 1182 Non-combustibility test
is one of the Euro class test standard. The Non-combustibility test is made to determine whether
the material will participate directly to fire expansion and is relevant to classification of all building
products into classes A1 and A2 (Table 2).

Table 2: Classes of reaction to fire performance for construction product

EN ISO 13501-1:2007 +A1:2010.

Class classification criteria

A1 ∆T ≤ 30°C; and
∆m ≤ 50%; and tf= (i.e. no sustained flaming)
A2 ∆T ≤ 50°C; and ∆m ≤ 50%; and tf ≤ 20s

Results and Discussion

Mechanical properties

According to Fig.2 and Fig.3 fire retardants has big influence on the bending and density of the
produced CBPB’s with both poplar and Scots pine. There is relation between density and MOR
high density gives high MOR. In case of scots pine CBPB’s made with SS has higher density than
boards made with (PDDA+MM) while for poplar density of CBPB’s made of SS and
(PDDA+MM) has no difference in density.

For CBPB’s made of Scots pine board made of untreated wood particles fulfilled the standard
requirement with MOR=9,54 MPa with using 2% of SS from cement weight. In other hand, board
made with treated particle has lower MOR. Board made of particles treated with borax has 62,63%
lower MOR than the untreated one, while board made of particles treated with DSHP 77g/l has
25.37% lower MOR than the untreated for board with DAHP 150g/l MOR drop with 53.52% and

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none of them fulfilled the requirement. After adding 5% of SS from cement weight, MOR dropped
by 17.71% for the untreated board becoming 7.85 MPa and standing out of the standard. While
boards made of treated particles, it’s MOR increased by 63.37% in case of board made of particles
treated of borax, 39.20% in case of DSHP 7g/l and 49.67% in case of DAHP 150g/l. With using
5% of SS boards made of particles treated with borax fulfilled the standard requirement by
10.22 MPa and DSHP 77g/l by 11.17 MPa but DAHP 150 almost reach standard it has MOR=8.81
MPa while standard requirement is 9 MPa see Fig.2.(a).

For boards made of Scots pine particles with 0,2% of (PDDA+MM), untreated board did not meet
the requirement with MOR=5.66 MPa. Boards made of particles treated with DSHP 77g/l had
MOR=5.99 MPa which similar to untreated one. boards made of DAHP 150g/l pre-treated particles
has lower MOR than the untreated with 54.62% while borax pretreatment prevent board from
curing. By increasing the (PDDA+MM) to 20% control specimens MOR increased by 42.48%,
boards with DSHP 77g/l pretreatment increased with 42.59% and boards with DAHP150g/l
pretreatment increased with 72.26% upgrading the boards to the standard requirements. However
for borax pre-treatment even with 20% of (PDDA+MM) board cured but have low MOR 4.90 MPa
see Fig.2.(b).

kg/m3
Mpa

12 1600
1400
10
1200
8
1000
6 800
600
4
400
2
200
0 0
N SC Wg N SC Wg borax SC borax SC DS 77g/l DS 77g/l DA 150g/l DA 150g/l
0.02 0.05 Wg 0.02 Wg 0.05 SC Wg SC Wg SC Wg SC Wg
0.02 0.05 0.02 0.05

MOR Density

(a)

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kg/m3

Mpa
12 1350

10 1300
1250
8
1200
6
1150
4
1100
2 1050
0 1000
N SC N SC borax SC DS 77g/l SC DS 77g/l SC DA 150g/l DA 150g/l
PDDA+MM PDDA+MM PDDA+MM PDDA+MM PDDA+MM SC SC
0.002 0.2 0.2 0.002 0.2 PDDA+MM PDDA+MM
0.002 0.2
MOR Density

(b)

Fig.2: MOR and Density of CBPB made of Scots pine. (a) boards made with water glass
additive, (b) boards made with PDDA+ montmorillonite additive

For boards made of poplar particles with 2% of SS, board made of untreated wood particles did
not fulfilled the standard requirement with MOR=8.77 MPa. In addition, board made with treated
particle has even lower MOR. Board made of particles treated with borax has 23.26% lower MOR
than the untreated board, while board made of particles treated with DSHP 77g/l has 16.10% lower
MOR than the untreated for board with DAHP 150g/l bending strength drop with 70.82%. With
comparing the poplar and scots pine results borax and DSHP 77 g/l has small influence on the
MOR of the CBPB’s made of poplar than of Scots pine. After adding 5% of SS from cement
weight, MOR increased by 55.16% for the untreated board becoming 15.38 MPa and fulfilling the
standard requirement. Boards made of treated particles, it’s MOR increased by 51.96% in case of
board made of particles treated of borax, 35.92% in case of DSHP 7g/l and 67.27% in case of
DAHP 150g/l. With using 5% of SS boards made of particles treated with borax fulfilled the
standard requirement by 12.70 MPa and DSHP 77g/l by 9.28 MPa but DAHP 150 stand out of
standard with 6.47 see Fig.3.(a).

For boards made of poplar particles with 0,2% of (PDDA+MM), untreated board did almost meet
the standard requirement with 8.64 MPa. fire retardants pre-treatments decreased MOR of the
CBPB’s for borax it was decreased by 78.82%, DSHP 77g/l it was decreased by 51.96 and 50.06%
in case of DAHP 150g/l. By increasing the (PDDA+MM) to 20% control specimens MOR
increased by 49.01%, boards with DSHP 77g/l pretreatment increased with 58.22% and boards
with DAHP 150g/l pretreatment increased with 53.31% upgrading the boards to the standard
requirements. However for borax pre-treatment even with 20% of (PDDA+MM) board cured but
have low MOR 4.18 MPa see Fig.1.(b).

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kg/m3

Mpa
18 1600
16 1400
14 1200
12
1000
10
800
8
600
6
4 400

2 200
0 0
N P Wg N P Wg borax P borax P DS 77g/l DS 77g/l DA DA
0.02 0.05 Wg 0.02 Wg 0.05 P Wg P Wg 150g/l P 150g/l P
0.02 0.05 Wg 0.02 Wg 0.05
MOR Density

(a)

kg/m3
Mpa

18 1600
16 1400
14 1200
12
1000
10
800
8
600
6
4 400

2 200
0 0

MOR Density

(b)

Fig.3: MOR and Density of CBPB made of poplar. (a) boards made with water glass additive, (b)
boards made with PDDA+ montmorillonite additive

Fire performance

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Incombustibility test see Table 3 and Table 4, indicated that fire retardants has better performance
on poplar than of Scots pine as it was expected when it was tested on solid wood (Brahmia et al.,
2020). Fire retardant pre-treatments had no effect on fire performance of Scots pine except for
DSHP 77g/l, which reduced the ΔT with 40.03% in case of CBPB with (PDDA+MM) additives
(Table 3).

Table 3: Incombustibility test results of Scots pine samples

SS PDDA+MM
DS DA DS DA DA
untreated borax 77g/l 150g/l untreated borax 77g/l 150g/l 150g/l
ΔT (°) 58,32 51,08 47,8 49,28 57,23 48,94 34,32 58,32 51,08
Δm(g) 38,64 35,69 38,64 34,54 38,29 39,65 37,06 38,64 35,69
tf (s) 871,2 769 645 770 967 762 523 871,2 769

For CBPB’s made of poplar, fire retardants have an influence om fire performance. The ΔT of
CBPB made of DAHP 150g/l pre-treated particles and SS was reduced by 59.53% with ΔT=
23.52°, Δm= 34.54% which is lower than 50% of mass loss and no flaming upgrading the board
to A1 class according to EN ISO 13501-1:2007+A1:2010 classification. CBPB’s made of borax
and DAHP 150g/l pre-treated poplar particles with (PDDA+MM) additives increased ΔT with
almost 48% but there was flaming during the test and was more than 20s which did not fulfill the
standard requirements. Since the interaction between SS and DAHP 150g/l prevent the flaming.
Specimens with CBPB made of 150g/l pre-treatment and (PDDA+MM) additives was soaked into
SS and let to dry for one week before test. After testing, it was found that ΔT was reduced by
65.78% and there was no flaming, which upgrade the CBPB to A 1 class. SS is well known as a
wood fire retardants (Mahzabin et al., 2013; Medina and Schledjewski, 2009).

Table 4: Incombustibility test results of Poplar samples

SS PDDA+MM
DS DA DA DA
untreated borax 77g/l 150g/l untreated borax DS 77g/l 150g/l 150g/l *
ΔT (°) 58,12 54,46 47,36 23,52 57,52 30 39,94 29,36 19,68
Δm(g) 35,64 38 34,71 31,18 35,24 32,67 35,55 31,45 25,6
tf (s) 708 722 657 0 979 625 659 315 0
Note: * samples soaked into SS let to dry 7 days before test

Summary and Conclusions

Over the years, many researchers have been developed CWC from mechanical properties, cement
wood compatibility to shortening manufacturing time via pre-treatments. However, there was no
researches on improving fire resistance of CW of CBPC. This paper studied the possibility of
improving fire resistance of CBPB made of scots pine and poplar particles pre-treated with fire
retardants. It was found that fire retardants have big influence on the MOR of the CBPB’s but with
using 5% of SS boards with scots pine or poplar particles pretreated with borax or DAHP 77g/l

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fulfill the standard requirements. In other hand, using 20% of (PDDA+MM) for producing boards
with particles of poplar or Scots pine pre-treated with DAHP 150g/l or DSHP 77g/l fulfill the
standard requirements. Incombustibility test, showed that fire retardants did not have upgraded the
CBPB made of Scots pine to A1 or A2 classifications but it has big effect on poplar DAHP 150g/l
pre-treatment upgraded the CBPB made of poplar classification from B-ds1,d0 to A1 according to
EN ISO 13501-1:2007+A1:2010. Additives has influence on fire retardants performance SS
improved fire performance of DAHP 150g/l as SS is considered as one of wood fire retardants
itself.

Acknowledgements

This article was made in frame of the „EFOP-3.6.1-16-2016-00018 – Improving the role of
research+development+innovation in the higher education through institutional developments
assisting intelligent specialization in Sopron and Szombathely”.

References

Alpar, T., Pavlekovics, A., Csoka, L., Horvath, L., 2011. Wood wool cement boards produced with
nano minerals. Presented at the Proceedings 3rd Int. Scientific Conference on Hardwood
Processing (ISCHP32011) I: Peer reviewed contributions, pp. 75–82.
Brahmia, F.Z., Alpár, T., Horváth, P.G., Csiha, C., 2020. Comparative analysis of wettability with
fire retardants of Poplar (Populus cv. euramericana I214) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Surf.
Interfaces 18, 100405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2019.100405
Castro, V., Araújo, R.D., Parchen, C., Iwakiri, S., 2014. Evaluation of pretreatment effects of
Eucalyptus benthamii Maiden & Cambage wood on the compatibility degree with Portland
cement. Rev. Árvore 38, 935–942.
Falco “https://www.falco-woodindustry.com/Betonyp_epitolemez.html,” Apr. 2020.
Ferraz, J.M., Del Menezzi, C.H.S., Souza, M.R., Okino, E.Y.A., Martins, S.A., 2012.
Compatibility of Pretreated Coir Fibres ( Cocos nucifera L.) with Portland Cement to Produce
Mineral Composites. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2012, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/290571
Frybort, S., Mauritz, R., Teischinger, A., Müller, U., 2008. Cement bonded composites - A
mechanical review. BioResources 3, 602–626. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.3.2.602-626
Mahzabin, M.S., Hamid, R., Badaruzzaman, W.H.W., 2013. EVALUATION OF CHEMICALS
INCORPORATED WOOD FIBRE CEMENT MATRIX PROPERTIES 8, 14.
Medina, L.A., Schledjewski, R., 2009. WATER GLASS AS HYDROPHOBIC AND FLAME
RETARDANT ADDITIVE FOR NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES 10.
“MSZ EN 13501-1:2007+A1:2010 (Fire classification of construction products and building
elements. Part 1: Classification using data from reaction to fire tests).”
Nasser, R.A., Al-Mefarrej, H.A., 2011. Midribs of Date Palm as a Raw Material for Wood-Cement
Composite Industry in Saudi Arabia 8.
Nasser, R.A., Salem, M.Z.M., Al-Mefarrej, H.A., Aref, I.M., 2016. Use of tree pruning wastes for
manufacturing of wood reinforced cement composites. Cem. Concr. Compos. 72, 246–256.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.06.008
Qi, H., Cooper, P.A., Hooton, D., 2010. The investigation of basic processes of rapidly hardening
wood-cement-water mixture with CO2. Eur. J. Wood Wood Prod. 68, 35–41.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-009-0351-z

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Quiroga, A., Marzocchi, V., Rintoul, I., 2016. Influence of wood treatments on mechanical
properties of wood–cement composites and of Populus Euroamericana wood fibers. Compos. Part
B Eng. 84, 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.08.069
Saval, J., Lapuente, R., Navarro, V., Tenza-Abril, A.J., 2014. Fire-resistance, physical, and
mechanical characterization of particleboard containing Oceanic Posidonia waste. Mater. Constr.
64, 019.
Vaickelionis, G., Vaickelioniene, R., 2006. Cement hydration in the presence of wood extractives
and pozzolan mineral additives. Ceram. Silik. 50, 115.
Wang, L., Chen, S.S., Tsang, D.C.W., Poon, C.-S., Dai, J.-G., 2017. CO 2 curing and fibre
reinforcement for green recycling of contaminated wood into high-performance cement-bonded
particleboards. J. CO2 Util. 18, 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2017.01.018
Wei, Y.M., Guang Zhou, Y., Tomita, B., 2000. Hydration behavior of wood cement-based
composite I: evaluation of wood species effects on compatibility and strength with ordinary
portland cement. J. Wood Sci. 46, 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00766220
Yu, Y., Hou, J., Dong, Z., Wang, C., Lu, F., Song, P., 2016. Evaluating the flammability
performance of Portland cement-bonded particleboards with different cement–wood ratios using
a cone calorimeter. J. Fire Sci. 34, 199–211.

Biography

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Promotion of Eucalyptus Hybrid Species as Utility Poles for

Electricity Transmission: The Mechanical Strength
Properties of Eucalyptus urograndis Grown in Ghana

Emmanuel Appiah-Kubi1* - Haruna Seidu2 - Francis Wilson Owusu2 - Ohene Addo3

1Senior Lecturer, Department of Construction and Wood Technology, University
of Education, Winneba, Kumasi Campus, Kumasi, Ghana *Corresponding author
[email protected]

2Principal Technologist, Principal Research Scientist, CSIR-Forestry Research

Institute of Ghana, Fumesua-Kumasi, Ghana
[email protected], [email protected]

3Managing Director, Asuboa Wood Treatment Limited, P.O.Box JO 160, Juaso,

Ghana
[email protected]

Abstract

Electricity transmission is vital for the supply and distribution of energy for both domestic
households and industrial usage. The most common wood species used as poles for electricity
transmission in Ghana are Teak and Pines, which are unable to meet the demand for rural
electrification programmes. Eucalyptus plantations have been set up in Ghana and are readily
available. The suitability of the eucalyptus trees as an alternative to Teak and Pines for electricity
transmission was assessed in this study. Five trees of four-year old eucalyptus hybrid species
(Eucalyptus urophylla + Eucalyptus grandis = Eucalyptus urograndis) were used for the study.
The bending strength (Modulus of rupture, MOR and Modulus of elasticity, MOE) and Density
were determined according to British Standard BS 373. Results were analyzed using Origin
statistical software. The eucalyptus hybrid species recorded mean MOE and MOR values of 11,980
N/mm2 and 89 N/mm2 respectively. Sectional (longitudinal) comparison for all the trees
investigated suggests uniform distribution of the strength properties along the height of the poles
of Eucalyptus species. Strength properties (MOE and MOR) of Eucalyptus hybrid species from
MIRO plantations in Ghana compares well with other eucalyptus species from other countries.
Eucalyptus trees are therefore recommended for use as transmission poles in Ghana.

Keywords: Eucalyptus, utility poles, mechanical properties

INTRODUCTION

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In Ghana, the most used species for electrification is Tectona grandis. Other species that
complement teak include pines, afina, kusia and kusibiri. Ofori et al. (2008) assessed the suitability
of plantation grown Kusia (Nauclea diderrichii Merill). The treatability of Kusia, as reported by
Ofori et al. (2008) rendered it suitable for use as electricity transmission poles. Unfortunately, the
volumes of these species have reduced drastically thereby posing challenges to the industry and
the nation at large. Currently Pine poles are imported to supplement the growing demand for
electricity transmission poles. Meanwhile some Eucalyptus species have been grown in plantations
by individuals and companies in Ghana.

Eucalypts are known to possess high density and bending strength properties. Density ranges from
470 kg/m3 to 980 kg/m3. Modulus of elasticity ranges from 10500 N/mm2 to 18220 N/mm2.
Eucalypts from natural forests tend to have higher densities than those from plantations. The
physical and strength properties vary with age, genotype and planting site. However, growth rate
appears not to influence physical and strength properties (Loulildi et al. 2012, Doran and
Wongkaew 2008, Santos et al. 2004).
Loulidi et al. (2012) determined the physical and mechanical properties of a hybrid of E. grandis
and E. camaldulensis in Morroco. Results from non-destructive tests conducted on specimens
showed high bending strength properties – Modulus of elasticity (MOE) of 18219 N/mm2 and a
density of 470 kg/m3. The parent species E. grandis and E. camaldulensis had Mean MOE of
14488 N/mm2 and 18266 N/mm2 respectively.

MIRO Forestry Limited has Eucalyptus plantation of about 5000 hectares in Ghana. The principal
species grown by MIRO include E. pellita, E. Urophylla, E. grandis, E. camaldulensis and
Corymbia citriodora. The trees of these species are less used by the furniture industry while the
pole treatment industry has virtually no raw materials to work with. Meanwhile Eucalypts are
being used in other countries as electricity transmission poles. Again, the government imports
treated poles annually to undertake rural electrification projects. The use of Eucalypt species as
poles is possible when their natural durability and others are known. There is therefore the need to
study into the Eucalypts that are grown in Ghana to assess their potential for utilization as
electrification poles. This study therefore aims at increasing the quantities of wood species
available in Ghana to produce electricity transmission poles thereby supporting climate change
mitigation, sustainable forest management and livelihood improvement. The specific objective is
to determine the mechanical properties of plantation grown eucalyptus and their suitability as
electricity transmission poles in Ghana.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Five trees of four-year old eucalyptus hybrid species were extracted from the MIRO plantations in
Agogo, Ashanti Region of Ghana for the laboratory tests. The trees extracted were given unique
identification as follows: G1, H10, K1, W2, Z16. Each tree was sectioned into Butt (B), Middle

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(M) and Top (T) and transported to the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana’s Wood Processing
Workshop. The Logs were processed into 30mm thick boards and stacked for air drying.

Methods
Static Bending Test
Static bending test was conducted to determine the Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of
Rupture (MOR) of the trees. Sample preparations and tests were conducted based on the British
Standards BS 373. According to the standard, specimen to be used in determining MOE and MOR
should be free from knots, splits, decay with dimensions 20mm x 20mm x 300mm.
Each tree was sectioned into Butt (B), Middle (M) and Top (T) with 20 specimens for each of the
sections. The specimens were conditioned in a climate chamber (CLIMATUR) for 24hrs at 20 oC
and 65% temperature and humidity respectively.
The tests were conducted using a Universal Testing Machine (Instron, model no. 4482). Results
of test are stored in an output file by the Instron software.
Test results were extracted into Microsoft Excel format. The results were then transferred onto the
Origin Lab software version 9.0 for analysis. The analysis was done comparing the means of the
various sections within trees and that of tree-to-tree comparison. The results obtained are
summarized in the tables below.

Fibre Stress Determination

Fibre stress, which is the longitudinal compressive or tensile stress in a member, such as a beam
was estimated based on the ‘characteristic’ MOR strength value of the species. Traditionally,
determination of strength properties is based on a combination of full-size pole test and small clear
specimen test (Wolfe et al. 2001). Though strength properties are best determined on structural
sized poles, small clear specimen test is employed where it is difficult to apply such an approach.
MOR data on small clear specimens were used to determine the fibre stress. To obtain the fibre
stress to be used for pole classification and dimensions, adjustment factors covering change from
small clear bending strength to full-size pole strength, moisture content change due to drying of
in-service poles, and pre-treatment conditioning effects, are applied on the 'characteristic' MOR
strength value. The adjustment factors used were the factors adopted in the ANSI 05.1 standard
(ANSI 1997). These were an 8% increase for the change from small clear bending strength to full-
size pole strength, a 16% increase for drying of in-service poles, and a 10% reduction in strength
for kiln drying below 79°C.

Thus, the designated fibre stress value that may be used for plantation-grown Eucalyptus was
calculated using Equation 1:

-------------Fibre stress = 'Characteristic' MOR x 1.08 x 1.16 x 0.90 N/mm2 -------------- (1)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1: MOE/MOR at Moisture Content of 14% determined for individual trees

Tree ID MOE (N/mm2) MOR (N/mm2)

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Mean St. Dev. Mean St. Dev.

G1 12251 1787.44 97.28 13.50

H10 11427 1120.71 81.15 8.61
K1 12098 1513.58 87.93 7.80
W2 13310 1279.21 94.48 8.15
Z16 10818 1384.04 84.52 10.81
Mean 11,980 1416.99 89.07 9.77

Table 2: MOE/MOR at Moisture Content of 14% determined for each section of each tree
Tree MOE (N/mm2) MOR (N/mm2)
ID
G1 BUTT MID TOP BUTT MID TOP
Mean 11629 12477 12295 90.89 96.63 98.59
St. Dev. 1884.77 1756.52 1632.59 18.30 13.42 14.24

H10 Mean 11042 11633 11607 76.28 80.57 86.59

St. Dev. 1355.34 822.12 1073.38 9.74 5.86

K1 Mean 12053 12290 11950 87.57 91.35 84.88

St. Dev. 1688.42 1667.27 1191.28 6.51 8.48 7.26

W2 Mean 13604 13171 13105 98.88 91.48 92.80

St. Dev. 1220.83 1439.97 1255.36 7.18 6.92 8.59

Z16 Mean 10565 10808 11079 77.37 85.43 90.78

St. Dev. 1119.04 1906.96 959.35 8.70 10.05 9.50

Table 3: Tukey Test on Section of all 5 trees combined

Sectional MOE MOR
Comparison
Sample Sig. p-value Sample Sig. p-value
Size Size
MID -BUTT 200 0 0.36 200 0 0.26

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TOP-BUTT 200 0 0.56 200 0 0.06

TOP-MID 200 0 0.89 200 0 0.72

*Sig. equals 1 indicates that the difference of the means is significant at 0.05 level
*Sig. equals 0 indicates that the difference of the means is not significant at the 0.05 level

Table 3 above indicates that the p-value of the one-way ANOVA is higher than 0.05 in all cases.
This suggest that the MOE and MOR of the sections representing tree IDs G1, H10, K1, W2 and
Z16 are not significantly different at p<0.05. This suggests the means of the section for the 5 trees
are not significantly different. This is an indication that the mechanical strength of the Eucalyptus
specie extracted from MIRO i.e. the MOE and MOR is uniformly distributed along the height of
the trees.

Table 4: Tukey Test on Tree by tree comparison

Section MOE MOR
ID
Sample Sig.* p-value Sample Sig.* p-value
Size Size
H10-G1 120 1 0.011 120 1 0.000
K1-G1 120 0 0.996 120 1 0.001
K1-H10 120 1 0.032 120 1 0.004
W2-G1 120 1 0.001 120 0 0.933
W2-H10 120 1 0.000 120 1 0.000
W2-K1 120 1 0.003 120 1 0.003
Z16-G1 120 1 0.002 120 1 0.007
Z16-H10 120 0 0.534 120 0 0.273
Z16-K1 120 1 0.002 120 0 0.547
Z16-W2 120 1 0.000 120 1 0.004

*Sig. equals 1 indicates that the difference of the means is significant at 0.05 level
*Sig. equals 0 indicates that the difference of the means is not significant at the 0.05 level

Comparing tree by tree, the Tukey Test suggest that trees K1-G1 and Z16-H10 were not
significantly different whereas the rest of the rest of the 8 pairs shows significant difference among
their mean differences for the MOE. The MOR of W2-G1, Z16-H10 and Z16-K1 however, were
not significantly different whilst the other pairs showed significant differences.

Table 5: Comparison of Eucalyptus hybrid from MIRO to other Eucalyptus species in other
geographical locations.
Species Age MOE MOR M.C. Year
(years) (Nmm-2) (Nmm-2) %
Eucalyptus hybrid Ghana 4 11980 89.15 12 2018
(MIRO)

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Eucalyptus umbra Brazil 28 14310 84.10 12 Marta et al,

2018
Eucalyptus grandis Uganda - 8207 33.90 12 Zziwa et al,
2010
Eucalyptus marginata Asia - 13000 111.70 12 David et al,
1999
Eucalyptus hybrids Argentina 9 15491-19947 89-116 12 Acosta et al,
clones 2003
Eucalyptus genotypes Argentina 13-17 13924-24015 97-143 12 Acosta et al,
2003

Table 5 above shows the MOEs and MORs of different species of eucalyptus around the world.
Twenty-eight (28) year old trees of Eucalyptus umbra from Brazil have been established to have
MOE of 14310 N/mm2 and MOR of 84.10 N/mm2. Eucalyptus grandis from Uganda has MOE of
8207 N/mm2 and MOR of 33.90 N/mm2. Eucalyptus marginata from Asia has MOE of 13000
N/mm2 and 111.70 N/mm2 for MOR. However, Eucalyptus hybrids clones and Eucalyptus
genetotypes from Argentina have MOE and MOR values ranging from 13924 N/mm2 – 24015
N/mm2 and 89 N/mm2 – 143 N/mm2 respectively depending on the age. According to Acosta et al
(2003), the strength properties increased with age from 13 years to 17 years for the Eucalyptus
genotypes.
The 4-year-old Eucalyptus hybrid from MIRO Forestry Plantations recorded mean MOE and MOR
values of 11980 N/mm2 and 89.15 N/mm2 respectively which were higher than Eucalyptus grandis
and competes well with some other species from Brazil, Asia and Argentina.

Fibre Stress
The ‘characteristic’ MOR value is calculated using Equation 2 below:
------------------MORP5% (green) = MORmean - 1.96σn-1-------------------- (2)

MORP5% (green) = 89.07 - 1.96(9.77) = 69.92 N/mm2

From the characteristic MOR value of 69.92 N/mm2, the fibre stress is calculated unsing Equation
1:
Fibre stress = 'Characteristic' MOR x 1.08 x 1.16 x 0.90 N/mm2
= 69.92 x 1.08 x 1.16 x 0.90
= 78.84 N/mm2

The mean modulus of rupture (MOR) for small clear specimens of plantation-grown Eucalyptus
was 89.07N/mm2 at a moisture content of 14%, and after making allowances for the effects of the
variability of wood, the ‘characteristic’ MOR obtained was 69.92 N/mm2. Adjustment factors
made on the 'characteristic' MOR to cover change from small clear bending strength to full-size
pole strength, change in moisture content due to drying of in-service poles, and pre-treatment
conditioning effects led to a designated fibre stress value of 78.84 N/mm2.

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CONCLUSIONS
The longitudinal comparison of the individual trees suggests uniform distribution of strength
(MOE/MOR) along the tree height from Bottom to the Top. Sectional (longitudinal comparison)
for all the 5 trees equally suggests uniform distribution of the species of Eucalyptus extracted from
MIRO plantations.
Inter tree comparison, however, suggests significant differences among their mean difference.
Adjustment factors was made on the 'characteristic' MOR to cover change from small clear
bending strength to full-size pole strength, has led to a designated fibre stress value of 78.84
N/mm2. The strength properties of plantation-grown Eucalyptus species coupled with the
estimated fibre stress render it suitable for use as poles for electric support lines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to MIRO Forestry Limited and Asuboa Wood Treatment Limited for providing
funds for the study. Many thanks to the Director and staff of the Forestry Research Institute of
Ghana (CSIR-FORIG) for the support in conducting the study at the Wood and Furniture Testing
Centre at CSIR -FORIG.

REFERENCES

Acosta, M, Ciro, M, Lima, J (2015) Wood Technologies and Uses of Eucalyptus Wood from Fast
Growing Plantations for Solid Products. Proceedings of the 51st International Convention of
Society of Wood Science and Technology November 10-12, 2008 Concepción, CHILE. pp.6
ANSI (1997) ANSI 05.1 - American National Standard for wood poles - Specifications and
dimensions. American National Standards Institute, Inc. New York, N.Y., USA. 28pp.
Doran, JC, Wongkaew, W (2008) Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. [Internet] Record from
PROTA4U. Louppe, D., Oteng-Amoako, A.A. and Brink, M. (eds.) PROTA (Plant Resources of
Tropical Africa), Wageningen, Netherlands. http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp. Accessed 6th
October 2017.

Green, DW, Winandy, JE, Krestschmann, DE (1999) Mechanical properties of wood. Wood
handbook- Wood as an Engineering Material. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL–GTR–113. Madison, WI: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 463 p.21
Loulidi, I, Famiri, A, Chergui, M, Elghorba, M (2012) The physical and mechanical properties of
Eucalyptus hybrid E. camaldulensis x E. grandis: Comparison with its parental species.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Vol. 1, Issue 1 (August 2012), pp. 01-07. ISSN:
2278-4721.

Marta, CJAN, Almeida, DH, Vasconcelos, JS, Almeida, TH, Araújo, VA, Christoforo, AL, Lahr,
FAR (2018) Properties of Eucalyptus umbra Wood for Timber Structures. International Journal of
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Material Engineering. Scientific & Academic Publishing, p-ISSN: 2166-5389 e-ISSN: 2166-5400.
2018; 8(1): 12-15.

Ofori, J, Annan, M, Amoako, KA (2008) Suitability of using plantation grown Nauclea diderrichii
merill poles for electricity and telecommunication overhead support in Ghana-Part1: Sapwood
width and dimension table. Ghana Journal of forestry, vol 23 and 24, p.1-14.

Santos, PET, Geraldi, IO, Garcia, JN (2004) Estimates of genetic parameters of wood traits for
sawn timber production in Eucalyptus grandis. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 27, 4, 567-573.
Wolfe, RW, Bodig, J, Lebow, PK (2001) Derivation of Nominal strength for Wood Utility poles.
General Technical Report FPL-GTR-128. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest
Products Laboratory, Madison, WI., USA. 11p.
Zziwa, A, Ziraba, YN, Awakali, JA (2010) Strength properties of selected Uganda Timbers.
International Wood Products Journal. Vol 1, p.24

Biography

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Increasing Cold Tack of pMDI resin with Partial Soy Flour Substitution

Osei Asafu-Adjaye, Auburn University, USA

[email protected]

Abstract
Polymeric diphenyl methane diisocyanate’s (pMDI) high moisture tolerance, less resin application, shorter
pressing time, and low curing temperature makes it one of the most important adhesives in the wood
composite industry. However, pMDI is expensive and its utilization in particle board production is limited
because resinated wood particles from pMDI have less tackiness leading to unstable pre-mats and
subsequently loss of material. Partial substitution of pMDI with soy was investigated to improve the cold
tack without compromising the panel properties. The tack of pMDI substituted soy formulations were
measured with a modified ASTM technique (ASTM, 2017). The mechanical and physical properties of
particle boards from the pMDI-soy system was assessed. Partial substitution of pMDI resin with soy flour
increases the cold tack of the resin to the level achieved by urea formaldehyde resin. The substituted soy
improved the panel properties. The tack can be fine-tuned by adjusting the amount of soy flour added.
The increase in tack is caused by the reaction of the isocyanate resin with the water contained in soy flour
as well as with hydroxyl and other groups present in soy flour components. The higher cold tack should
increase the stability of pre-mats, especially in particleboard manufacturing.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Adhesive Bonding of Planed and Sawn Jointed Sugar Maple Lumber: Bending
Strength of Glued Joints

Mohammadali Azadfar
[email protected]
Benjamin Burns
[email protected]
Gifford Timian
[email protected]

State University of New York, College of Agriculture and Technology at Morrisville, NY, USA

Abstract
The sugar maple is one of the most important trees in the eastern United States and is the state tree of
New York. Sugar maple is also known as hard maple and is the most frequently used species of maple
for glue-jointed wood products. However, a surface quality suitable for the glue-jointing process is
influenced by machining wood using circular table saw and jointer machines. The main objective of this
study was to evaluate the strength of the glue lines in glued-jointed planed and sawn hard maple lumber.
The pieces of wood were prepared by using a circular table saw and a jointer machine. First, the
difference between the interaction with the wood glue on both the saw-cut and jointed substrates was
observed. For example, using microscopic techniques, the results showed that more than 60% adhesive
penetrated into the planed surface of hard maple after 10 minutes as compared with sawn maple with the
same range of the moisture content. Then, the bending strength of maple lumber with a sawn edge and
jointed edge glue joint was evaluated in accordance with the ASTM standard procedures. We present
evidence that the breaking point of glue lines in the planed joints is considerably higher than sawn joints,
indicating better adhesive bonding during the glue-jointing process.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The Influence of Oil Uptake on Moisture Excluding

Efficiency in Thermally Treated Wood
Jan Baar1* – Petr Čermák2

1 Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic

* Corresponding author
[email protected]
2 Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
[email protected]

Abstract
Thermal modification of wood is an environmentally friendly method for the improvement of
wood water related properties – hygroscopicity reduction, dimensional stability and resistance
against fungal degradation – which uses steam, nitrogen or oil as the heat transfer and oxygen
excluding medium. High oil retention was proved during treatment in hot oil, especially when
permeable wood species were used or the wood was kept to cool in oil bath. For comparison, hemp
oil impregnated, and heat treated (200°C) European beech wood samples were prepared, and the
combined treatment was used as well. After the treatment, the samples were held in standard
conditions and above the water level. The equilibrium moisture content was lower in all treatments
compared to untreated beech and all treatments showed good moisture excluding efficiency,
especially in short-term exposure. The combined treatment reduced the wood hygroscopicity the
most with moisture excluding efficiency of 27% for saturated air. However, there are two issues
which can influence the moisture content measurement in oil treated wood – increase in sample
density/weight related to oil uptake after treatment and weight change caused by oxygen bonding
during spontaneous drying process at the time of sample conditioning.

Key words: beech, moisture content, hemp oil, heat treatment, oxidation

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Introduction

Thermal modification of wood is an environmentally friendly method for improving wood

moisture-related properties and the resistance against decay (Hill 2011). The process is based on
use of a relatively high temperature (160–260°C) in oxygen free environment resulting in the
degradation of some of the cell wall components (Navi and Sandberg 2012). The most affected
hemicelluloses undergo dehydration reactions associated with a decrease in hydroxyl (-OH)
groups. The chemical and structural changes lead to reduction of wood equilibrium moisture
content and improvement of dimensional stability and decay resistance (Allegretti et al. 2012,
Welzbacher et al. 2008; Candelier et al. 2016).
The oxygen exclusion is achieved by different methods – heat treatment in steam, nitrogen
atmosphere, or vegetable oil. The last mentioned acts not only as oxygen-excluding but also as
heat-transfer medium (Sailer et al. 2000; Wang and Cooper 2005). Bal (2015) concluded that oil
heat treatment is more efficient in water-related wood properties improvement in comparison with
the hot air, due to the synergy effect of oils and heat, but marked an excessive oil uptake as a
negative issue associated with this method. Thermal modification is usually closely linked with
mass loss, which is considered as an indicator of treatment quality. However, oil heat treatment
typically leads to weight increase due to oil uptake, which is very variable and depends on the
period of heating, the final temperature, the permeability of wood species, sample cooling (in or
outside a bath) or the sample size. For example, Jones et al. (2005) showed the indirect dependency
of oil uptake on the longitudinal length of Sitka spruce samples. Karlsson et al. (2011) or Awoyemi
et al. (2009) proved the effect of way of cooling on oil uptake, when significantly higher uptake
was observed during cooling in oil bath. Many other authors stated variable mass increases ranging
from units of percent up to 90%, depending on wood species and the methodology used (Table 1).
Generally, only the highest temperature for sufficiently long time caused mass loss of wood (e.g.
210°C/6 h; Dubey et al. 2012). If oil is used as protective agent itself, high retention and deep
impregnation of oil into wood structure are required in order to provide long-term performance in
outdoor conditions (Sailer and Rapp 2001), but these requirements lead to the unwanted weight
increase at the same time. Further, as a result of high retention, scarcity of oxygen inside the wood
prevents oxidation (i.e. polymerisation or drying of oil) thus forcing the liquid unpolymerised oil,
which is not bonded to the main structural compounds in the wood cell wall, to exude from wood,
especially when wood is heated during its use (Terziev and Panov 2010).

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Table 1: The overview of oil uptake during oil heat treatment process with related experiment parameters
temperature length WPG
source wood species cooling time (h)
(°C) (mm) (%)
Sailer et al. (2000) Pinus sylvestris (SW) in 180, 200, 220 4.5 10 45-70
Lacić et al. (2014) Alnus glutinosa out 180, 200 6, 10 300 4-9
Bazyar (2012) Populus tremula out 190, 205, 220 4.5, 6 20 ~85
Wang and Cooper
Picea glauca - 200, 220 2, 4 10 10–25
(2005)
Pinus sylvestris (SW) 75–98
P. sylvestris (HW) 4–17
in
P. tremula 48–88
Karlsson et al. Picea abies 8–20
180, 210, 240 0.5, 1, 2 150
(2011) P. sylvestris (SW) -3–7
P. sylvestris (HW) -16–3
out
P. tremula -6–20
Picea abies -5–6
Pinus nigra 90-100
50
Picea abies ~12
Spear et al. (2006) out 180, 200 3
Pinus nigra 87-106
120
Picea abies ~7
Bal (2015) Fagus orientalis in 160, 190, 220 2 30 58–70
Pinus ponderosa ~90
in
Awoyemi et al. Picea mariana ~11
220 2 150
(2009)* Pinus ponderosa ~9
out
Picea mariana ~6
Dubey et al. (2012) Pinus radiata in 160, 180, 210 1, 3, 6 300 -2–14
* oil uptake measured in 5 mm thick surface layer

The above-mentioned proves that the oil uptake is a variable parameter, but has always resulted in
significantly higher weight/density of samples, which can distort results and influence the
interpretation of moisture content of treated wood, since it is based on weight change calculation.
Bal (2015) compared selected physical properties of hot oil and air treated beech wood and
concluded that oil treated ones reached half values of the equilibrium moisture content compared
to those air treated under the same conditions. Due to the oil uptake, the sample weight of the
compared samples differed by about 60%. Higher efficiency of oil heat treatment can be only
apparent and similar amount of water can be absorbed under the same conditions. Therefore, the
main objective of this study was to determine how the oil uptake influences the amount of absorbed
water and moisture excluding efficiency and if the state of oil (polymerized vs. liquid) can affect
the final performance of modified wood.

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Materials & Methods

Material
European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) wood samples, defect-free, with dimensions 20 × 20 × 300
mm3 (R × T × L) was used during the treatment; the samples for hygroscopicity test were cut later
from the ends of these samples. The samples were sorted into four groups with similar average dry
density - 638 kg/m3 - the reference (REF), hemp oil impregnated (OI), thermally modified (TM),
and hemp oil impregnated and thermally modified (OI + TM).

Impregnation and thermal modification

The samples (OI, OI+TM) were vacuum (10 kPa) impregnated with natural hemp oil (O 1000,
Hemp production CZ s.r.o.) for 2h using a laboratory plant JHP1-0072. Weight percentage gain
(WPG; %) was expressed as a ratio of mass difference caused by the impregnation and the original
specimen mass.
OI+TM and TM samples were further thermal modified using a small-scale laboratory heat-
treatment chamber (Katres spol. s r.o., CZ) at 200°C within steam environment. The whole process
including heating and cooling phases took 6.5 hours, whereas the modification temperature 200°C
was maintained for 3 hours. The modification degree was determined by mass loss (ML; %), based
on oven-dry (103 ± 2°C for 48 h) mass before and after the thermal modification process divided
by the original oven-dry mass.

Wood hygroscopicity
The samples (20 × 20 × 45 mm3; R × T × L) were oven dried (103°C), cooled in desiccator and
weighed at 0% moisture content (MC). A half of the specimens were exposed to standard
conditions (20ºC, 65%), the rest were held above the water level (20ºC, ~100%). The water vapour
absorption was controlled by regular weighing till wood moisture content reached steady state.
The moisture excluding efficiency was calculated according to Equation (1):

𝑚𝑢 −𝑚𝑡
𝑀𝐸𝐸 = ( ) × 100 (%) (1)
𝑚𝑢

where mu is MC (%) of the untreated specimens (%) and mt is MC of the treated specimens (%).
Both of MC were determined according to Equation (2):

𝑚𝑤 −𝑚0
𝑚𝑢 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑡 = ( ) × 100 (%) (2)
𝑚0

where m0 is sample oven dry weight before test (g) and mw is the sample weight after exposition
for a specific period (g).

Oil hygroscopicity
Three vessels (diameter of 5 cm) were filled with 1 g of hemp oil. Samples were dried for 45 min
(103°C) and weighed. Vessels with oil were held under conditions of 97% and 20°C (saturated
solution of K2SO4) and were regularly weighed to determine the mass change.

Results and Discussion

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Wood impregnation and modification

Wood thermal treatment is a modification process typically with ML, which is a sort of an indicator
of this treatment quality. In our experiment, ML of beech wood was around 2.5% (Table 2, which
is in agreement with Ferrari et al. (2013), who showed similar ML (3%) of the same wood in
thermo-vacuum process after 200°C and 3 hours of treatment. The ML of oil impregnated wood
was significantly higher (16%), which is mainly caused by unpolymerized oil exudation and its
partial thermal degradation during treatment. We can assume mass loss of wood substance similar
to non-impregnated wood and loss of about one half of present hemp oil (approx. 140 kg/m3). The
WPGs after oil impregnation are also presented in Table 2. Oil uptake led to density increase up
to more than 1000 kg/m3 in oil impregnated samples. Final density of impregnated and
subsequently heat treated samples was lower due to a substantial oil loss.
Table 2: Samples oven dry density, mass loss after thermal treatment and weight percentage gain of oil (REF –
untreated, TM – thermal modified, OI – oil impregnated, OI+TM – combined treatment; coefficient of variation in
parenthesis)
ρ0 (kg/m3) WPG (%) ML (%)
REF 673 (4.0) - -
TM 667 (3.2) - 2.5 (20.0)
OI+TM 844 (6.2) 51.2 (11.5) 16.1 (21.1)
OI 1055 (3.7) 61.1 (13.2) -

Moisture excluding efficiency (MEE)

The average values of equilibrium moisture contents of individual groups are stated in Table 3.
The untreated beech wood under standard conditions reached moisture content of nearly 12%, all
treatments resulted in reduced MC. The most significant reduction was achieved by the combined
process, in both performed tests. The decline of the number of hydroxyl groups due to
polysaccharides degradation leading to a lower number of available sorption sites for water is a
generally known reason for lower EMC of heat treated wood (Hill 2006). On the contrary, oil is
not able to penetrate the cell wall due to its molecule size and therefore cannot modify its chemical
structure, it only influences the rate of the moistening process as a physical barrier retarding the
moisture transport in wood.
Table 3: Equilibrium moisture content and sample weight change of untreated and treated wood under different
conditions (REF – untreated, TM –thermal modified, OI – oil impregnated, OI+TM – combined treatment,
coefficient of variation in parentheses)
(20°C, 65%) (20°C, ~100%)
EMC (%) mwater (g) EMC (%) mwater (g)
TM 9.5 (2.1) 0.74 (5.4) 23.7 (8.3) 1.78 (10.1)
OI 9.7 (3.1) 1.17 (4.3) 22.3 (6.1) 2.57 (7.8)
OI+TM 7.9 (2.5) 0.81 (6.2) 19.9 (7.0) 2.04 (10.8)
Ref 11.5 (2.6) 0.93 (6.5) 27.4 (1.5) 2.21 (2.7)

The MEEs of treated beech wood and their change during exposition to saturated air condition are
shown in Figure 1. A positive, high value of MEE means that the treated wood absorbs less
moisture than the untreated wood thus indicating an improvement in terms of reduction in the
moisture uptake through the wood treatment. Results showed that all treatments are more effective
in short-term expositions, where combined process reached almost 60% reduction in moisture
content compared to untreated wood. Nevertheless, after longtime exposure the MEE gradually

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decreased as treated wood was drawing near the equilibrium state; this process was significantly
slower than in untreated wood as can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 1. Moisture excluding efficiency of treated beech samples during exposition above water level (OI – oil
impregnated, TM – thermally modified at 200 °C, OI+TM – combined process)

Bazyar (2012), in line with results of other authors, stated that heat treatment in oil bath results in
wood oil uptake usually higher than 20%, whereas weight percentage gain is influenced by the
sample size, wood species permeability or the cooling phase form. Bal (2015) compared the
efficiency of heat treatment in hot air and oil and found out that all moisture related parameters
are more significantly reduced in samples exposed to hot oil. For example, he reported 71.5%
lower EMC for Oriental beech heat treated in hot oil at 220°C for 2 hours compared to untreated
wood. At the same time, treated specimens weight increased by 64% due to oil uptake. From this
point of view, our results are in accordance with general conclusions. Nevertheless, if we
considered that oil heat treatment is connected with often substantial sample mass increase due to
oil uptake, the value comparison can be misleading, because the counted moisture contents are
related to the initial sample weight. In fact, the decrease in EMC can be just apparent due to the
higher specimen weight caused by oil WPG. This fact often remained unmentioned or was not
taken into consideration in former studies.
In our study, only heat treated wood showed a lower amount of water at the end of exposure in
both expositions. The mass increase (expressed in g) in the case of OI+TM specimens was
comparable with the untreated ones. Oil impregnated specimens showed even a higher value, so
we could conclude that even more water was absorbed by these samples during exposition.
However, oil itself is not hygroscopic, so it could not be a cause of higher water absorption. There
is another issue related to vegetable oils - drying process, when oils increased their mass due to
oxidation – oxygen bonding. Tumosa and Mecklenburg (2003) showed that oxidation process is
characterized by the initial steep weight increase later alternated with a gradual decrease due to
loss of volatiles. The weight increase ranges between 8 and 12 % depending on the type of drying
(semi-drying) oil. In their study, the weight increase peak was reached between 10 to 30 days of
exposure, but oxidation process can be slowed down by lack of oxygen in fully impregnated wood
and/or high relative humidity of air. The mass increase of our hemp oil due to oxidation was not
observed during the first 40 days in high humid conditions. The difference between reference and

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oil treated sample and analogically between heat treated and combined process treated samples is
presumably related to oil oxidation, which occurs during conditioning of samples.
The above mentioned shows that measuring of EMC and related parameters in oil treated samples,
especially with high oil loads, or even their comparison with other treatments efficiency can be
incorrect and misleading.

Figure 2. The sample weight change during exposition above water level (REF – untreated, OI – oil impregnated,
TM – thermally modified at 200 °C, OI+TM – combined process)

Summary and Conclusions

All used wood treatments led to lower equilibrium moisture content in comparison with reference
samples in both environments – standard and fully saturated air. Moisture excluding efficiency
was in short-term exposure between 40% (TM) and 55% (OI); with an increasing time the MEE
decreased. The absolute weight change after conditioning was higher in the samples containing
oil. There are two issues which influence the interpretation of moisture content of oil treated wood
– sample weight change due to oil uptake during impregnation and weight changes during samples
conditioning due to oxygen uptake linked to oil drying process.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (GAČR), project no.
19-25171Y “Multi-scale Hygro-thermo-mechanical Behavior of Modified Wood-based
Materials”.

References

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Allegretti O, Brunetti M, Cuccui I, Ferrari S, Nocetti M, Terziev N (2012) Thermo-vacuum

modification of Spruce (Picea abies Karst.) and Fir (Abies alba Mill.) wood. BioResources
7:3656–3669.
Awoyemi L, Cooper PA, Ung TY (2009) In-treatment cooling during thermal modification of
wood in soy oil medium: soy oil uptake, wettability, water uptake and swelling properties.
European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 67:465–470.
Bazyar B (2012) Aspen decay & oil heat treatment, BioResources 7:696–705
Ferrari S, Cuccui I, Allegretti O (2013) Thermo-vacuum modification of some European softwood
and hardwood species treated at different conditions. BioResources 8:1100–1109.
Bal BC (2015) Physical properties of beech wood thermally modified in hot oil and in hot air at
various temperatures. Maderas: Ciencia y Tecnología 17:789–798.
Candelier K, Thevenon FM, Petrissans A, Dumarcay S, Gerardin P, Petrissans M (2016) Control
of wood thermal treatment and its effects on decay resistance: a review. Annals of Forest Science
73:571–583.
Dubey MK, Pang S, Walker J (2012) Oil uptake by wood during heat-treatment and post-treatment
cooling, and effects on wood dimensional stability. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products
70:183–190.
Ferrari S, Cuccui I, Allegretti O (2013) Thermo-vacuum modification of some European softwood
and hardwood species treated at different conditions. BioResources 8:1100-1109.
Hill CAS (2011) Wood modification: an update. BioResources 6:918–919.
Hill CAS (2006) Wood modification: Chemical, thermal and other processes. John Wiley &Sons,
Chichester
Jones D, Tjeerdsma BF, Spear M, Hill C (2005) Properties of wood following treatment with a
modified hot oil. In: Militz H, Hill C (eds.) Wood modification: Processes, properties and
commercialization. The second European conference on wood modification. Göttingen, Germany.
Karlsson O, Sidorova E, Morén T (2011) Influence of heat transferring media on durability of
thermally modified wood. BioResources 6:356–372.
Lacić R, Hasan M, Trajković J, Šefc B, Šafran B, Despot R (2014) Biological durability of oil heat
treated alder wood. Drvna Industrija 65:143–150.
Navi P, Sandberg D (2012) Thermo hydro mechanical processing of wood. EPFL Press, Lausanne.
Sailer M, Rapp AO, Leithoff H, Peek RD (2000) Vergütung von Holz durch Anwendung einer
Öl-Hitzebehandlung. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 58:15–22.
Sailer M, Rapp AO (2001) Use of Vegetable Oils for Wood Protection. In: Proc. of the COST
Action E22 “Environmental Optimisation of Wood Protection”, ISSN 0043-7719, pp. 1432–5225.
Spear MJ, Hill CAS, Curling SF, Jones D, Hale MD (2006) Assessment of the envelope effect of
three hot oil treatments: Resistance to decay by Coniophora puteana and Postia placenta.
International Research Group on Wood Protection. Doc. No.: IRG/WP 06-40344.
Terziev N, Panov D (2011) Plant oils as “green” substances for wood protection. In: 4 th
international conference on environmentally-compatible forest products. Porto, Portugal, pp 143–
149.
Tumosa CS, Mecklenburg MF (2003) Weight changes on oxidation of drying and semi-drying
oils. Collection Forum 18:116–123.
Wang JY, Cooper PA (2005) Effect of oil type, temperature and time on moisture properties of
hot oil-treated wood. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 63:417–422.

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Welzbacher CR, Brischke C, Rapp OA (2007) Influence of treatment temperature and duration
on selected biological, mechanical, physical and optical properties of thermally modified timber.
Wood Material Science and Engineering 2:66–76.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Non-linear Material Model of Mechanical Behaviour of Oak Wood Exposed

to Different Relative Humidity Conditions

Martin Brabec
[email protected]
Jaromir Milch
[email protected]
Jan Tippner
[email protected]
Martin Sotner
[email protected]
David Decky
[email protected]
Petr Cermak
[email protected]

Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno,
Czech Republic

Abstract
The mechanical performance of wooden structures or single timber elements is strongly influenced by
ambient conditions. This should be taken into account when choosing a material for individual
applications. Current assessment options offer more than experimental testing. A calibrated and
experimentally verified numerical model capable to truly predict the reality is a very effective tool for
the optimization of the material processing and utilization limits of products. This purpose requires the
complete sets of material characteristics of wood with different equilibrium moisture content level. The
literature overview proved that the relevant complete sets of material characteristics are rare but they
can be collected from different studies. However such a collection process causes the inconsistency of
material characteristics that makes such material models inaccurate and inapplicable in numerical
modelling practise. Therefore, this study aims to reduce the lack of the calibrated material models of
European oak (Quercus robur, L.) exposed to relative humidity range covering the common seasonal
variability of ambient conditions. The elasto-plastic bi-linear material models include fully orthotropic
elasticity and plasticity with non-linear isotropic hardening, where the compression-tension loading
asymmetry in the plastic range (yield stresses and tangent moduli) is taken into account.

The mean relative errors (MRE) between the numerically predicted and experimentally measured
mechanical behaviour of oak wood were minimized by the iterative calibration procedure,
simultaneously for basic loading conditions such as compression, shear and bending. As the resulted
MRE are lower than the natural variability in mechanical behaviour of wood (10-30%) the predictive
ability of the numerical models can be considered as excellent.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Building Your Social Media Presence

Candra Burns, Talking Forests, Germany

[email protected]

Abstract
Candra Burns from Talking Forests will show you examples of how to build your social media presence
in the oral presentation. In Instagram, she will show you how to research hashtags on Instagram and
find the relevant ones, use the stories function on Instagram to create a buzz, how to follow hashtags
and why, how to engage others with comments and questions. In Twitter, she will show you how to
retweet other people’s tweet, set up a 15 character tag/URL on this platform first, and research and
use trending hashtags. In Facebook, she will show others how to create posts with links and photos
and videos to share news about research. In LinkedIn, she will show others how to create a LinkedIn
profile that will be your mobile resume.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Development of technology for one-sided surface

carbonization of wood
Petr Čermák1*– Jakub Dömény1 – Anna Oberle1 – Dita Machová2 – Lucie
Zárybnická2 – Jakub Dohnal3– Veronika Vacenovská3

1Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood

Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic *[email protected]
2 Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the Czech Academy of
Sciences, Department of Materials and Research, Centre of Excellence Telč, Czech
Republic
3 Brno University of technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Czech Republic

Abstract
One-sided surface charring of beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) was analyzed. Specimens were
one-sided carbonized using contact heating system with a hot plate on the radial and tangential
surface at various time-temperature regimes (200/250/300/350 and 400°C).
The degree of one-sided carbonization and its depth from modified surface was evaluated using
temperature profiles, X-ray density profile and by spectrophotometric analysis of total
carbohydrates at surface layers. An average total amount of carbohydrates of reference specimens
was measured to be 0.75 mg/g of dry wood mass for specimens. Significant increase of soluble
carbohydrates was found within surface layers of specimens carbonized at 400°C for 1 min and
decreased with increasing distance from the heated surface. An average density (680kg· m-3) of
reference specimens shows uniform density profile, while one-sided carbonized specimens tended
to decrease according to time-temperature regime applied. It can be stated that one-sided
carbonization affected wood properties to depth 2–4 mm from the surface, depending on used
time-temperature regime. The very first results of current research project shows that beech wood
also exhibits favorable results in terms of surface moisture related characteristics, but more
detailed studies are needed to exploit potential of surface carbonization method for future use of
beech wood. The process of wood surface carbonization can be optimized according to these
results, regarding to desired material properties

Key words: contact heating; moisture behavior; surface modification; thermal degradation; wood
carbonization; wood facades; wood charring; wood modification

Introduction
Due to environmental challenges that society is facing, material science and technology has been
increasingly focusing on lignocellulose–based biopolymer materials such as wood. Wood is a low-
cost, easy choice for outside façade of buildings. With proper care and maintenance, wooden
façades are a lasting, low-impact option that are easy to recycle and dispose at the end of service
life. However, wood is susceptible to weathering caused by UV-radiation, temperature and
humidity changes. There has been a scientific effort to enhance wood to obtain materials that

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maintain their advantages over time and at the same time reduce their natural disadvantages such
as variability, dimensional instability or biological decay (Rowell 2005; Kutnar and Muthu 2016).
Wood modification allow reduction or even elimination of these disadvantages of wood and obtain
better performance over the service life. Chemical, thermal and other treatments are commonly
applied to wood resulting in permanent or temporary changes in wood properties (Militz 2000;
Esteves and Pereira 2009; Hill 2011). Thermal treatment at elevated temperature has been
considered as the most commercially successful and efficient way to decrease equilibrium
moisture content (EMC) of wood and consequently improving its dimensional stability and
biological resistance (Viitanen et al. 1994, Čermák et al. 2016). The main drawback of thermal
treatment is low physical strength that prevents its use structural application (Syrjänen et al. 2000;
Boonstra and Tjeerdsma 2006).
As an alternative to traditional thermal modification, wood could be modified only from the
exposed surface(s), sparing time and costs and preserving the structural properties of wood
(Gosselink et al. 2004; Kymäläinen et al. 2017 and 2018). One-sided surface charring has been
traditionally utilized in Japan (Akizuki et al. 2001), where wood is burned with naked flame or a
heated iron pad. So far, one-sided surface charring of beech wood at various time-temperature
regimes using contact heating has not been scientifically investigated and knowledge about its
performance is rather limited (Kymäläinen et al. 2017 and 2018, Čermák et al. 2020).
Beech wood is the most spread broadleaf species in forests of the Czech Republic. Its wood is a
traditional material for wood-processing industry; however, potential of use is not fully utilized.
In order to investigate the effect of one-sided carbonization on material properties of beech wood,
several process parameters were tested and degree of carbonization analyzed. The results form a
part of a project aiming to develop a new technique for beech wood modification with added value
and improved performance.

Materials & Methods

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) wood obtained from Czech forest enterprise was studied.
Specimens of dimensions 50×20×350mm were sorted into twenty-two groups with ten specimens
in each group representing the orientation of carbonized surface, i.e. radial, tangential, and time-
temperature regime (Tab. 1). Different time-temperature regimes were used in order to evaluate
carbonization effect on the surface quality and its material properties.
Tab. 1: One-sided surface charring time-temperature regimes
Temperature Time 1 Time 2 Annual ring orientation
Ref – – R T
200 °C 6 min 20 min R T
250 °C 4 min 6 min R T
300 °C 2 min 4 min R T
350 °C 1 min 2 min R T
400 °C 0,5 min 1 min R T

Oven-dried specimens (0% MC) were one-sided carbonized using a laboratory hot plate (CERAN
33SR; 450×450mm) at atmospheric pressure on the radial (R) and tangential (T) surface. The
degree of one-sided carbonization and its depth from modified surface was evaluated using
temperature profiles, X-ray density profile and chemical analysis.
The temperature profile of one-sided surface carbonized specimens was continually measured for
selected specimens using several NiCr-NiAl thermocouples (type K). In total, four measurements
were used with the distance of 1, 2, 3 and 4 mm from the hot plate surface. The degree of thermal

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degradation of wood compounds was determined by the total carbohydrates at surface layers.
Several thin layers of carbonized surface were prepared using microtome and grounded to obtain
homogeneous mixture. The pre pared extract was used for subsequent spectrophotometric analysis
of total carbohydrates. Furthermore, the reference along with the carbonized specimens of
dimensions 50×20×50mm were subjected to a density profile analysis. The conditioned specimens
(65% RH and 20°C) were further measured using X-ray density profile analyzer (DPX300) with
measuring step of 0.05mm.

Results and Discussion

First quantitative data from analytical technique providing results of total soluble carbohydrates
for specimens carbonized at 400°C for 1 min and 200°C for 6 min (Fig. 1). According to this
procedure the effective depth of carbonized surface can be evaluated. One-sided surface
carbonization modifies the structure of wood cell wall polymers conferring new properties of the
desire material. Thermal stability of the different polymers constitutive of wood differs according
to the chemical structure. Hemicelluloses present a lower degree of polymerization and higher
reactivity due to the amorphous structure, which are degraded first, followed by lignin and
cellulose. The main results in Fig. 1 showed that the one-sided surface carbonization induced
change in the soluble carbohydrates content of wood specimens. The most remarkable change was
the quantitative increase of soluble sugars (including cellulose and glucose structural units of the
hemicelluloses polymer), as a consequence of thermal degradation of wood compounds.

2.0
400°C/1min
200°C/6min
1.5
mg GluE / g wood

1.0

0.5

0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Layer from surface (mm)
Fig. 1: Total amount of soluble carbohydrates (mg/g) within analyzed specimens (400°C/1min
and 200°C/6min) in various depth from charred surface

An average total amount of carbohydrates of reference specimens was measured to be 0.75 mg/g
of dry wood mass for specimens. Due to the thermal degradation the sum of soluble carbohydrates
increased significantly within surface layers of specimens carbonized at 400°C for 1 min and
decreased with increasing distance from the heated surface. According to analyzed data, it can be
assumed that one-sided carbonization at 400°C for 1 min affected material properties to minimum
of 2–3 mm from the surface, while those at 200°C for 6 min only to maximum 1 mm. This method
can be further used for indication of depth affected by elevated temperature

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750
700
650
Density (kg·m-3) 600
550
500
450
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

200/6min_RAD 250/4min_RAD 250/6min_RAD

Ref_RAD 200/20min_RAD

Fig. 2: Density profiles of reference and one-sided specimens carbonized at 200/250°C

750

700

650
Density (kg·m-3)

600

550

500

450

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
300/2min_RAD 300/4min_RAD 350/60sec_RAD
350/2min_RAD 400/30sec_RAD 400/60sec_RAD

Fig. 3: Density profiles of specimens one-sided carbonized 300/350 and 400°C

Results of density profile measurements are shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. Density profile represents
density distribution over the cross section of tested specimens. An average density (680kg·m-3) of
reference specimens shows uniform distribution, while one-sided carbonized specimens tended to
decrease according to time-temperature regime applied. The process of wood surface
carbonization can be optimized according to these results, regarding to desired material properties
(color shade, moisture behavior, fire-resistance, etc.). According to the results it can be stated that
one-sided surface carbonization decreased the surface density to minimum 2-4 mm from the
surface, similarly as observed from spectrophotometric analysis.

Summary and Conclusions

The one-sided surface carbonization of beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) at various time-
temperature regimes was studied. Chemical analysis provided total amount of soluble
carbohydrates within various depth from carbonized surface. Significant increase of soluble
carbohydrates as a result of thermal degradation of wood compounds, can be further used as tool
for indication of depth affected by elevated temperature. These changes are closely related to

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severity of process (influence of duration) as well as specimen’s annual rings orientation (influence
of thermal conductivity). Furthermore, density profile measurements can be also used to evaluate
degree of thermal degradation of surface layers. According to analyzed data, it can be assumed
that applied one-sided carbonization affected material properties to minimum of 2–4 mm from the
surface depending on time-temperature regime used.
Concluding from the very first results of current research project, beech wood also exhibits
favorable results in terms of surface moisture related characteristics. Therefore, this might be
suitable technique for one side exposed wood surfaces (wood cladding, wooden shingles) where
wood-water interaction has a major importance, but also for those elements where stiffness of
material is important (decking, wooden beams, etc.). Furthermore, more detailed studies dealing
with moisture behavior, fire and decay resistance etc. of surface carbonization process are being
undertaken.

Acknowledgements
This study was funded by Technology Agency of the Czech Republic (TAČR), project no.
TJ02000072 “Development of technology for surface carbonization of wooden building elements:
elimination of moisture and biodegradation effects”.

References
Akizuki, M., Hasemi, Y., Yasui, N., Kinoshita, K., Yammamoto, K., Yoshida, M., Tamura,
Y. and Takeda, M. (2001) Fire Safety Studies In The Restoration Of A Historic Wooden
Townhouse In Kyoto - Fire Safety Experiments On Japanese Traditional Wood-Based
Constructions. AOFST 5.
Boonstra, M., Tjeerdsma, B. (2006) Chemical analysis of heat treated softwoods. Holz Roh-
Werkstoff 64(3):204–211.
Čermák, P., Dejmal, A., Paschová, Z., Kymäläinen, M., Dömény, J., Brabec, M., Hess, D.,
Rautkari, L. (2019) One-sided surface charring of beech wood. Journal of Materials Science
54:9497–9506.
Čermák, P., Vahtikari, K., Rautkari, L., Laine, K., Horáček, P., Baar, J. (2016) The effect of
wetting cycles on moisture behaviour of thermally modified Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)
wood. Journal of Materials Science 51(3):1504–1511.
Esteves, B., Pereira, H. (2009) Wood modification by heat treatment: a review, BioResources
4(1):370–404.
Gosselink, R.J.A., Krosse, A.M.A., van der Putten, J.C., van der Kolk, J.C., de Klerk-Engels, B.,
van Dam, J.E.G. (2004) Wood preservation by low-temperature carbonisation. Industrial Crops
and Products 19(1):3–12.
Hill, C. (2011) Wood modification: an update, BioResources 6(2):918–919.
Kutnar, A., Muthu, S.S. (2016) Environmental Impacts of Traditional and Innovative Forest-based
Bioproducts. Springer, pp. 248.
Kymäläinen, M., Hautamäki, S., Lillqvist, K., Segerholm, K., Rautkari, L. (2017) Surface
modification of solid wood by charring. Journal of Materials Science 52(10):6111–6119.
Kymäläinen, M., Turunen, H., Čermák, P., Hautamäki, S., Rautkari, L. (2018) Surface-related
characteristics of surface charred spruce wood. Materials 11(11):2083–2097.
Militz, H. (2002) Thermal treatment of wood: European processes and their background.
Stockholm, Inter. Res. Group on Wood Preservation, IRG/WP 14–40241. 20 p.

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Rowell, R.M. (2005) Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites. Ed. R.M. Rowell.
Florida: CRC Press, pp. 487.
Syrjänen, T., Jämsä, S., Viitaniemi, P. (2000) Heat treatment of wood in Finland. Proceedings of
Seminar “Production and development of heat treated wood in Europe”, Nov. 2000, Helsinki,
Stockholm, Oslo.
Viitanen, H., Jämsä, S., Paajanen, L., Nurmi, A., Viitaniemi, P. (1994) The effect of heat treatment
on the properties of spruce – a preliminary report. International Research group on Wood
Preservation. Document No. IRG/WP 94–40032.

Biography

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Surface free energy of ten tropical woods species

and their acrylic and alkyd varnishes wettability

Wayan Darmawan(1), Monica Br Ginting(2), Asih Gayatri(3), Rumanintya L. Putri(4), Dumasari(5),

Aulia Hasanusi(6)

(1)Prof., Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Bogor (16680), Indonesia.
Phone +62-251-8621285, Fax. +62-251-8621256
*(Corresponding author : e-mail : [email protected]; ORCID : 0000-0001-9603-2725)
(2) Research Assistance, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia.
(3) Research Assistance, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia, Indonesia
(4) Research Assistance, Universitas Islam Balitar, Blitar, Indonesia
(5) Research Assistance, Muhammadiyah University, Purwokerto, Indonesia
(6) Researcher, Center for Perhutani Research and Development, Cepu, Indonesia

Abstract

Surface properties of wood such as surface roughness, wettability and surface free energy
(SFE) are important properties influencing further manufacturing process such as finishing
or adhesive strength characteristics. The aim of this research was to determine surface
properties such as surface roughness, SFE, and wettability of ten tropical woods and its
effect to their bonding quality of varnishs. The woods tested in this study were fast-
growing teak, afrika, sungkai, mindi, merbau, durian, lamtoro, pulai, acacia and kempas.
Wood surfaces were divided into unsanded and sanded using abrasive paper of 120 grits.
SFE values were calculated based on the Rabel method. Wettability were measured by
based on the contact angle between varnish liquids and wood surfaces using sessile drop
method and (S/G) model was used to evaluate the wettability of the surface coatings on
the wood. Bonding quality of varnishes was measured using cross-cut test based on the
ASTM 3359-02 standard. The results show that unsanded kempas wood had the roughest
surface with Ra value of 16.24 µm and sanded lamtoro wood was the smoothest surface
with Ra value of 6.86 µm. Unsanded afrika wood was the highest in SFE value of 53.61
mJ/m2, and sanded fast-growing teak was the lowest in SFE values of 36.17 mJ/m2. Sanded
merbau woods was the lowest in K values of 0.022 for the water based acrylic varnish, and
unsanded afrika wood were the highest in K values of 9.253 for the alkyd varnish. Afrika
wood with the highest K values (highest wettability) both for the acrylic and alkyd
varnishes produced the highest bonding quality (grade 4 to 5). The oil-based alkyd varnish
was more wettable and generated better bonding quality compared to the water-based
acrylic varnish.

Keywords: acrylic and alkyd varnishs, bonding quality, surface free energy, surface roughness,
wettability

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1 Introduction
Demand for wood as raw material in the level of log production continues to sustainably
increase especially in the production of all categories of processed timber like sawnwood, plywood
& laminated veneer lumber, chipwood, veneer, and wood pulp. The Ministry of environment and
forestry [1] reported that log production in 2017 reaches 30.61 million m3. In many other ways
the use of wood as raw material still could not be replaced as it is relatively cheap, strong,
environmentally friendly, and has an attractive appearance with the characteristic that could not
be found in other materials.
Ten tropical wood species (fast-growing teak, afrika, sungkai, mindi, merbau, durian,
lamtoro, pulai, acacia, and kempas) are widely used for multiple purposes. These woods are
suitable for construction, furniture, paper, packing materials, panel wood, and et cetera. Merbau
and kempas are high density wood species with high strength (class I-II) [2]. Durian, sungkai,
acacia, afrika, mindi, and fast growing teak are medium density wood species with good strength
(class II-III) [2]. Pulai and lamtoro are low density wood species with low strength (class IV-V)
[2]. Some of the wood species can also be machined easily [3, 4]. There is abundant information
about the physical or mechanical properties of these ten tropical woods but the information about
the surface properties of these woods is still limited and not investigated yet. Surface properties of
wood is one of the most important properties influencing further manufacturing process such as
finishing or their adhesive strength characteristics. In order to complete the information for better
utilization of the woods, the surface properties of the ten woods species need to be studied.
Application of coatings such as varnish and varnish on wood surfaces are commonly
performed. The coatings protect wood surface and give a desired appearance. This coating aims to
provide better aesthetic value to wood and also serve to cover up some of the weaknesses of wood
in terms of colour and texture. The coating also protects wood from external conditions such as
weather, temperature, air, sunlight or wood-damaging organisms [5].
According to Moita [6], the increase in surface roughness leads to the lower in the contact.
Wood with a high surface roughness value has a low contact angle value because the varnish liquid
spreads and seeps more quickly into the wood. One of the criteria that can be used to analyze the
wetting behaviour of wood is the measurement of its contact angle. Contact angle values larger
than 90° indicate as a poor wetting characteristics of the varnishs liquid, in which it will be difficult
for the varnishs liquid to wet a surface [6].
Wettability refers to how easily and efficiently a liquid spread over a solid surface [7]. The
wettability can be characterized by some parameters such as contact angles, surface free energy,
and adherence [8]. The amount of surface free energy (SFE) and surface tension affect also the
value of wood wettability [9]. Both wettability and surface free energy are the important parameter
to support information on interactions between wood surface and liquids (water, adhesives, and
wood finishes) [10, 11, 12, 13]. Wettability should be one of important indicator for evaluating
the bonding between coatings and wood surface. Higher wettability provides better bonding
quality of varnish [14]. Wettability can be determined by measuring the contact angle between
liquid and surface. Many factor (such as surface tension phenomena, viscosity of liquids, wood
aging, drying processing, and defects) influence penetration [10]. The purpose of this study was
to investigate and to evaluate surface characteristics in term of surface roughness, SFE, and
wettability for ten commercially Indonesian woods species.

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2 Experimental
2.1 Sample Preparation
Wood samples were prepared from ten species of wood, fast-growing teak (Tectona
grandis), afrika (Maesopsis eminii), sungkai (Peronema canescens), mindi (Melia azedarach),
merbau (Intsia bijuga), durian (Durio zibethinus), lamtoro (Leucaena leucocephala), pulai
(Alstonia scholaris), acacia (Acacia mangium), and kempas (Koompassia malaccens). The
lumbers were planed at their surfaces in planer. The planed lumbers were cut to produce samples
for roughness measurement and wettability test. The surface roughness and wettability of wood
samples were measured without sanding treatment. Wood specimens in dimension of 20 cm x 12
cm x 2 cm (longitudinal x tangential x radial) were prepared by cutting the lumbers. The wood
specimens were kept in an air-conditioned room with temperature of 23 ± 2°C and relative
humidity of 80 ± 5% for 2 weeks before roughness and wettability test. The room has been lighted
and kept clean to retain the surface of wood samples in the same condition. Varnishes used for the
wettability test were water-based acrylic and solvent-based alkyd. A mixture of alkyd varnish
(90%) and oil thinner (10%) was prepared and stirred uniformly. Another mixture of acrylic
varnish (90%), and water (10%) was also prepared. The viscosity of the alkyd and acrylic mixtures
measured by viscometer was in the average of 0.2 and 1.5 poise respectively.
Surface roughness test
The measurement of surface roughness of wood specimens was performed perpendicularly
to the fibre direction at five different positions on tangential surface of each sample using Mitutoyo
type SJ-210 tester. The reason for measurement of roughness on the tangential surface was due to
the decorative purposes. The tangential lumber has provided better decorative appearance
compared to radial lumber, especially for furniture products coated with clear coats. The roughness
measurement according to ISO 4287:1997 [15] was performed with a diamond tip radius of 5 µm,
tracing length of 6 mm, the cut off of 0.8 mm and speed of 0.5 mm/s. The value evaluated was the
arithmetical mean roughness (Ra).

Contact angle measurement

The dynamic contact angles of selected standard liquids (water, methanol, toluene, and
glycerine) for measurement of SFE and of acrylic varnish for measurement of wettability were
performed with video measuring system with a high-resolution CCD camera. During
measurement, wood specimen was placed on the top of a table in front of the CCD video camera.
The drop of selected standard liquids and the acrylic varnish with volume of 20 µl were dropped
by a syringe with a screw method to obtain the same droplets. The drop shapes on the wood surface
were captured by the CCD camera and saved for the duration of 180 s. Five droplets per sample
was captured for each standard liquids and acrylic varnish for the measurements of contact angle.
Each of the captured video images was cut to an individual image at intervals of 10 s for total
duration of 180 s. The Image-J 1.46 software with drop-snakes plugin analysis was used to measure
the contact angle (θ) of the individual image of the drop. The contact angles of each droplet on the
surface of wood specimen were measured both on the left side and the right side of the droplet and
then the values were averaged. Total nineteen data points were taken for each recorded drop to
obtain a curve of contact angle versus wetting time. The contact angle tests were conducted at the
room with temperature of 23 ± 2°C and relative humidity of 80 ± 5%.

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Determination of equilibrium contact angle and constant contact angle change rate
A segmented regression model was used to determine the equilibrium contact angle (θe) value. It
is assumed that development of contact angle during wetting process can be described by two
functions in a curve (Figure 1). The first function is a steep slope (quadratic) of the curve over the
first second beginning of spreading and penetration, and the second function is a constant slope
(plateau) for the later part of the curve (constant contact angle). The fitted regression model for the
functions takes the form of quadratic model with plateau. The transition point between the two
functions (te) was directly obtained by using nonlinear least-squares procedures (PROC NLIN) in
SAS STAT [16].

60
Contact angle (degree)

50 Experimented value
SAS Model Fit
Quadratic
40

30

20 Plateau

e
10 of equilibrium contact angle (θe) from a plot of the contact angle as a
Figure 1. Determination
function of time, by segmented regression model
0
0 20 te 40 60 80 100 120 140
Contact angle change rate depends on the contact angle at a particular time. The contact
angle change rate (K-value) on the S/G Wetting time
model [17] was(s)
used to quantitatively evaluate the
wettability in this work. The equation of S/G model can be expressed as follows:

θi.θe
θ= θe (1)
θi+(θe−θi)exp[𝐾(θe−θi)𝑡]

where θ is the contact angle at a certain time, θi is the initial contact angle, θe is equilibrium contact
angle, K is the constant contact angle change rate and t is wetting time. A non-linier regression
model was used to calculate K value using defined function to fit S/G equation by XLSTAT [18].

Determination of SFE components

Many methods have been used to calculate the SFE of wood. The two-liquid method is
modified to be a multi-liquid method to determine the SFE value and its components are proposed
by Rabel [19], using a regression line as in the equation 2:
𝑝
γ𝑙 γ
(1 + cosθe) 𝑑 1/2
1/2 = (γ𝑠 ) + (γ𝑝𝑠 )1/2 ( 𝑙𝑑 )1/2 (2)
(γ𝑑 γ𝑙
𝑙)

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where θe is equilibrium contact angle, γ𝑙 is the value of total surface tension, γ𝑑𝑙 is dispersive
surface tension, γ𝑑𝑠 is dispersive component of SFE, γ𝑝𝑠 is polar component of SFE, and γ𝑝𝑙 is polar
surface tension. The size of the equilibrium contact angle (θe) of the standard liquid droplet (with
known γl) on the surface of the woods samples is used for determining wood SFE (γs). In a linear
𝑝
γ
regression line (Y= A + BX), as Y = (1 + cosθe) 𝑑γ𝑙1/2 , X= (γ𝑙𝑑 )1/2, the slope (B) will be (γ𝑝𝑠 )1/2 and
(γ𝑙 ) 𝑙

the intercept (A) will be . The values of X and Y in this study were calculated by the four
(γ𝑑𝑠 )1/2
standard liquids as presented in Table 1. Meanwhile, the Y value was calculated from the
measurement of contact angles of the standard liquids in Table 1 on each surface of woods
specimens. The value of SFE should be A2 + B2 = ((γ𝑑𝑠 )1/2)2 + ((γ𝑝𝑠 )1/2 )2.

Table 1. The value of total surface tension, polar component of surface tension, dispersive
component of surface tension for the standard liquids (in mJ/m2)

Liquids 𝛾𝑙 𝑝 𝛾𝑙 𝑑 𝛾𝑙
Water 21.8 51.0 72.8
Methanol 50% 12.9 22.7 35.6
Toluene 2.3 26.1 28.4
Glycerin 30.0 34.0 64.0

Note: γlp, polar component of surface tension; γld, dispersive component of surface tension; γl; the
value of total surface tension.

Coating application and bonding test

The un-sanded and sanded wood samples were coated by the above mentioned varnish types
for bonding quality evaluation. Two coats were applied on the wood surfaces to achieve a total
application of 150 g/m2 wet film and a dry film thickness of 60 ± 5 μm. The required weight of
each coat to achieve these spread rates was calculated based on the surface area of the samples.
The varnishes were applied by brush on the front face and the back of the samples. Twenty-four
hours drying time was allowed before the second coat was applied. When the second coat had
dried, the coated samples were conditioned for one week in a clean room at approximately 25°C
temperature and 75% relative humidity.
A cross-cut tape test method was applied to evaluate the resistance of the coating films to
separation from wood surfaces [20]. A cross-cut pattern was made through the film with a sharp
cutter head. Pressure-sensitive tape was applied over the cut. Tape was smoothed into place by
using a pencil eraser over the area of the incisions. Tape was removed by pulling it off rapidly
back over itself close to an angle of 180°. Adhesion was assessed on a 0 to 5 scale. The scale 5 is
0% area removed, and scale 0 is greater than 65% area removed. Five cross-cut patterns per sample
were made for each varnish coating, two samples were used, and ten measurements of cross-cut
were obtained. The scales of the adhesion were averaged.
Results and discussion

Surface roughness

Surface roughness is an important property in terms of surface quality, particularly in

finishing treatments [21]. The result in Figure 2 shows that sanding contributed to a decrease in

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surface roughness values (Ra) for all wood species. The result indicates that kempas had the
roughest surface both for sanded and unsanded with Ra value of 11.06 µm and 16.24 µm,
respectively. Lamtoro had the smoothest surface after sanding with Ra value of 6.86 µm. Surface
roughness of wood can be affected by some factors such as annual ring variation, density, cell
structure, latewood/earlywood ratio and type of machining [22, 23].

20
Unsanded
Ra value (µm)

16
Sanded
12

Wood Species

Figure 2. The values of surface roughness for the ten tropical wood species

It was reported that a higher surface roughness produces a higher surface hydrophilicity
that tends to produce better wetting with lower of contacts angle [24]. The size of voids present
in the wood may also influence surface roughness. Wood with large lumen and diameters would
usually result in open grain after machining which lead to higher surface roughness [25]. Surface
roughness of the woods tested in this work should be important in determining its SFE and
wettability for the water-based acrylic and oil-based alkyd varnish.

Surface Free Energy

Equilibrium contact angle (θe) was measured to calculate the SFE of the woods tested. The
equilibrium contact angles were calculated using a segmented regression model and the results are
shown in Table 2. Unsanded afrika wood had the lowest θe of 20.6° and 25.2° for water-based
acrylic and solvent based alkyd varnishes, respectively and sanded lamtoro wood had the lowest
θe value of 6.1° and 6.8° for solvent based alkyd. Otherwise unsanded and sanded merbau woods
were the highest in θe value of 39.8° and 41.8°, respectively for the water-based acrylic varnish,
and of 14.2° and 15.9°, respectively for the solvent based alkyd varnish. The values of these θe
showed the correlation with the surface roughness of the woods, in which a rougher wood surface
tended to produce a lower θe value.

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Table 2. The value of equilibrium contact angle for 10 tropical wood species
Water-based acrylic paint Oil-based alkyd paint
Wood
θe (Unsanded) θe (Sanded) θe (Unsanded) θe (Sanded)
Afrika 20.6 25.2 6.1 7.1
Acacia 29.0 29.2 8.9 9.8
Kempas 26.9 28.2 9.7 12.7
Lamtoro 29.4 29.7 6.3 6.8
Durian 28.3 30.0 7.3 7.5
Sungkai 29.6 31.7 11.3 12.1
Pulai 31.7 31.8 8.2 10.1
Mindi 30.1 34.3 8.9 10.3
FG-Teak 33.7 37.9 10.8 11.4
Merbau 39.8 41.8 14.2 15.9

The results in Table 2 show also that the θe values of acrylic and alkyd varnishes for all
wood surfaces were prominently different. The water-based acrylic varnish generated higher
values of θe. Its higher viscosity 1.5 poise compared to the solvent based alkyd varnish 0.3 poise
could be the reason. The lower θe in solvent based alkyd varnish indicated the varnish liquid
easier to spread and lead to beneficial substrate wetting and penetration in wood. The lower θe of
the solvent based alkyd also indicates that it should create more intimate contact on the wood
surface than the water-based acrylic.

Table 3 The value of total SFE and components for ten wood species (in mJ/m2)

Wood Unsanded Sanded

𝛾𝑠𝑑 𝛾𝑠 𝑝 𝛾𝑠 𝑑
𝛾𝑠 𝛾𝑠 𝑝 𝛾𝑠
FG-Teak 23.60 15.00 38.60 26.55 9.62 36.17
Merbau 40.29 6.96 47.26 43.35 3.57 46.92
Acacia 41.69 7.31 49.00 36.60 7.16 43.76
Sungkai 42.16 7.64 49.80 35.52 7.85 43.37
Pulai 40.78 9.65 50.43 30.61 12.12 42.72
Durian 35.63 14.91 50.54 32.03 14.12 46.15
Mindi 35.53 15.52 51.05 27.91 17.69 45.60
Lamtoro 34.25 16.87 51.12 22.24 19.11 41.35
Kempas 46.49 6.85 53.34 41.46 7.10 48.55
Afrika 44.48 9.13 53.61 36.02 9.44 45.46

Note: 𝛾𝑠 𝑝 , polar component of SFE; 𝛾𝑠 𝑑 , dispersive component of SFE; 𝛾𝑠 , the value of total SFE

The SFE values of woods are shown in Table 3. The SFE decreased as the roughness of
the woods decreased. It was also reported by Gindl et al. [26] that sanded surfaces of woods show
smaller total surface free energies. Unsanded and sanded fast-growing teak had the lowest SFE
values of 38.60 mJ/m2 and 36.17 mJ/m2, respectively. Unsanded afrika and sanded kempas woods
were the highest in SFE values of 53.61 mJ/m2 and of 45.46 mJ/m2, respectively. The higher SFE

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value of the wood indicated the higher the energy on the surfaces of the wood to be used for
breakdown the liquid to spread and penetrate on their surfaces. A rougher wood surface tended to
produce a higher SFE. This could due to the contact area on the rougher surfaces higher than on
smoother surfaces.

Wettability
K value is important for quantifying the wettability of varnish liquid on the surface of the
wood. K-value of 0 indicates very poor wettability. K values of woods tested in this work are
shown in Table 4. Unsanded and sanded merbau woods had the lowest K values of 0.027 and
0.022, respectively for the water based acrylic varnish. The unsanded pulai and sanded sungkai
had the lowest K value of 3.627 and for 3.485, respectively for the solvent based alkyd varnish.
Otherwise unsanded and sanded afrika woods were the highest in K values of 0.055 and 0.051,
respectively for the acrylic varnish, and of 9.253 and 8.202, respectively for the alkyd varnish.

Table 4. K-values of water-based acrylic paint and oil-based alkyd paint for ten wood species
Water-based acrylic paint Oil-based alkyd paint
Wood K-value K-value K-value K-value
(Unsanded) (Sanded) (Unsanded) (Sanded)

Merbau 0.027 0.022 5.600 4.249

Lamtoro 0.032 0.028 7.452 6.898
Pulai 0.033 0.029 4.506 3.627
Kempas 0.036 0.034 5.148 4.619
Mindi 0.037 0.034 7.447 6.310
Acacia 0.038 0.033 7.260 5.389
FG-Teak 0.038 0.032 5.730 5.038
Durian 0.041 0.035 6.637 6.531
Sungkai 0.052 0.038 5.557 3.485
Afrika 0.055 0.051 9.253 8.202

The results in Table 4 show that the solvent based alkyd had larger K values compared to
water-based acrylic because solvent based alkyd was lower in viscosity (0.3 poise) than water-
based acrylic varnish (1.5 poise). According to Gavrilovic-Grmusa et al. [27], wettability value
decreases with increasing in viscosity of an adhesive. A lower in surface tension within the liquid
could also result in a greater wettability. The solvent based alkyd varnish also had lower surface
tension of 66.32 (mJ/m2) compared to water based acrylic varnish of 80.52 (mJ/m2). It also
appears from the results in Tabel 4 that the unsanded wood samples had larger K value than sanded
woods both for the acrylic and alkyd varnish. As noted in Darmawan et al. [14] that rougher surface
of woods generates lower contact angle and ensuing better wettability. Shi and Gardner [17]
reported that the greater K-values, the faster the time needed for the liquid to spread and penetrate
on the wood surfaces. By considering the fact that the acrylic and alkyd in this study were prepared
and applied at the manufacturer’s recommended use, it can be concluded that the alkyd varnish
produced better wettability than acrylic for all ten wood surfaces.

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Bonding Quality
Bonding quality of ten wood species are presented in Table 5. It is seen from Table 5 that
bonding quality of unsanded woods was slightly better compared to sanded woods. Afrika and
sungkai had the highest average of bonding quality compared to the others due to their high K
values. Pulai and lamtoro had the lowest average of bonding quality due to their low K values.
Anatomical structure would be one of the major factors affecting the interaction between
coating and wood material. Afrika wood had a porous structure that would result in better
absorption and penetration of coating to its surface, then cause higher magnitude of interface which
enhanced bonding quality characteristics. The results also indicate that sanding decreased bonding
quality value. The increase in surface roughness will tend to the increase in bonding quality. It was
also reported by Darmawan et al. [14] that when the surface becomes smoother, a coating lacks
mechanical interlocking with the substrate, thus weakening the adhesion. A rough surface was
proposed to enhance intrinsic adhesion by providing greater interfacial area. The coating liquid
flowed and filled the wood pores, holes, crevices and microvoids to achieve strong bond between
wood surface and coating material.

Table 5. Bonding quality of water-based acrylic paint and oil-based alkyd paint for ten wood
species.

Water-based acrylic Paint Oil-based alkyd Paint

Wood
Unsanded Sanded Unsanded Sanded
Afrika 5B 5B 5B 4B
Lamtoro 4B 3B 3B 3B
Durian 3B 3B 5B 4B
Acacia 4B 3B 4B 3B
Pulai 3B 3B 3B 3B
Mindi 3B 3B 5B 4B
FG-Teak 5B 4B 5B 4B
Sungkai 5B 4B 5B 5B
Kempas 3B 2B 5B 2B
Merbau 5B 3B 3B 3B

The results in Table 5 show that alkyd varnish produced higher bonding quality than acrylic
varnish for most of ten wood species. Better wettability of alkyd varnish (higher K values)
contributed to better bonding quality. Sonmez et al. [28] noted that solvent based alkyd varnish
completes its polymerization reaction on the wood surfaces which allow for chemical bonding on
wood surfaces. Lower bonding quality of water-based acrylic varnish is considered because the
water used as a solvent causes swelling of wood fibers and decrease penetration near the wood
surfaces which lead to a weakening of the interface of wood and coating material [29].
Conclusion
Based on the findings in this work, the following general conclusions were drawn. Sanding
with 120 grit number decreased the roughness of the wood surfaces. The equilibrium contact
angles increase as the roughness of the planed surface of the woods decrease. The SFE values
decrease as the equilibrium contact angles of the wood increase. The higher SFE values generate
the higher K-values. The higher K-value indicates higher wettability and bonding quality of

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varnishes. Afrika wood has the greatest SFE and K values among the other wood species, and
produces highest bonding quality. Solvent based alkyd varnish is more wettable and generates
better bonding quality compared to the water-based acrylic varnish. The K-values of all woods
tested in this work larger than 0 give an indication that the varnish liquids (acrylid and alkyd) can
spread and penetrate on the surface of the woods tested. Improving the quality of especially fast-
growing wood from plantation by painting could be considered to spread their utilization for higher
value wood products

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Directorate for Research and Community Service of the Ministry of
RISTEK-DIKTI of the Republic of Indonesia for the research grant

References
[1] Ministry of Environment and Forestry, The State of Indonesia’s Forests 2018. Jakarta
(ID): Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2018.
[2] Martawijya A, Kartasujana I, Kadir K, Prawira S, Atlas Kayu Indonesia. Forest Products
Research Institute, Bogor, 2005.
[3] W. Darmawan, I.S. Rahayu, C. Tanaka, R. Marchal, Chemical and Mechanical Wearing of
High-Speed Steel and Tungsten Carbide Tools by Tropical Woods. Journal of Tropical
Forest Science, 18 (2006) 166-172.
[4] W. Darmawan, D. Nandika, Y. Massijaya, A. Kabe, I. Rahayu, L. Denaud, B. Ozarska, Lathe
Check Characteristics of Fast Growing Sengon Veneers and their Effect on LVL Glue-bond
and Bending Strength. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 215 (2015) 181-188.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.08.015.
[5] D. Crump, The Complete Guide to Wood Finishes. Australia (AUS): Simon and Shuster,
1993.
[6] Y. Yuan, T.R. Lee, Contact angle and wetting properties. Surface Science Techniques, 51
(2013) 3-34, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34243-1
[7] A. Baldan, Adhesion Phenomena in Bonded Joints. International Journal of Adhesion and
Adhesives, 38 (2012) 95-116.
[8] M. Wålinder, Study of Lewis acid-base properties of wood by contact angle analysis.
Holzforschung, 56 (2002) 363-371.
[9] I. Yuningsih, I.S. Rahayu, L. Dumasari, W. Darmawan, Wettability and adherence of acrylic
varnishs on long and short rotation teaks. J Wood Mater Sci Eng. 2019. doi:
10.1080/17480272. 2019.1575903.
[10] Z. Qin, H. Chen, Q. Gao, S. Zhang, Wettability of Sanded and Aged Fast-growing Poplar
Wood Surfaces: I Surface Free Energy. Bioresources 10 (2014) 1008-1023.
[11] M.E.P. Wålinder, D.J. Gardner, Acid–Base Characterization of Wood and Selected
Thermoplastics. Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, 16 (2002) 1625-1649.
[12] M. Gindl, A. Reiterer, G. Sinn, S.E. Stanzl-Tschegg, Effects of Surface Ageing on
Wettability, Surface Chemistry, and Adhesion of Wood. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff, 62
(2004) 273-280.
[13] J. Rathke, G. Sinn, Evaluating the Wettability of MUF Resins and pMDI on Two Different
OSB Raw Materials. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products, 71 (2013) 335-342.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

[14] W. Darmawan, D. Nandika, E. Noviyanti, I. Alipraja, D. Lumongga, D.J. Gardner, P.

Gerardin, Wettability and bonding quality of exterior coatings on jabon and sengon wood
surfaces. J. Coat. Technol. Res., 15 (2017) 95-104
[15] International Standard (1997) Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) Surface texture:
Profile method, terms, definitions and surface texture parameters ISO 4287-1977. Geneva
(Switzerland): International Organization for Standardization.
[16] SAS Institute, SAS STAT 9.1 User’s Guide, 1st ed. SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC, USA, 2004.
[17] S.Q. Shi, D.J. Gardner, Dynamic Adhesive Wettability of Wood. Wood and Fiber Sci., 33
(2001) 58-68
[18] XLSTAT Addinsoft, A Complete Statistical Add-In for Microsoft Excel. Addinsoft NY,
USA, 2007.
[19] W. Rabel, Einige Aspekte der Benetzungstheorie and ihre Anwendung auf die Untersuchung
und Verӓnderung der Oberflӓcheneigenschaften von Polymeren. Fabre und Lack, 77 (1971)
997-1006
[20] ASTM, “ASTM D 3359-97: Standard Test Methods for Measuring Adhesion by Tape Test.”
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1997.
[21] U. Buyuksari, T. Akbulut, C. Guler, N. Ass, Wettability and surface roughness of natural
and plantation grown narrow leaved ash (Fraximus angustifolia Vahl) wood. BioResources,
6 (2011) 4621-4730
[22] M.R.S. Amorim, P.G. Ribeiro, S.A. Martins, C.H.S.D. Menezzi, MR.Souza, Surface
wettability and roughness of 11 amazonian tropical hardwoods. Floresta e Ambiente, 20
(2013) 99-109.
[23] M. Kilic, S. Hiziroglu, E. Burdurlu, Effect of machining on surface roughness of wood.
Building and Environment. 41 (2005)1072-1078.
[24] C. Piao, J.E. Winandy, T.F. Shupe, From hydrophilicity to hydrophobicity: a critical
review: part I wettability and surface behavior. Wood and Fiber Science, 42 (2010) 490-
510
[25] A. Syahirah, M.T. Paridah, H. Hamdan, U.M.K. Anwar, A.S. Nordahlia, S.H. Lee, Effect of
anatomical characteristics and wood density on surface roughness and their relation to
surface wettability of hardwood. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 31(2019)269-277
[26] M. Gindl, G. Sinn, A. Reiterer, S. Tschegg, Wood surface energy and time dependence of
wettability: a comparison of different wood surfaces using an acid-base approach.
Holzforschung, 55 (2001) 433-440.
[27] I. Gavrilovic-Grmusa, M. Dunky, J. Miljkovic, M. Djiporovic, Influence of the viscosity of
UF resins on the radial and tangential penetration into poplar wood and the shear strength of
adhesive joints. Holzforschung, 66 (2012)849–856.
[28] A. Sonmez, M. Budakci, M Bayram, Effect of wood moisture content on adhesion of varnish
coatings. Sci. Res. Essay, 4(2009)1432–1437
[29] M. Meijer, S. Haemers, W. Cobben, H. Militz, Surface energy determinations of wood:
comparison of methods and wood species. Langmuir, 16 (2000)9352-9359.

Biography

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Bond Strength of Wood Adhesives: The Sensitivity of

Standard Test Methods to Imperfections
Mohammad Derikvand1*– Gerhard Fink2

1 Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalto University,

02150 Espoo, Finland* Corresponding author
[email protected]

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Aalto University, 02150

Espoo, Finland
[email protected]

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to highlight some drawbacks and uncertainties related to possible
imperfections associated with the use of key European and American standard test methods on
shear strength measurement of wood adhesive bonds. For this purpose, a brief introduction is
provided on adhesive bonding of wood materials and relevant failure modes under shear stress.
Two standardized test methods for measuring the shear strength of wood adhesives are
introduced, followed by a discussion around the drawbacks and imperfections related to the
practical application of the two test methods. Finally, the research needs in this area are
highlighted and some recommendations are made for addressing them in the future studies.

Key words: wood adhesives, bond strength, percentage of wood failure, bond line thickness,
adhesive spread rate, growth ring orientation, imperfection.

Introduction

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Adhesive is an integral element in the production of a variety of engineered wood products

(EWPs) such as cross-laminated timber, glulam, and laminated veneer lumber. The bond strength
evaluation of wood adhesives is part of daily activities in the quality control laboratory of many
EWPs manufacturing companies. Most companies follow the testing instructions provided by
national or international industry-accepted standard test methods. However, one of the
challenges that has occasionally been highlighted by researchers is that most of the available
standard methods are general and usually not relevant to all types of products (e.g., Sikora et al.
2016), even though many wood adhesives nowadays are produced to be used in a specific
product or application. Accordingly, the selected test method may not necessarily be the most
suitable method for the specific application, although it may fulfill the basic requirements.
Parameters such as bond line thickness, adhesive spread rate, press pressure, and grain
orientation, influence the bond strength of wood adhesives (Rowell 2012). The influencing
parameters can vary within and between applications and products, which affects the reliability
of a selected standard test method. In addition, some of the common standards are quite
sensitive to minor technical errors in the sample preparation or testing (Karlsson and Wong
2004). Although for research purposes in a well-controlled laboratory environment the minor
technical errors could be avoided, such imperfections are usually expected to happen in the
industrial use. Therefore, it is important to properly evaluate the parameters that might influence
the accuracy of bond strength measurement and the extent to which common standards are
sensitive to these parameters.

In this paper, a brief discussion is presented on the fundamental of the bonding mechanism and
failure of wood adhesives. This is followed by a review of various technical parameters and
imperfections that might influence the accuracy and reliability of key European and American
standard test methods on shear strength measurement of wood adhesive bonds. The gaps and
research needs in this area are also discussed in order to evaluate the importance of the effects of
such imperfections on the accuracy of the standard test methods in the future research.

Adhesive bonding of wood materials

Apart from its chemistry, the bonding performance of a wood adhesive is largely governed by its
depth of penetration into the wood cells (Kamke and Lee 2007). Part of an adhesive applied
between wood elements will penetrate the lumens of the wood cells through hydrodynamic flow
and capillary action and a smaller amount will penetrate the wood cell-walls through diffusion
(Kamke and Lee 2007, Gavrilović-Grmuša et al. 2016). A good bonding performance could be
expected when the adhesive penetrates the wood cells to a sufficient degree. This will provide a
good interaction and mechanical interlocking between the wood and the adhesive (Rowell 2012).
Under similar conditions, the level of hydrodynamic flow and capillary action may vary between
various wood species depending on their cellular structures. Due to this, the depth of penetration
and therefore the bonding performance of a single adhesive will be generally influenced by the
type of wood materials in addition to the viscosity of the adhesive itself.

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Figure 1. Illustration of the chain-link model in a wood-wood glued element.

This is usually addressed during the formulation of the adhesive and can be adjusted for different
wood species and products. However, a uniform bonding performance will be challenging to
achieve in manufacturing a product that is to be made of mixed wood species (Rowell 2012). A
poor bonding performance in such products may result from the over-penetration of the adhesive
into the more porous species or its under-penetration into the less porous one.

According to Marra (1992), the adhesive bond in wood materials can generally be modeled using
a chain-link analogy comprised of five links (Fig. 1). Despite its detailed structure, the chain-link
analogy is effective in describing and studying the bond performance of wood adhesives. As
shown in Figure 1, Link 1 in the chain-link analogy is bulk adhesive; Links 2 and 3 are the
adhesive interphase (or the adhesive boundary layer); Links 4 and 5 are the wood-adhesive
interface; Links 6 and 7 are the interphase of the wood; and Links 8 and 9 are bulk wood (clear
wood unaffected by the adhesive). According to this model, the bond is as strong as the weakest
link in the chain.

The best-case scenario for a wood adhesive is when Links 8 or 9 are the weakest in the chain,
resulting in pure wood failure. Most adhesives usually achieve this when tested in dry conditions.
However, certain wood adhesives fail in the interphase region when tested in wet conditions
(Frihart 2005). The interphase region is quite critical as it has to accommodate the possible
swelling and shrinkage of the wood and volume reduction of the adhesive while it cures.
Swelling and shrinkage strains in either components at service will also result in increased
internal stresses that can negatively influence the bond performance in the interphase region
(Frihart 2009). Due to this phenomenon, the performance of wood adhesives needs to be studied
at various dry and wet states to mimic the actual conditions at service.

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Figure 2. Three general macroscopic failure modes of wood adhesive bonds under shear force.

The chain-link analogy is quite detailed and therefore sometimes challenging to use especially
for predicting failures in the bond line. This is because the induced stresses are usually not
uniformly distributed across the bond line and therefore the failures do not always happen in
only one single link in the chain (Hass 2012). Most standard test methods examine the bond
performance of wood adhesives under shear loads, either in compression or in tension. Under
shear stress, three macroscopic failure modes can be observed in general with the assumption of
a uniform stress distribution: interphase failure, cohesive failure, and substrate or wood failure
(Fig. 2).

a. Interphase failure refers to a type of shear failure that occurs within the interphase region
of the bond line. Interphase failure occurs within Links 2 to 7 in the chain-link analogy.
This includes failure in the adhesive interphase region (Links 2 and 3), interfacial failure
(Links 4 and 5), and failure in the wood interphase region (Links 6 and 7). The interfacial
failure (i.e., failure at the wood-adhesive interface) leaves clear wood on one surface and
adhesive on the other. A true interfacial failure is not common for strong wood adhesive
bonds but it can result from the poor adhesive penetration that may happen due to high
density of wood, inadequate surface preparation, or high viscosity of the adhesive itself.
Sometimes failure in the adhesive interphase region (Links 2 and 3) or the wood itself
(Links 6 and 7) may be mistaken for the interfacial failure (Links 4 and 5). The
differences are difficult to detect at the macroscopic level.

b. Cohesive failure is the pure shear failure of the bulk adhesive within Link 1. In wood
materials, a cohesive failure may indicate that the shear strength of the adhesive line is
less than that of the wood itself. This type of failure may also be observed when the
adhesive line is too thick.

c. Substrate (wood) failure is characterized by the shear failure of the wood fibers within
Links 8 and 9. This type of failure occurs when the shear strength of the bond line is
higher than that of the wood.

In practice, other types of shear failure can also occur as a combination of the three general
failure modes. Nevertheless, most standard test methods on shear strength measurement of wood
adhesive bonds do not account for this effect and only require the percentage of wood failure to
be assessed visually to the nearest 10%. However, to properly understand the wood adhesive
bonding mechanism, the relevant experiments are better to be associated with both macroscopic
and microscopic evaluations of the failure modes of the bond line as well.

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Figure 3. Configurations of EN 302-1 and ASTM D 905-8 specimens. Measurements in mm.

Key methods for shear strength measurement of wood adhesive bonds

Standard tests methods used for evaluating the bond strength of wood adhesives usually require
the strength measurements to be taken under uniaxial shear stress parallel to the grain direction.
In some standards, the shear stress is created by compressive loading and in some others by
tensile loading. For each category, one of the most frequently used test methods is described in
the following.

EN 302-1 (2013) is a European standard used for evaluating the shear strength of wood
adhesives for load-bearing timber structures with close contact and thick glue lines. This
standard provides guidance on measuring the shear strength of wood adhesives parallel to the
grain direction. The shear stress must be induced on the adhesive line by tensile force. The test
method has been developed for evaluating the shear strength of wood adhesives using different
conditionings in both dry and wet states and under low and high temperatures. It is also suitable
for assessing the compliance of one-component polyurethane adhesives, phenolic and
aminoplastic adhesives, and emulsion polymerized isocyanate adhesives.

ASTM D 905-8 (2013) test method from the American Society for Testing and Materials is used
to evaluate the shear strength of wood adhesive bonds by compressive loading. The bond area in
this standard is quite larger than that in EN 302-1 (2013). ASTM D 905-8 (2013) test method is
generally used to evaluate the shear strength of adhesive bonds in wood and similar materials.
This test method is quite straightforward with respect to the necessity of following its specified
conditions of specimen preparation, conditioning, and testing. The shear strength of the adhesive
bond in this method is measured parallel to the grain direction. The configuration and
dimensions of the EN 302-1 (2013) and ASTM D 905-8 specimens are shown in Figure 3.

Imperfections of test specimens in practical use

The application of the standard test methods in a well-controlled laboratory environment is not
usually associated with major imperfections. However, in daily industrial use of standard test

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methods the likelihood of errors and imperfections is quite high. The imperfections could be
related to the geometry, dimensions, but also mistakes/errors related to the general procedures
for preparing and testing of the specimens. A few researchers have already raised the importance
of this subject in the past as well. Karlsson and Wong (2004), for example, evaluated the
sensitivity of the EN 302-1 and ASTM D-905 test methods to eccentric loading, amount of
adhesive, and errors in cutting grooves and steps in the specimens. The experimental design of
the study was not fully factorial and therefore the interaction effect of the test variables was not
evaluated. However, they concluded that both test standards are sensitive to the intentional errors
in the preparation and testing of the specimens. The results obtained were significantly affected
even when there was only ± 0.5 mm error in the cutting depth of grooves and steps in the
specimens.

In numerous studies in the past, the effects of growth ring orientation, press pressure, glue line
thickness, and adhesive spread rate on the shear strength of wood adhesives in dry conditions
were proved to be significant. However, there are uncertainties on how imperfection and
inconsistency in such variables may influence the accuracy of the standard test methods. In EN
302-1 (2013), for example, it is assumed that a press pressure of 0.8 ± 0.1 MPa will result in a
glue line thickness of 0.3 mm or less. This is quite general and may not necessarily result in the
same glue line thickness, for example, in a low-viscosity adhesive compared to an expanding
adhesive with a high viscosity.

The optimum spread rate of a wood adhesive is usually recommended by the manufacturer. The
adhesives spread rate has conventionally been measured in many studies as the amount of
adhesive that is initially applied on the adherents’ surfaces. However, this method is clearly not
reliable because it does not indicate how much adhesive will actually stay between the surfaces
for bonding as a large amount of the adhesive initially applied will squeeze out under press
pressure. This can lead to drawing incorrect conclusions from the results of bond strength
measurement especially if the adhesive spread rate is one of the test variables. To overcome this
drawback, the weight of the specimens before gluing and after clamping can be measured to
estimate the amount of adhesive that is left for bonding (as in Santos et al. 2019). Measuring the
exact bond line thickness and correlating it to the test results of individual specimens could be
another solution. By measuring the bond line thickness, the volume of the adhesive applied in
unit bond area could be estimated. The actual spread rate of the adhesive can then be estimated
by multiplying the volume of the adhesive by its density at any stage even without knowing the
weight of the specimens before gluing. A simple statistical correlation between the actual
adhesive spread rate and the results obtained from the shear test of the bond line can then be used
to adjust the results and improve the accuracy and repeatability of the experiments. For this
purpose, clear guidelines must be provided on how the bond line thickness and adhesive volume
can be rapidly and accurately estimated at the gluing or subsequent stages in practice.

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Figure 4. Some examples of incorrect growth ring orientations in EN 302-1 (2013) specimens.

The adhesive penetration depth on each side of a specimen is also likely to vary if the growth
ring orientations of the adherents are different (see Figure 4 as an example). In such a case, the
differences in the shear strength may not be significant for strong adhesive bonds tested in dry
conditions, as most of the failure is likely to take place in the wood itself. However, cycles of
wetting, boiling, and drying in the next stages of the test and increase in the test temperature
required by standards can lead to increased internal stresses as a result of variable shrinkage and
swelling of the specimens with different growth ring orientations. This can result in more
decrease in the strength of Links 2 to 7 in the bond line of a specimen with small adhesive
penetration depth. Therefore, the variation in the adhesive bond strength in the specimens with
different growth ring orientations can become more notable. In such a situation, the accuracy and
repeatability of a given test method will need to be addressed properly under various testing
temperatures and moisture contents when exposed to such imperfections.

The subjects of growth ring orientation and fibre direction are especially important for evaluating
the suitability of an adhesive that is going to be used in the production of certain types of EWPs
with crossing layers—such as cross-laminated timber. In such products, the growth ring pattern
and fibre direction in each layer vary significantly even within the same product type. However,
the standard test methods described in this paper evaluate the shear strength of wood adhesives
only in one direction—i.e., parallel to the grain. In numerous studies, researchers have been
adopting their own test methods to evaluate the shear strength of adhesive bonds in products with
crossing layers (e.g., Sikora et al. 2016). It is however still uncertain as to what extent the results
of such tests may differ from those obtained from the available standard test methods on similar
adhesives and wood species.

The existence of so many uncertainties in the basic application of the standard test methods
indicates important research needs in this area. The future research should cover a range of
objectives to properly understand the importance of the variables discussed in this paper and then
propose reliable solutions to reduce the uncertainties associated with the imperfections and
suitability of such standards for different products and applications.

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Summary and Conclusions

In this paper, a short introduction is provided on the bonding of wood materials, failure of
adhesive bonds, and the key test methods used for measuring the shear strength of wood
adhesives. For commonly used test methods, the uncertainties related to specimen fabrication
and their influence are discussed and suggestions are made for addressing these drawbacks in the
future research. Overall, it could be concluded that the standard test methods on the shear
strength measurement of wood adhesives are quite general and come with important degrees of
uncertainties that need to be addressed. It can be suggested to the future research to determine
the importance of the influence of imperfections in specimen preparation and testing (both
geometrical and technical aspects) on the reliability and accuracy of the standard test methods
under various conditioning procedures. With the rapid development of EWPs, the need for
establishing more detailed and reliable product-specific test methods is also paramount in
evaluating the suitability of wood adhesives for different products and applications.

References
ASTM D 905–08 (2013) Standard test method for strength properties of adhesive bonds in shear by
compression loading. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Annual Book of Standards.
ASTM International, West Conshohoken.
EN 302-1 (2013) Adhesives for load-bearing timber structures—test methods—part 1: determination of
longitudinal tensile shear strength. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
Frihart C.R (2005) Adhesive bonding and performance testing of bonded wood products. Journal of
ASTM International 2(7): 1-12.
Frihart C.R (2009). Adhesive groups and how they relate to the durability of bonded wood. Journal of
adhesion science and technology 23(4): 601-617.
Gavrilović-Grmuša I, Dunky M, Djiporović-Momčilović M, Popović M, & Popović J (2016) Influence of
pressure on the radial and tangential penetration of adhesive resin into poplar wood and on the shear
strength of adhesive joints. BioResources 11(1): 2238-2255.
Hass P.F.S (2012) Penetration behavior of adhesives into solid wood and micromechanics of the bondline
(Doctoral dissertation, ETH Zurich).
Kamke FA, Lee J.N (2007) Adhesive penetration in wood—a review. Wood and Fiber Science 39(2):
205-220.
Karlsson S, Wong M (2004) Experimental evaluation of the test methods EN 302-1 and ASTM D905 for
wood-adhesive bonds. LTH Lund University Box, 118.
Marra A.A (1992) Technology of Wood Bonding: Principles in Practice; Van Nostrand Reinhold: New
York, NY, USA.
Rowell R.M (2012) Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites. 2nd edition. Boca Raton FL:
CRC Press.
Santos P, Correia J.R, Godinho L, Dias A.M.P.G, Dias A (2019) Bonding quality assessment of cross-
layered Maritime pine elements glued with one-component polyurethane adhesive. Construction and
Building Materials 211: 571-582.
Sikora K.S, McPolin D.O, Harte A.M (2016) Shear strength and durability testing of adhesive bonds in
cross-laminated timber. The Journal of Adhesion 92(7-9): 758-777.

Biography

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Bagasse xylan nanocomposite films with high transparency, barrier

properties and enhanced mechanical strength characteristics

Seyedrahman Djafaripetroudy, Shahid Beheshti University, Iran

[email protected]

Abstract
With growing awareness of environmental concerns, the biodegradable nature of hemicelluloses has
made them an ideal choice in the development of sustainable solutions for bio-based packaging with
the aim of reducing the overall carbon footprint of this industry. For this reason, xylans were used as
important and abundant plant cell wall polysaccharides that can potentially be recovered in large
quantities from agricultural residues such as bagasse. Here, bagasse xylan films (BXFs) were prepared
with addition of sorbitol as a plasticizer and bagasse cellulose nanofibers (BCNs) as a strength
enhancer through dispersion casting approach. Two different types of BCNs such as enzymatic
pretreatment BCNFs and TEMPO-mediated oxidation BCNFs in different ratios were selected to
strengthen the mechanical properties of the xylan neat films. Surface morphology, mechanical and
barrier properties of the xylan films were comparatively measured. It was shown that the prepared
xylan films possess high transparency and homogenous structure as revealed by FESEM. Mechanical
testing explored that increasing of BCNs contents from 0 to 30% yielded consolidated xylan films with
high tensile strength properties. Also, sorbitol addition generally provided less brittle xylan films.
Owning to biodegradable properties, the prepared xylan films with appropriate mechanical strength
and barrier properties are promising for potential applications in food packaging industries and can
easily be replaced with synthetic petroleum-based ones.

Biograaphy

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Experimental analysis of mass loss kinetics during heat

treatment of wood
Jakub Dömény 1*– Dominik Hess 1 – Pavlína Suchomelová 1 – Petr Čermák 1

1 Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood

Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00, Brno, Czech
Republic
* Corresponding author
[email protected]

Abstract
The mass loss kinetics during heat treatment of selected wood species was experimentally
analyzed. European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), English oak (Quercus robur L.), Norwegian
spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) wood specimens were heat
treated at 140°C, 160°C, 180°C, 200°C and 220°C for 1 to 6 hours using atmospheric pressure
and superheated steam environment. The process intensity was determined by mass loss (M L),
based on oven-dry mass before and after the heat treatment. Furthermore, the equilibrium
moisture content (EMC) was determined before and after heat treatment to analyze the effect of
mass loss on the sorption properties. For the studied wood species, the M L was found to be less
than 1–1.5% when temperature of 140°C and 160°C was applied. Differences between studied
species were more significant at temperatures higher than 160°C. At higher temperature (220°C)
a mass loss attained of 13.5% (beech), 18.8% (oak), 6.7% (spruce) and 13.5% (pine). The EMC
was reduced after heat treatment within the range of 4 – 48%, 0.4 – 47%, 1 – 32% and 0.7 – 40%
for beech, oak, spruce and pine, respectively. The reason for the decrease of the EMC is that less
water is absorbed by the cell wall after the heat treatment as a result of chemical compounds
degradation with a decrease of hydroxyl (OH-) groups. Further, the EMC correlates
exponentially (R2=0.91–0.95) with the decrease of specimens’ mass depending on the used wood
species and modification temperature applied. This study provides experimental mass loss results
of various heat treated wood species and obtained data can be used for heat treatment process
optimization as well as for the modeling and prediction of the mass loss and required material
properties (EMC) for designed wooden products.

Key words: heat treatment, mass loss, equilibrium moisture content (EMC); wood modification

Introduction
Wood, as renewable material, plays an important role in our daily life as well as industry area.
This material has a broad range of material properties for various applications. However, natural
wood also has undesirable properties that might limit the range of feasible applications.

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Therefore, it has been a great scientific effort aimed at obtaining wood-based material that
maintain its advantages over time and at the same time reduce its natural disadvantages such as
natural variability, dimensional instability or biological degradability (Kutnar and Muthu 2016).
Dimensional instability and biological degradability of wood are considered as a major
disadvantages of wood. These particular properties are highly influenced by water presence.
However, wood with inadequate material properties can be modified by various methods
(Rowell 1983, Wepner and Militz 2005, Hill 2006). Wood modification methods can be applied
in order to improve natural disadvantages by pre-swelling, i.e. bulking, or reducing the number
of water attracting chemical groups, i.e. by chemical reaction or by thermal degradation of cell
wall. Heat treatment for instance can be used as an efficient way to degrade some of the cell wall
constituents accompanying with chemical changes resulting reduction in the number of hydroxyl
groups of the hemicelluloses, as well as decreased accessibility of water molecules to cellulose
hydroxyl groups due to the increase in cellulose crystallinity and cross-linking in lignin (Weiland
and Guyonnet 2003; Hakkou et al. 2005; Boonstra and Tjeerdsma 2006). Heat treatment of wood
has long been recognized as a potential method to improve the natural properties of the wood and
has been one of the most successful methods of modification for many years. If the process is
controlled carefully, the properties obtained following thermal modification can be tailored for
further use of the wood in specific applications. One of the most important characteristics of
thermally modified wood is a decrease in its equilibrium moisture content (EMC). Severity of
the thermal modification process is commonly expressed as a mass loss (Candelier et al. 2016;
Hill 2006). The mass loss as a consequence of the thermal degradation of wood is highly
dependent on the initial wood characteristics such as wood species and its density as well as
process parameters (Pierre at al. 2011). The mass loss is easy to be determined and it is assumed
to be correlated with other material properties, such as equilibrium moisture content, swelling,
decay resistance and mechanical properties (Nasir et al. 2018; Candelier et al. 2011; Mazela et
al., 2003; Obataya et al., 2002). The knowledge about the mass loss kinetics of various wood
species under different process parameters has therefore a high importance to optimize the heat
treatment process, control the product quality and predict required material properties of heat
treated wood. Therefore, the main motivation of this study was to analyze mass loss and
equilibrium moisture content kinetics for selected softwood and hardwood species as a function
of time and temperature.

Materials & Methods

European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), English oak (Quercus robur L.), Norwegian spruce (Picea
abies L. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were studied within present study. Wood
specimens with dimensions 20×20×10 mm3 (R×T×L) were sorted into groups of ten for each
species and treatment. The average oven-dry density of testing specimens was 0.69 g/cm3 for
beech, 0.67 g/cm3 for oak, 0.52 g/cm3 for spruce and 0.57 g/cm3 for pine. The specimens were

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conditioned at 99% relative humidity (RH) and 20 °C using the climate box and EMC at fiber
saturation point (FSP) was determined according Eq. (1).

EMC 99% RH (%) = (m w – m d) / m d · 100 (1)

where: m w is specimens’ wet mass and m d is specimens’ dry mass.

Afterwards, specimens were treated in laboratory thermal modification chamber using

atmospheric pressure and superheated steam environment. Temperatures of 140°C, 160°C,
180°C, 200°C and 220°C was applied for oven-dried specimens. The temperature was
maintained for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 hours. The mass loss (ML) of thermally treated specimens was
determined immediately after the end of the treatment process in order to evaluate the degree of
the thermal modification. The ML was calculated according to Eq. (2).

ML (%) = (m d u – m d m ) / m d u · 100 (2)

where: m d u is unmodified dry mass of the specimens and m d m is modified dry mass.

Furthermore, thermally modified specimens were conditioned at 99% RH and 20°C, according
the same procedure as previous modification, and equilibrium moisture content at FSP was
determined according to Eq. (1) and values were compared to those at reference state.

Results and Discussion

The mass loss behavior of wood is considered as an indicator of the degree of modification
achieved. As expected, the rising M L of specimens was observed as modification temperature
level increased (Table 1). The influence of treatment temperature on the modification effect was
significantly more pronounced than the influence of treatment time. Mass loss increased with the
modification time and temperature and the same mass loss results could be obtained with
different temperature, depending on the treatment time. According to the recorded data, it is
evident that the thermal degradation reaction kinetics is strongly influenced by the nature of
wood species. Hardwoods have been shown to be more sensitive to the thermal degradation than
softwoods as demonstrated by the higher mass loss recorded for a same modification time and
temperature.

Table 3. Mass loss results of selected wood species thermally modified at 140,160,180, 200 and
220°C (results represent the range from 1 hour to 6 hours of treatment)
MASS LOSS (%) Temperature
140°C 160°C 180°C 200°C 220°C
0.13 – 0.46 0.33 – 0.98 1.01 – 1.99 1.55 – 5.65 4.41 – 13.49
Beech
(0.12) (0.04) (0.10) (0.23) (0.42)
0.27 – 0.86 0.78 – 1.79 1.73 – 4.61 5.04 – 12.23 8.71 – 18.74
Oak
(0.10) (0.06) (0.25) (0.59) (0.54)

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

0.36 – 0.65 0.59 – 0.87 0.78 – 1.65 2.35 – 5.98 2.45 – 6.64
Spruce
(0.15) (0.13) (0.13) (0.22) (0.19)

Pine 0.57 – 1.69 1.54 – 2.72 2.55 – 5.46 4.61 – 8.15 8.42 – 13.45
(0.22) (0.33) (0.19) (0.62) (0.89)
* average standard deviation in parentheses

The ML was found to be less than 1 – 1.5 % when temperature of 140°C and 160°C was applied.
However, pine wood exhibits higher mass loss which may be explained by general richness in
natural resins, containing volatile substances (Rowell et al. 2005). Differences between studied
species were more significant at the temperatures above 160°C. These differences may be
explained by the quite similar reactions at the beginning of the thermo-degradation processes
involving mainly removal of chemically bounded water and vaporization of volatile extractable
compounds, while the nature of the wood species becomes more important in a second time due
to the differences in chemical composition between softwoods and hardwoods. At the highest
temperature (220°C) a mass loss attained of 13.5% (beech), 18.8% (oak), 6.7% (spruce) and
13.5% (pine). Furthermore, the natural transition point between free and bound water, known as
FSP, is defined as the theoretical condition of wood when its cell walls are fully saturated by
water but no free water remains in the cell lumens (Skaar 1984). Equilibrium moisture content
(EMC) at FSP was reduced after thermal modification within all applied treatments (Tab. 2).
Depending on the temperature and time conditions used during the process, the EMC was
reduced within the range of 4 – 48%, 0.4 – 47%, 1 – 32% and 0.7 – 40% for beech, oak, spruce
and pine, respectively. Although no statistically significant effect was observed at 140°C for all
studied wood species, the EMC of thermally modified wood exhibits a larger reduction with
increasing temperature and time. The reason for the decrease of the EMC is that less water is
absorbed by the cell wall after the thermal modification as a result of chemical compounds
degradation with a decrease of hydroxyl (OH-) groups. The EMC reduction generally indicates
an improvement in dimensional stability of analyzed wood species following thermal
modification as reported by Altgen et al. (2018), Čermák et al. (2015), Rautkari and Hill (2014)
and Biziks et al. (2014).
Table 4. Equilibrium moisture content results of selected wood species thermally modified at
140,160,180, 200 and 220°C (results represent the range from 1 hour to 6 hours of treatment)
EMC (%) Temperature
Ref 140°C 160°C 180°C 200°C 220°C
28.9 27.8 – 26.5 26.9 – 25.4 26.2 – 23.6 24.2 – 18.7 18.8 – 15.1
Beech
(1.8) (0.35) (0.47) (0.44) (0.54) (0.45)
24.7 24.6 – 23.9 24.1 – 22.6 22.2 – 19.7 18.1 – 14.5 15.6 – 13.1
Oak
(1.0) (0.29) (0.44) (0.20) (0.29) (0.16)
27.1 26.8 – 26.2 26.2 – 24.5 25.3 – 22.9 22.6 – 19.0 21.8 – 18.4
Spruce
(1.2) (0.34) (0.22) (0.38) (0.24) (0.28)

Pine 25.9 25.7 – 24.4 25.6 – 23.4 23.6 – 21.1 21.3 – 18.5 18.7 – 15.6
(1.1) (0.51) (0.48) (0.32) (0.34) (0.39)
* average standard deviation in parentheses

It is evident that the EMC correlates exponentially with the decrease of specimen’s mass
depending of used wood species and modification temperature applied (Fig. 1). However, the EMC
seems to be almost stabilized beyond a limit value of approximately 10 – 12% of mass loss. This
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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

mass loss limit might indicate the completion of decomposition of hydroxyl groups accessible for
water molecules, and therefore the EMC reduction is not further affected by the treatment time.
Similar findings were reported earlier by Welzbacher et al. (2007), who stated that nearly
unaffected EMC was observed above 10% of mass loss for spruce wood thermally modified at 180
– 240°C.

Figure 1. Exponential correlation between equilibrium moisture content (EMC) at 20°C and 99% relative humidity
(RH) and mass loss of various thermally modified wood species

Summary and Conclusions

1. The mass loss kinetics is influenced by the nature of studied wood species.

2. No significant mass loss differences were found when low temperatures (140°C and
160°C) were used. This was caused mainly due to removal of chemically bounded water
and vaporization of volatile extractable compounds.

3. Pine wood exhibits higher mass loss which may be explained by general richness in natural
resins.

4. The nature of the wood species becomes more important at higher temperature (>160°C)
due to the differences in thermal degradability between softwood and hardwood chemical
compounds.

5. Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) was considerably reduced after the thermal
modification depending on the temperature and time conditions used during the process.

6. EMC of thermally modified wood exhibits a larger reduction with increasing temperature
and time.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

7. Those results can be used for the thermal modification process optimization and prediction
of required mass loss as well as material properties (enhanced sorption behavior) for
designed wooden products.

Acknowledgements
This study was funded by Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (GAČR), project no.
19-25171Y “Multi-scale Hygro-thermo-mechanical Behavior of Modified Wood-based
Materials”.

References
Altgen, M., Willems, W., Hosseinpourpia, R., Rautkari, L (2018) Hydroxyl accessibility and
dimensional changes of Scots pine sapwood affected by alterations in the cell wall ultrastructure
during heat-treatment. Polymer Degradation and Stability 152:244–252.
Biziks, V., Andersons, B., Sansonetti, E., Andersone, I., Militz, H., Grinins, J. (2014) One-stage
thermo-hydro treatment (THT) of hardwoods: an analysis of form stability after five soaking-
drying cycles. Holzforschung 69(5):563–571.
Boonstra, M., Tjeerdsma, B. (2006) Chemical analysis of heat treated softwoods. Holz Roh-
Werkstoff 64(3):204–211.
Candelier, K., Chaouch, M., Dumarçay, S., Pétrissans, A., Pétrissans, M., Gérardin, P. (2011)
Utilization of thermodesorption coupled to GC–MS to study stability of different wood species
to thermodegradation. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 92(2):376–383.
Candelier, K., Thevenon, F. M., Petrissans, A., Dumarcay, S., Gerardin, P., Petrissans, M. (2016)
Control of wood thermal treatment and its effects on decay resistance: a review. Annals of Forest
Science 73(3):571–583.
Čermák, P., Rautkari, L., Horáček, P., Saake, B., Rademacher, P., Sablík, P. (2015) Analysis of
dimensional stability of thermally modified wood affected by re-wetting cycles. BioResources
10(2):3242–3253.
Hakkou, M., Pétrissans, M., Zoulalian, A., Gérardin, P. (2005) Investigation of wood wettability
changes during heat treatment on the basis of chemical analysis. Polymer Degradation and
Stability 89(1):1–5.
Hill, C. (2006) Wood Modification – Chemical, Thermal and Other Processes. Wiley Series in
Renewable Resources, p.239.
Kutnar, A., Muthu, S.S. (2016) Environmental impacts of traditional and innovative forest-based
bioproducts. Springer, pp. 248.
Mazela, B., Zakrzewski, R., Grzeskowiak, W., Cofta, G., Bartkowiak, M. (2003) Preliminary
research on the biological resistance of thermally modified wood. In: Proceedings of the 1 st
European Conference on Wood Modification. Ghent University (RUG), pp. 113–120.
Nasir, V., Nourian, S., Avramidis, S., Cool, J. (2018) Prediction of physical and mechanical
properties of thermally modified wood based on color change evaluated by means of “group
method of data handling” (GMDH) neutral network. Holzforschung 73(4):381–392.
Obataya, E., Higashihara, T., Tomita, B. (2002) Hygroscopicity of heat treated wood III. Effect
of steaming on the hygroscopicity of wood. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 48(5):358–355.
Pierre, F., Almeida, G., Brito, J. O., Perré, P. (2011) Influence of torrefaction on some chemical
and energy properties of maritime pine and pedunculate oak. BioResources 6(2):1204–1218.
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Rautkari, L., Hill, C. (2014) Effect of initial moisture content on the anti-swelling efficiency of
thermally modified Scots pine sapwood treated in a high-pressure reactor under saturated steam.
Holzforschung 68(3):323–326.
Rowell, R.M. (1983) Chemical modification of wood. For. Prod. Abstracts 6:363–382.
Rowell, R.M. (2005) Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites. Ed. R.M. Rowell.
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Weiland, J.J., Guyonnet, R. (2003) Study of chemical modification and fungi degradation of
thermally modified wood using DRI FT spectroscopy. Holz als Roh-und Werkstoff 61(3):216–
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Welzbacher, C. R., Brischke, C., Rapp, O.A. (2007) Influence of treatment temperature and
duration on selected biological, mechanical, physical and optical properties of thermally
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Wepner, F., Militz, H. (2005) Fungal resistance, dimensional stability and accelerated
weathering. performance of N-Methylol treated veneers of Fagus sylvatica, p. 169–177.

Biography

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Smart Thumper™, a Non Destructive Lumber Evaluation Phone Application

Frederico José Nistal França

[email protected]
Songyi Han
[email protected]
R. Daniel Seale
[email protected]

Mississippi State University, USA

Abstract
The objective of this research was to demonstrate the use of Smart Thumper in longitudinal and
transverse vibration nondestructive techniques. The phone application uses its accelerometer and
microphone to reach the natural frequency of 139 pieces of 2 x 4 (38.1 × 88.9 mm) and 135 pieces of 2 x
8 (38.1 × 184.2 mm) southern pine lumber. The phone application was compared to commercial
transverse vibration equipment (Metriguard Model 340 E-Computer) and a longitudinal stress wave tool
(Fibre-gen Hitman HM200). Lumber pieces were destructively tested following ASTM standards. A strong
correlation was obtained between the transverse vibration and longitudinal stress wave modulus of
elasticity (MOE) collected with Smart Thumper and the static bending results for both lumber sizes. Using
the vibration mode (accelerometer), the r2 was equal to 0.85 and 0.81 for 2 × 4 and 2 × 8 respectively).
Evaluating lumber with the soundwave (microphone), the r2was equal to 0.78 and 0.89 for 2 × 4 and 2 × 8
respectively). The Smart Thumper results resemble the results obtained from both the E-Computer and
the Hitman HM 200. Comparing Smart Thumper results with modulus of rupture (MOR) indicates that the
results are consistent for both approaches and lumber sizes (accelerometer: r2= 0.42 and r2= 0.38 for 2 ×
4 and 2 × 8 respectively; microphone: r 2= 0.36 and r2= 0.35 for 2 × 4 and 2 × 8 respectively). These
results indicate a potential use of Smart Thumper to determine the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of
structural lumber pieces and to expand the access of nondestructive techniques.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Building a portable offline bark identification system through training a

MobileNet-V2 by Knowledge Distilling and Network Pruning

Rado Gazo
[email protected]
Fanyou Wu
[email protected]
Eva Haviarova
[email protected]
Bedrich Benes
[email protected]

Purdue University, USA

Abstract
Automatic identification of tree species using images of tree bark can be useful for several forestry-
related tasks. Current well-performing bark identification systems rely heavily on real-time internet
connection to access massive computing power. There are instances where such connections may be
scarce in the forest. An off-line framework with acceptable performance on smart device may be a
solution to this problem. In this research, we focus on training a light-weight neural network
MobileNet-V2 with knowledge distilling and network pruning approach to obtain better model weights.

Biography

524
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Assessing success of sustainability curriculum development efforts:

evidence from a US higher education institution.

Rado Gazo1
[email protected]
ÇAĞATAY TAŞDEMİR2
[email protected]

1Purdue University, USA

2Bursa Technical University, Turkey

Abstract
Sustainability issues are among priorities of global concerns and society expects universities to
educate youth and help them reach a certain level of sustainability awareness. New regulations and
laws on sustainability put pressure on businesses across all industries and force them to evolve into
their more sustainable versions. There is a demand for additional (sustainability) qualifications in
graduates when hiring new personnel. Many higher education institutions have started to develop and
incorporate sustainability curriculums into their programs to respond to expectations of society and
other stakeholders. However, whether these efforts achieve the desired outcomes is not well
documented. This study was designed to present an example of a modern management techniques-
based inter-disciplinary sustainability curriculum and to provide evidence through pre- and post-
education assessment of students’ perception of sustainability issues and modern management
techniques to address them. A 3-credit 16 weeks long undergraduate level course that horizontally
integrated sustainability into a secondary wood products engineering framework has been developed
and taught at a U.S. higher education institution and then, success of developed sustainability
curricula was measured with a 20-question survey. Results show that course content was successful at
increasing sustainability awareness at both overall and individual sustainability pillar levels. At the
end, 100% of students were able to develop complete understanding of various modern management
techniques and stated that they felt confident to apply learnt skills to real life issues within their
profession upon graduation.

Biography

525
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Circular Economy Principles for Furniture Industry

Eva Haviarova1
[email protected]
Kendria Huff1
[email protected]
Manja Kitek Kuzman2
[email protected]

1Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, USA

2University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and
Technology, Slovenia

Abstract
According to the Environmental Protection Agency, Americans throw out more than 12 million tons of
furniture and furnishings each year. Europe generates just about the same amount (10 million).
Because of complexity of furniture structure, only a small percentage of used furniture is recycled.
Upholstered furniture is especially a problem. Rapid growth of furniture waste is linked to the fast
population growth and unsustainable consumer practices. In the last decade, furniture became a
commodity with low value, cost, and quality. Fast fashion trends are pushing the manufacturing of
new stylish products quickly and cheaply and it is also true for the furniture industry and their
products. To remedy this growing problem in furniture sector, there is a need to address each aspect
of product life cycle. The framework of circular economy can produce alternative pathways that will
reduce the end-of-life options that have negative impacts on the environment. Not only can
alternative pathways be discovered, but products can also be produced in a way that initially prolongs
their life span. There are furniture companies out there already incorporating circular economy
principles: using recycled material, developing innovative products for easy recycling, and extending
product lifespan by applying strength design. However, in general, we still have ways to go to
implement true sustainability practices in the furniture production sector. This project is researching
and benchmarking circular economy efforts in the furniture industry in the US and Europe and pointing
out successful examples. The supporting policies and their synergies are also evaluated. Case studies
will be presented and will determine whether these frameworks are viable and could be utilized.

Biography

526
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Natural Insulating Material in the Form of Burning

Michaela Horvathova
[email protected]
Linda Makovicka
[email protected]

University of Zilina, Slovakia

Abstract
The paper examines three types of natural insulation materials, such as fiberboard, hemp and straw,
from the point of view of fire safety. Cellulose-based materials allow a wide range of applications when
used for insulation and weatherproofing of buildings, in particular floors, roofs, ceilings, attics, sound
barriers, etc. The use of these materials is increasing in ecological constructions as well as for
weatherproofing wood-based structures. In terms of fire safety requirements, the question is: Which
insulating material is the safest in terms of fire propagation? The article focuses on natural products
used as external insulation systems which are covered by a facade plaster. Each type of insulation is
briefly described in terms of its composition, use, and production process. We describe the process of
preparation of samples as well as the testing and measurement procedures. Three tests were carried
out for each type of material. For a more objective evaluation, results were averaged. The results of
the cone calorimeter were used to obtain data for comparison. The aim is to clarify the behavior of the
natural insulating material with regard to the heat release rate, ignition time, burning duration, and
maximum heat release rate. These are the essential parameters for comparison. The values were
compared to determine the safest material from the point of view of fire safety.

Key words: natural insulating material, cone calorimeter, heat release rate, straw, hemp, fiber board.

Biography

527
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Low temperature potassium hydroxide pulping of straw

Md Sarwar Jahan
Pulp and Paper Research Division
Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
Bangladesh
[email protected]

Abstract
Conventional pulping processes require high pressure digester, which increased capital investment. In
order to develop a simple technology with low capital investment; atmospheric pressure pulping
process is our interest of this study.

The present research is focused on the pre-extraction of rice straw and wheat straw by potassium
hydroxide (KOH) at 90oC prior to pulping in order to remove silica and partial removal of lignin and
hemicelluloses. Pre-extraction removed 76% and 73 % lignin, 50.5% and 26.8% pentosan and 81%
and 87% silica from the rice and wheat straw, respectively. Pre-extracted rice straw and wheat straw
were subjected to KOH pulping by varying KOH charge (6, 8, 10 and 12% as NaOH), time (60, 90 and
120 min) and temperature (70 and 90 oC). Pulp yield of 43.6% and 51.0% with kappa number 16.2
and 20.2, for rice straw and wheat straw, respectively, was obtained at the conditions of 12 % alkali
for 120 min of cooking at 90oC. KOH rice straw and wheat straw pulp bleached to 76.8 % and 80.1%
brightness, respectively, by D0EpD1bleaching sequences with ClO2 consumption of 25kgClO2/ton of
pulp. The papermaking properties were inferior to that of corresponding pulps from higher
temperature cooking. Dissolved silica, lignin and hemicelluloses were separated from the spent
cooking liquor and potassium rich liquor was used for soil amendment.

Biography

528
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE DETECTION OF WOOD DEFECTS

Tomislav Seddlar
[email protected]
Branimir Jambreković
[email protected]
Filip Veselčić
[email protected]
Tomislav Siniković
[email protected]

Faculty of Forestry, Croatia

Abstract
Modern wood processing requests access to wood with the aim of maximizing utilization of wood in
qualitative and quantitative terms. One of the main obstacles to this objective is wood defects which
are unavoidable flaws in tree growth and development of wood (knots, cracks, discoloration, etc.). The
demand for cost-effective and rapid production with high economic utilization of raw materials led to
the development of high-tech scanners that identify the surface of wood elements more effectively
than the human eye. Information about identified errors from the scanned surface of wood elements is
instantly received. This information proposed a model of cutting elements and associated classes with
the aim of maximizing the qualitative or quantitative utilization. Considering that all wood defects from
discoloration to cracks are computer programmed with an objective view, we are left to assume that
the observers will not just look at a certain wood element as well as scanner. Their observation is
subjective and a matter of the experience and perception of certain changes or anomalies on the wood
elements. The aim of this study was to determine wood defects with industrial scanner as objective
observation and detecting wood defects with human eye as a subjective perception of certain wood
defects having regard that human eyes also have its own limits. Wood defects were investigated on
wood elements from Slavonian oak (Quercus robur L.).

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Dynamic Properties of Traditional Timber Building

Gi Young Jeong
Chonnam Naional University, Korea

Abstract
The goal of this study is to analyze the dynamic properties of traditional timber buildings in South Korea.
To calibrate the ambient vibration test for traditional timber buildings, a timber frame building was
constructed. The column composed of four columns in the front and two columns in the left and right.
Hand-pushing excitation was applied to create the vibration of building in X-direction and Y-direction.
Three different modal shapes of buildings were obtained in the experimental test. From the calibration of
the methodologies, dynamic properties of three different traditional timber buildings in South Korea
(Bulhoesa Daewoongjeon, Muwisa Geukrakjeon, Seonunsa Deawoongjeon) were investigated. Natural
frequency of three buildings ranged from 1 to 3 Hz. The highest natural frequency of 2.148 hz of mode 1
was obtained from Muwisa Geukrakjeon and the lowest natural frequency of 1.367 of mode 1 was
obtained from Bulhoesa Deawoong jeon was obtained.

Biography

530
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Cellulose Nanofiber Effect on Bonding Strength of PUR and PVAc Glued

Wood Joint in Shear Loading

Gourav Kamboj
[email protected]
Milan Gaff
[email protected]
Anil Kumar Sethy
[email protected]
Rezaei Fatemeh
[email protected]

Czech University of Life Science, Prague, Czech Republic

Abstract
Adhesives play an important role in the wood industry and mechanical performance of wood adhesive
bonds is of fundamental importance. Development of high performance material using nanoparticle or
nanofiller has become a prominent area of research in academia as well as in industry . Cellulose
nonofibers (CNF) have been reported to be relatively safe, even in its dry form and it is one of the most
abundant material on the earth. High tensile strength and a Young’s modulus make cellulose nanofibre
one of the suitable reinforcing material for nanocomposites. In this study, cellulose nanofiber was added
in PVAc (polyvinyl acetate) and PUR (Polyurethane) adhesive at various proportion (0-3% based on
weight). Lap joints were prepared using Beech (Fagus Silvatica) wood samples and glue shear strength
was assessed. Addition of CNF showed significant effect on glue shear strength.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Digital Solutions in Architecture and Timber Construction

Manja Kitek Kuzman1

[email protected]
Eva Haviarova2
[email protected]

1 University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and

Technology, Slovenia
2 Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, USA

Abstract
An inspiration for the creation of innovative and interesting structures have always been nature with
its flowing, organic forms, which have evolved for maximum optimization and efficiency. Organic
architecture is based on studies of these nature-based forms, which as a rule, are almost never
straight. The design and implementation of such flowing shapes is more complex than working with
orthogonal shapes and requires a good spatial performance, knowledge of geometry and use of
suitable design tools and techniques. Digitalization has facilitated the development of com¬plex
geometric shapes and free-form shapes that were not mana¬geable before with simple design tools.
Thanks to the broadened potential of computing, parametric design, and digital manufacturing, it is
now possible to design structural elements and structures that deviate from orthogonal practices and
form complex shapes. Architects and engineers consider the use of computers and computation
techniques in planning and looking for solutions to a given design problem. They are provided with
powerful analytical tools to create new designs, predict their behaviour, and formulate effective
production stra¬tegies. The materials that have been typically used are now combined with new
engineered wood products (EWPs), which have the advantage of high load-bearing capacity, good
dimensional stability, and flexibility in large dimensions. EWPs also offer greater design freedom for
ambitious construc-tion and advanced manufacturing processes. The classic construction me¬thods
are joined with a novel 3D printing technology, including 3D printing with wood filaments combined
with PLA material. 3D printing already allow the creation of large and advance building structures.
Digitalization solutions in architecture will be presented with examples of recently realized pro-jects
and their involvement in different design stages. Examples of educational programs and student
outputs dealing with digitalization processes will be also featured.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Investigations of the Strength and Resistance of Glued Pine Wood from

Tuchola Region

Tomasz Krystofiak
[email protected]
Barbara Lis
[email protected]
Radoslaw Mirski
[email protected]

Poznań University of Life Sciences, Department of Wood Based Materials, Poland

Abstract
In the last years there has been a great interest in wooden construction. Glued laminated timber is used
much more often in the construction of houses because of its broadly understood material savings. It can
be observed a significant development in the field of adhesives for the production of large-size wooden
elements for construction. So far widely used resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde (RPF) adhesives are
replaced for example by new generation of the melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) resins.

For the wooden building construction elements pine wood is commonly used. Such wood specie has
different properties depends on the area. Area around Tuchola city in Poland belongs to the regions
where pine forest is growing.

For the experiments pine wood from Tuchola region and melamine-urea-formaldehyde resins
(commercial product) were used. Samples prepared from bigger glued laminated timber and prepared in
the laboratory conditions for the investigations were used. The glue mixtures have been prepared
accordingly to the adhesive producer requirements (in relation 100:10 and 100:20 p.b.w. resin/hardener).
Samples for the shearing strength and compression strength accordingly to the standards were prepared.
The shearing strength by the loading speed 50 mm/min was estimated, while compression strength by
the loading speed 20 mm/min.

The strength and water- and thermo resistance of the glue-lines were carried out. The following tests
were carried out: strength after 7 days of the conditioning time; strength after 96 hours in cold water (in
wet state and after 7 days of the conditioning), strength after 6 hours of boiling water/2 hours cold water
(in wet state and after 7 days of the conditioning) action; strength after 1 or 3 hours the temperature of
80oC action. After strength measurements for each sample the WFP (wood failure coefficient) was
estimated.

It was stated that tested connections with the good resistance were characterized. Results depends on
the properties of wood. With the increasing of wood density higher WFP values were observed.
Keywords: pine wood, gluability, MUF resin, strength, resistance, Tuchola area, building construction
element

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Acknowledgement:
This research was funded by the National Centre for Research and Development, BIOSTRATEG3/
344303/14/NCBR/2018.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Variations of earlywood vessel diameter of Quercus petraea Liebl

according to tree size and altitude

Amelie Taupin1
[email protected]
Maryline Harroue1
[email protected]
Baptiste Kerfriden1
[email protected]
Maxime LaCarin1
[email protected]
Charline Mola1
[email protected]
Christophe Rose1
[email protected]
Marie-Christine Trouy2
[email protected]
Jean-Michel Leban1
[email protected]

1INRA, France
2 Universite de Lorraine LERMAB-ENSTIB, Nancy, France

Abstract
This study reports on the variations of the sessile oak early wood vessels diameter along an altitudinal
gradient, for different tree size classes. As the collected samples are increment cores extracted at breast
height, we set up a new protocol of sample preparation in order to obtain anatomical images by the mean
of one a Scanning Electron Microscope.
The mean diameters of the vessels have been measured with the software ImageJ@. The variations of
this diameter are mainly explained by the variations of the tree sizes. The vessel diameter is increasing
with the tree dimensions. None relationship between vessel diameter and altitude of the forest stands has
been found until now. A high intra-tree variability is present and remains to be explained.
The proposed statistical model explains 27% of the total variance and can be used to simulate the mean
diameter of early wood vessels for all the sessile oak trees from the national forest inventory database.
Key words: earlywood vessels diameter, sessile oak, SEM, tree height, altitude
References
Beeckman, H. (2016). WOOD ANATOMY and TRAIT-BASED ECOLOGY. IAWA Journal, 37(2), 127–151.
https://doi.org/10.1163/22941932-20160127
Fonti, P., & García-González, I. (2008). Earlywood vessel size of oak as a potential proxy for spring
precipitation in mesic sites. Journal of Biogeography, 35(12), 2249–2257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2699.2008.01961.x
Huber, F. (1993). Déterminisme de la surface des vaisseaux du bois des chênes indigènes (Quercus
robur L, Quercus petraea Liebl). Effet individuel, effet de l’appareil foliaire, des conditions climatiques et

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

de l’âge de l’arbre. Annales Des Sciences Forestières, 50(5), 509–524.

https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19930507
Leban, J. M., Hervé, J., Bontemps, J., Wurpillot, S., Dauffy, V., Morneau, F., … Douzain, N. (2017). Le
projet XyloDensMap. (December), 2–3. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.10112.74244
Martínez-Cabrera, H. I., Jochen Schenk, H., Cevallos-Ferriz, S. R. S., & Jones, C. S. (2011). Integration
of vessel traits, wood density, and height in angiosperm shrubs and trees. American Journal of
Botany, 98(5), 915–922. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1000335
Preston, K. A., Cornwell, W. K., Denoyer, J. L., & Preston, K. A. (1999). Preston 2006 Wood density and
vessel traits as distinct correlates.pdf.
Rosell, J. A., Olson, M. E., & Anfodillo, T. (2017). Scaling of Xylem Vessel Diameter with Plant Size:
Causes, Predictions, and Outstanding Questions. Current Forestry Reports, 3(1), 46–59.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-017-0049-0
Scholz, A., Klepsch, M., Karimi, Z., & Jansen, S. (2013). How to quantify conduits in wood? Frontiers in
Plant Science, 4(MAR), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2013.00056

Biography

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Comparative study on moso bamboo shear strength in four test methods

Aiyue Huang
[email protected]
Huanrong Liu
[email protected]
Xiubiao Zhang
[email protected]

International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, China

Abstract
The materials shear strength are quite different in different test methods. Splitting is the main and
fatal fracture to bamboo. In order to explore the splitting strength and behaviors of bamboo, shear
strength of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys Pubescens) were tested in four methods, including three in
shear-parallel-to-grain and one shear-perpendicular-to-grain in bending. Comparative analysis on
shear strength and behaviors were conducted. Results indicated that shear strength of bamboo
smaller specimen in shear-parallel-to-grain was highest, then shear strength in bending was second
higher. The shear strength of shear-parallel-to-grain in tensile was lowest. There were sharp drops in
load-displacement curves of shear-parallel-to-grain, which was different from the step by step failure
mode in bending. And the interface shearing break was the main fracture characteristics in shear-
parallel-to-grain. However, the bending fracture and interface debonding were the main fracture
characteristics in shear- perpendicular-to-grain in bending. The tests methods determined to the
shearing loading and shearing strength and behaviors. And the structure and arrangement of
components decided to the fracture behaviors and characteristics of bamboo.l

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Development of Palm Oil-based Resins for Natural Fiber Composites

Wendi Liu
[email protected]
Yuchao Wu
[email protected]
Renhui Qiu
[email protected]

Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China

Abstract
The development of sustainable fiber-reinforced polymer composites using renewable materials has
become a research hotspot. Palm oil-based fatty acid‒ethyl acrylamide (POFA-EA) was synthesized
from palm oil and a water soluable monomer, i.e., N-(2-hydroxyethyl)acrylamide (HEAA) under the
condition of alkalinity. Isosorbide‒methacrylate (IM) was synthesized from isosorbide and used as a
comonomer for POFA-EA. The biobased resins were prepared from POFA-EA and IM at different weight
ratios and then used as matrices for the preparation of natural fibers-reinforced composites. Bamboo
and kenaf fibers were chosen as representatives for natural fibers. The properties of the resulting
resins and composites were fully characterized. The results showed that POFA-EA and IM are well
miscible, and the viscosity and curing temperature of the resulting POFA-EA/IM resins meet the
requirement of composite processing. The flexural strength and modulus of the resins are 2.6‒71.8
MPa and 2.6‒71.8 GPa, respectively, depending on the weight ratio of POFA-EA to EA. The tensile
strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength and flexural modulus of the composites are 27‒92MPa,
2.2‒3.0GPa, 28‒74MPa and 5.3‒8.6 GPa, respectively. This work provides a feasible way to develop
renewable polymer composites.

Biography

538
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Anatomical features and growth ring width correlation of Catalpa bungei

Yamei Liu
[email protected]
Shengquan Liu
[email protected]
Liang Zhou
[email protected]
Min Yu
[email protected]

Anhui Agricultural University, China

Abstract
In this paper, anatomical characteristics and growth ring width of catalpa bungei plantation with six
clones were analyzed, providing theoretical basis for plantation clonal optimization. 【Methods】: By
means of optical micro-imaging and computer micro-imaging analysis system, the anatomical
properties were determined and analyzed by segregation process and section method.【Results and
discussion】: (1) Near the pith areas (1~2 rings), the distribution type of vessels were diffuse; from 3
~ 9 rings areas, the distribution type of vessels were semi-diffuse; from 10 ~ 13 rings areas, the
distribution type of vessels were ring. (2) From pith to bark direction: growth ring width and ratio of
fiber wall thickness to lumen increased first and then decreased; fiber length increased first then keep
stable; the ratio of fiber lumen to diameter decreased first and then increased; the vessel width keep
stable first and then increased; the fiber double-wall thickness and fiber width did not vary distinctly.
(3) In the same ring of six clones, the fiber length, double-wall thickness, the ratio of fiber wall
thickness to lumen and vessel width in early wood were bigger than in late wood, the fiber width and
ratio of fiber lumen to diameter in early wood were smaller than in late wood. (4) At the level of
P=0.01, the growth width were negatively correlated with the fiber length, the double-wall thickness
and vessel width in early wood; the growth width was negatively correlated with fiber length, double-
wall thickness and the ratio of fiber wall thickness to lumen in late wood, and the growth width was
positively correlated with fiber width, the fiber lumen to diameter and vessel width in late wood.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Structural Reliability Analysis of Cross Laminated Timber

Plates Subjected to Bending
Ramon Vilela1– Nilson T. Mascia2* – Luciano F. Santos3

1
Doctorate candidate, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design,
State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
[email protected]
2
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design, State
University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil * Corresponding author
[email protected]
3
Master’s candidate, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design,
State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
[email protected]

Abstract
Failure modes of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) plates reach by an excess of tensile stress on
finger joints, shear stress on transverse layer due to rolling shear effect and by natural
vibration. The Probability of Failure (POF) of CLT plates can be estimated from the probability
distribution of their ruptures and stiffnesses, as well as their correlation coefficients. In this
context, the aim of this paper is to estimate the load capacity of Cross Laminated Timber plates
from a specific probability of failure and the experimental results of mechanical and physical
properties. For this purpose, CLT plates were manufactured with wood species of Pinus taeda
L., from Brazilian reforestation plantations. Four-point bending tests were conducted to
investigate the failure behavior of the CLT plates. Density and moisture content were obtained
from small specimens extracted from these plates. Monte Carlo simulation was carried out to
predict the probabilistic loads that produce the failure of CLT plates, considering the failure
occasioned by natural vibration as well. Experimental and numerical results of the failure
modes were compared and the maximum loads to an acceptable probability of failure of the
several CLT lengths were estimated too.

Keywords: Timber structures, Cross Laminated Timber, Bending, Structural Reliability, Monte
Carlo simulation.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Introduction
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) panel is an engineered wood product consisting of several layers
of kiln-dried lumber boards arranged in crossed directions, bonded with structural adhesives, and
pressed to form a solid, straight, rectangular panel. It is used primarily as a plate or wall
structure. Residential, commercial, and industrial buildings have been composed of CLT panels
as structural elements and/or fence walls around the world (Van De Kuilen et al. 2011).

Knowledge of failure prediction of CLT plates is necessary for structural design. The main
modes of CLT failure in bending are reach by an excess of tensile stress on finger joints
(Meethaworn and Srivaro 2017), shear stress on transverse ply due to rolling shear effect (Flores
et al. 2016), and also natural vibration (Matilainen and Puttonen 2014). In general, excessive
displacement is avoided by standards requirements to guarantee the user's sense of security
(Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas 1997, Commité Européen de Normalization 2004).

Monte Carlo method is often applied to estimate the performance and the probability of de
failure (POF) of structural components. For instance, Nogueira et al. (2012) presented a
probabilistic method of reinforced concrete structures durability assessment via Monte Carlo
simulations. Nigro et al. (2014) used the probabilistic approach to address the failure assessment
of steel structures in fire. CLT compressive strength is predicted by Oh et al. (2015) employing
the Monte Carlo simulation. Similarly, Ogawa et al. (2018) estimated the tensile strength
distribution of CLT applying this method.

For predicting the CLT behavior used as a slab, its mechanical and physical variables and its
probability distribution are needed, and the correlation coefficients of these variables too. These
values can be obtained by experimental test results and summarized by statistical analysis.

The present study is part of a research project dealing with Cross Laminated Limber and
concrete composite products, which has been developing in Brazil. The overall aim of the
research project is to contribute with knowledge and methods to the rational modeling, analysis,
design, and prediction of the strength of cross-laminated timber and concrete composite. This
research involves public and private resources. The master’s dissertation produced by Vilela
(2020) is part of this research.

In light of this, the goal of the study is to estimate the load capacity of Cross Laminated Timber
plates from a specific probability of failure and experimental results of mechanical tests, taking
into account physical properties of wood.

Materials & Methods

The Cross Laminated Timber plates were produced from wood species Pinus taeda L., from
reforested plantations grown in Brazil, and manufactured by Crosslam Company. The layers of
these plates were bonded with structural polyurethane adhesive. Thirty-two specimens were
obtained from CLT plates to assess the density and moisture content, being sixteen of them were
extracted from internal having the following approximate dimensions 40 mm × 80 mm × 60 mm,
while sixteen more were taken from external layers and had approximately the dimensions 40
mm × 40 mm × 920 mm. These CLT plates are manufactured by Crosslam, according to PRG
320:2019 (American National Standards Institute and The Engineered Wood Association 2019).

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Twenty-one specimens were experimental tested by the bending test. Seven specimens had
lengths of 1.60 m, seven of 2.08 m, and others seven of 4.00 m. All of them were set with 40L-
20T-40L-20L-40T thickness layers (in mm, L: longitudinal, T: transversal, h = 0.16 m) and the
width was b = 0.80 m. Figure 1 shows the scheme used in the four-point bending experimental
test, according to BS EN 16351:2015 (Commité Européen de Normalization 2015).

Figure 1. Bending test setup.

Two gauges, which were positioned at the midpoint of the plate to support the Linear Variable
Differential Transformers (LVDT), provided the displacement measurements for the region
subjected to pure bending. Apart from that, four LVDTs were placed to measure the total
displacements. Thus, the bending stiffness (KCLT) and shear stiffness (SCLT) were calculated
applying Equation (1) that is in accordance with Timoshenko Beam Theory (Timoshenko 1921),
as follows:

Pal1
2
Pa  3l 2 − 4a 2 24  (1)
1 = ; T =  + 
16 K CLT 48  K CLT S CLT 

where δ1 and δT are the local and total displacement, P is the sum of applied load, a is the
distance between the load and its next support, l1 is the length of the gauge, KCLT is the bending
stiffness, κ is the form factor, and SCLT is the shear stiffness.

The variables used in Monte Carlo simulation were the following, var1: Resistant Bending
Moment (MR), var2: Resistant Shear (VR), var3: Bending Stiffness (KCLT), var4: Shear Stiffness
(SCLT), var5: Density of external layers of CLT (ρ1), var6: Density of internal layers (ρ2), and
var7: Moisture content (U). The load variability was not considered, because the research goal
was to obtain the load limit not the probability of failure.

Cholesky decomposition was applied via software Matlab ® 16 to calculate the lognormal random
data from the mean and standard deviation of the variables and correlation coefficients between
them. Figure 2 exhibits the 106 generated data for each variable and the correlation coefficients.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Figure 2. Correlation Matrix from CLT properties.

Equations (2), (3) and (4) estimated the maximum loads from bending, shear, and limit of
displacement, respectively. In these equations, the continuous load from CLT self-weight is
disregarded. Timoshenko Beam Theory (Timoshenko 1921) was considered in Equation (4).

8M R (2)
qb = −p
l2

2VR (3)
qv = −p
l

 5l 4 l 2 
−1 (4)
qd =  +  − p
 384 K CLT 8SCLT 

where qb, qv, and qd are the loads obtained from bending, shear and displacement, respectively,
MR and VR are the resistant bending moment and shear, respectively, l is the length, and p is the
load from self-weight.

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The first natural frequency was estimated considering the CTL plate as a beam, according to
Equation (5), (Thiel 2013).

n n 2 K CLT (5)
fn = =
2 2l 2 A

where fn is the natural frequency (Hz), ωn the angular frequency (rad), n the cardinal number of
vibration mode, l the beam length (m), K is the bending stiffness (Pa.m4), ρ is the density
(kg/m3), and A is the transverse area (m2).

Results and Discussion

The maximum load necessary to produce failure for a specific length was estimated from the
probability of failure equals POF = 10-5. The CLT length was discretized in 100 several lengths
until 8.00 m.

In general, the load limits were obtained by the limit displacement (l/200). Thereafter, the
rupture by shear governed the limit loads until about 1.5 m. For greater lengths, the rupture by
bending moment is responsible to limit the load. However, the first natural frequency limited the
CLT length in 5.58 m. The CLT length that produces a natural frequency fn = 8 Hz varied from
5.50 until 6.85 m.

Figure 3 as follows shows these results.

The rolling shear effect caused the maximum load limit for small lengths, whereas the finger
joint limited the design load in the same state. However, the maximum displacement governed
the CLT design in this analysis. In addition, the length was limited by first natural frequency,
which reduced approximately 1 m of the maximum length.

The procedure adopted to estimate the natural frequency was the behavior of the beam due to the
width. For larger CLT panels, it is recommended considering the orthotropic plate behavior to
calculate the natural frequency, like Zhou et al. (2017).

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Figure 3. Correlation Matrix from CLT properties.

Comparing the values obtained by structural reliability procedure to the serviceability limit state
procedure carried out by Vilela (2020), it can be observed that maximum load stabilized by
displacement in the first procedure is more conservative, in general, than the serviceability limit
state method. These results can be associated by weighting coefficients applied to limit the
serviceability limit state responsible for improving the limit loads. On the other hand, the
probability of failure for situations that do not lead to the ruin (failure) of the structure can be
considered smaller, in the order of POF 10-3, which would cause the loading curve due to
excessive displacement to increase (Almeida 2008).

Natural vibration by limiting the serviceability limit state restricts the CLT length in 5.99 m,
being this value is within the results obtained by the probabilistic method.

The bending and shear stiffnesses, and bending moment and shear resistance estimated by
experimental procedures involve the global CLT behavior, which is composed by individual
behavior and strength of each lamination (e.g., finger joints, rolling shear strength). The use of a
full-size CLT bending test in several lengths is capable of representing the wood and laminations
variables necessary to reliability structural analysis. Then, this procedure is an alternative to the
semi probabilistic method (i.e., limits states) that uses characteristic values to estimate the wood
and CLT properties.

Summary and Conclusions

This study deals with a probabilistic method to structural reliability analysis of Cross Laminated
Timber elements subjected to bending from experimental results. Limit loads for several lengths
were presented considering rolling shear and bending moment resistance, and CLT bending and
shear stiffness. The length limit was estimated from the natural frequency in the first vibration
mode (critical to loading walking people).

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Excessive displacement is the main mode of failure to analyze the CLT element in bending until
5.6 m length. Above this length the natural vibration governs the failure mode with a POF = 10-5.
Predicted maximum load from probabilistic displacement proved to be more conservative than
the Limit State method.

The variability of wood is considerably large and should not be overlooked in the structural
design of the CLT. The use of Monte Carlo Simulation to predict the limit loads according to the
main failure modes of the CLT shown to be an alternative technique capable of estimating such
loads for different failure probabilities according to each design criteria.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Crosslam Company (Suzano, SP, Brazil, http://crosslam.com.br)
for providing materials, equipment, and financial support. Also, the Brazilian Coordination for
the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for the financial support to be carried
out this research, and the School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urban Design,
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), for the laboratory structure to perform the tests.

References
Almeida AF (2008) Projeto ótimo baseado em confiabilidade de pórticos planos de concreto
armado (Optimal design based on reliability of flat reinforced concrete frames). Doctoral thesis.
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Brazil. 147 p. (In
Portuguese).
American National Standards Institute, The Engineered Wood Association (2019) PGR 320:
Standard for Performance-Rated Cross-Laminated Timber.
Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (1997) NBR 7190: Projeto de Estruturas de Madeira
(Design of wood structures). Rio de Janeiro, RJ: Brazil. (In Portuguese).
Commité Européen de Normalization (2004) Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structure - Part 1-1:
General - Common Rules and Rules for Buildings. Brussels, BBR: Belgium.
Commité Européen de Normalization (2015) BS EN 16351: Timber Structures - Cross Laminated
Timber - Requirements. Brussels, BBR: Belgium.
Flores EIS, Saavedra K, Hinojosa J, Chandra Y, Das R (2016) Multi-scale modelling of rolling shear
failure in cross-laminated timber structures by homogenisation and cohesive zone models.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 81: 219–232.
Matilainen J-P, Puttonen J (2014) Free vibration of CLT plates. Journal of Structural Mechanics
47(1): 17–33.
Meethaworn B, Srivaro S (2017) Structural Performance Evaluation of Finger-Jointed
Rubberwood Manufactured by Factories in Thailand. 12(4): 9420–9426.
Nigro E, Bilotta A, Asprone D, Jalayer F, Prota A, Manfredi G (2014) Probabilistic approach for
failure assessment of steel structures in fire by means of plastic limit analysis. Fire Safety
Journal 68: 16–29.
Nogueira CG, Leonel ED, Coda HB (2012) Reliability algorithms applied to reinforced concrete
structures durability assessment. Rev IBRACON Estrut Mater 5(4): 440–450.
Ogawa K, Ido H, Harada M, Nagao H, Kato H, Miyatake A (2018) Monte-Carlo Simulation Model
for Predicting the Tensile Strength Distribution of Cross Laminated Timber. Journal of the
Society of Materials Science, Japan 67(12): 1087–1093.

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Oh J-K, Lee J-J, Hong J-P (2015) Prediction of compressive strength of cross-laminated timber
panel. J Wood Sci 61(1): 28–34.
Thiel A (2013) ULS and SLS design of CLT and its implementation in the CLTdesigner. In:
European Conference on Cross Laminated Timber, Graz, ST: Austria.
Timoshenko SP (1921) On the correction for shear of the differential equation for transverse
vibrations of prismatic bars. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science 41(245): 744–746.
Van De Kuilen JWG, Ceccotti A, Xia Z, He M (2011) Very Tall Wooden Buildings with Cross
Laminated Timber. Procedia Engineering 14: 1621–1628.
Vilela R (2020) Structural performance in bending of cross-laminated timber plates. Master’s
dissertation. State University of Campinas, Campinas, SP: Brazil.
Zhou J, Chui YH, Gong M, Hu L (2017) Comparative study on measurement of elastic constants
of wood-based panels using modal testing: choice of boundary conditions and calculation
methods. J Wood Sci 63(5): 523–538.

Biography

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Physical Properties of Particleboard Produced from Residues of Musa

paradisiaca pseudostem, Theobroma cacao and Ceiba pentandra

Prosper Mensah
CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Ghana
[email protected]

Abstract
This study determined the physical properties of particleboards manufactured from four agro-forest
residues using cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesives. The particle size of the agro-forest
residues ranged from 0.5mm and 1.5mm. About 2% of NH 4CL was used as a hardener, based on the
weight of the adhesive. The particleboards were made in accordance with ASTM D 1037-99. An
industrial pressing machine was used to press the homogeneous single layer particleboards at a
targeted density of 600 kg/m3. The results indicated that the densities of the particleboards produced
ranged from 421 kg/m3 to 598 kg/m3 whiles the moisture content was in the range of 10.75% to
11.88%. The water absorption property of the composites boards ranged from 7.66% to 22.41% and
18.17% to 59.46% respectively for 2-hour and 24-hour immersions. Additionally, the thickness
swelling of the particleboards produced range from of 3.38% to 5.03% and 9.37% to 21.49% for 2-
hour and 24-hour immersion respectively. In accordance with ANSI A208.1.1999, EN 312 2005 and
result of other studies conducted using similar materials. The particleboards produced from the
biomass materials using cassava starch and urea formaldehyde have adequate physical properties.
The above notwithstanding comparatively for all the agro-forest materials used the water absorption
and thickness swelling properties of the particleboards produced using urea formaldehyde was far
better than that of cassava starch. Therefore it is recommended that further studies that combines
cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesives should be conducted.

Keywords; Cassava starch, Ceiba pentandra, Musa paradisiaca pseudostem, Particleboard, Theobroma
cacao, Urea formaldehyde

Biography

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Characterization of Particleboard Produced from Residues of Musa paradisiaca

pseudostem, Theobroma cacao pod, Theobroma cacao stem and Ceiba pentandra

Stephen J. Mitchual1, Prosper Mensah2, Kwasi Frimpong-Mensah3, Emmanuel Appiah-Kubi4

1,4Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, University of Education,

Winneba, Kumasi Campus, P. O. Box 1277, Kumasi, Ghana

2CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, P. O. Box UP 63, KNUST, Kumasi - Ghana

3Department of Wood Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
1Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]; Tel. +233203809967
Fax 0322050039
Abstract
This study investigated the possible use of four agro-forest residues generated in Ghana as an
alternative raw material for particleboard manufacture using cassava starch and urea formaldehyde
as adhesives. The particle size of the materials ranged from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. An industrial
pressing machine was used to press the homogeneous single layer particleboard. Physical and
mechanical properties were determined in accordance with ASTM D 1037-06a and ASTM D
7519-11. The results indicate that the density of the particleboards produced ranged from 421
kg/m3 to 598 kg/m3. The water absorption property of the particleboards also ranged from 7.66%
to 22.41% and 18.17% to 59.46% respectively for 2-hour and 24-hour immersions. Additionally,
the thickness swelling of the particleboards ranged from of 3.38% to 5.03% and 9.37% to 21.49%
for 2-hour and 24-hour immersions respectively. The study further indicated that the modulus of
elasticity, modulus of rapture, internal bond strength and hardness of the particleboards produced
for both cassava starch and urea formaldehyde were adequate. Comparatively, for all the agro-
forest materials used for this study, the physical and mechanical properties of the particleboards
produced using urea formaldehyde as adhesive was better than those produced using cassava starch
as adhesive. It could be concluded that the particleboards produced could be used for indoor
applications or interior furnishings, under dry conditions. Additionally, it is recommended that
further studies that combine cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesives be conducted as
well as studies on combining Musa paradisiaca pseudostem and Theobroma cacao pod in
particleboard production.
Keywords: Agro-forest residue, Cassava starch, Particleboard, Physico-mechanical properties,
Urea formaldehyde
1 Introduction

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Particleboard, an engineered wood product, dates back to the early 20th Century. It was developed
during the World War II to utilise inferior wood and wood waste when good quality wood was in
short supply [1]. In the past, wood was the main raw material used for furniture and building
applications, although the feasibility of non-wood alternatives has been investigated for many
decades. Many factors including wood shortage as a result of the depletion of forest areas,
environmental awareness and generation of large quantities of agro-forest residues which have
disposal challenges have increased the need for the substitution of wood as a major raw material
for the production of furniture and other wood products with particleboard. The demand for
particleboard products has increased substantially throughout the world, representing 57% of the
total consumption of wood-based panels, a percentage that is continuously growing at a rate of 2 -
5% annually. As a result of this, about 28.4 million m3 of particleboards are produced in Europe
each year mainly for furniture and building applications [2].
In recent times, most companies that produce particleboards have been substituting wood as a raw
material with agricultural residues. This is because the volumes of timber harvested from the forest
are being dramatically reduced and less timber is available. On the contrary with farming
operations, residual fibres are annually renewed, often in sustainable volumes that could supply
for composite panel production. In 2005, at least 30 industrial plants all over the world integrated
the use of non-wood lignocellulosic aggregates in the production of particleboards [3]. Today,
although the technical feasibility of non-wood particleboards is generally accepted, further
research is needed to fully understand how the intrinsic properties of the raw materials can
contribute to enhancing the overall performance of the engineered materials [4].
Agricultural residue, that is, residual fibre, is one of the major solid residues produced in the world.
Typically, such residues like wheat and barley straw, rice straw and husks, sugar cane bagasse,
plantain pseudostem and the pod, stem and husk of cocoa plant have little or no value. The
management or disposal of these residues has become a questionable practice in many countries
as they are often left to rot or burnt inefficiently in their loose form causing air pollution [5].
Besides, the burning of these residues is often detrimental to the soil and can cause health and
related problems. The vast majority of examples of non-wood particleboard developments as
indicated earlier is focused on the use of different kinds of natural fibres which comprise mainly
agricultural residue. This is because the use of fibres makes an important contribution to the
enhancement of the physical and mechanical properties of such boards through mechanical

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interlocking of particle [6]. Fibrous materials from crop plants are also preferred because of their
availability and easy accessibility.
Musa paradisiaca pseudostem, a residue of plantain, is a lignocellulosic biomass material readily
available on farmlands and in neighborhoods at no cost. Available data indicates that between
2000 and 2015, global production of plantain grew at a compound annual rate of 3.7 percent,
reaching a record of 117.9 million tonnes in 2015, up from around 68.2 million tonnes in 2000 [7].
Ghana is the largest producer of plantain in West Africa and the third in Africa after Uganda and
Rwanda [7]. It was estimated that at the end of the year 2016, about 7,184,842 tonnes of M.
paradisiaca pseudostem residue was generated in Ghana [7]. This constitutes about 59% of the
total agricultural crop residues generated. M. paradisiaca pseudostem is one of the agricultural
residues readily available in large quantities and has no special industrial application.

Another abundant agricultural waste generated in Ghana is the residue of Theobroma cacao
(cocoa). Ghana is second to Cote d’Ivoire, producing about 20% of global cocoa production.
Theobroma cacao prunings, pod, stem and shells are the main residue generated from cocoa
production. T. cacao tree prunings and pods are normally left in the field as a kind of mulch while
a small part may be used as domestic fuel. When T. cacao pod decays on farm lands, the composts
emit methane into the atmosphere which also affects the degradation of the ozone layer 25 times
that of carbon dioxide [8] and it is also a carrier of botanical diseases such as black pod rot. The
wood from trees cut during re-planting ends up as domestic fuel or are used for the construction
of mud houses in the farming communities.

Ceiba pentandra is a low-density species with density of about 409.22 kg/m3 with acid-insoluble
lignin and alpha-cellulose contents of 24.34% and 41.24% respectively [8]. It is noted to have long
fibres. In a study conducted by Mitchual [9] which compared the fibre length of six (6) species for
different particle sizes, C. pentandra was noted to have longer fibre length for each of the particle
sizes. This characteristic makes it a suitable source of material for particleboard production.
Most of the previous studies conducted to explore alternative raw materials for production of
particleboards have recognised agro-forest residues as potential source for its manufacture. For
most of such studies, urea formaldehyde was used as adhesive. The emission of carcinogenic
formaldehyde in the production and use of particleboards have generated a lot of discussions by
researchers, some advocating for its substitution. Additionally, Rokiah et al. [10] noted that

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formaldehyde resins and other synthetic resins constitute waste disposal problem because they are
non-biodegradable and also not recyclable. Thus, this study aimed at determining the physical

and mechanical properties of particleboards produced from residues of Musa

paradisiaca pseudostem, Theobroma cacao stem and pod, and Ceiba pentandra sawdust using
cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesives.
2 Methodology
2.1 Materials and material preparation
2.1.1 Preparation of particles of biomass material
Musa paradisiaca pseudostem, Theobroma cacao stem and pod, Ceiba pentandra sawdust, urea
formaldehyde and cassava starch were used for the study. The plantain pseudostem was obtained
from a farm land after harvesting. The water was extracted, and the fibres oven-dried before
milling them into particles. Fig. 1 shows the stages of preparation of plantain pseudostem particles.

A. Fresh M. paradisiaca B. Water extraction from M. C. M. paradisiaca pseudostem particles

pseudostem paradisiaca pseudostem

Fig. 1 Stages of processing of plantain pseudostem into particles

Figs. 2 and 3 show the stages of conversion of T. cacao stem and pod respectively into particles.
Twenty-six (26) years old T. cacao trees were felled and then converted into sawdust by sawing.
The fresh T. cacao pod as shown in Fig. 3A were first sun-dried and then crushed into particles
using a hammer mill. Sawdust of C. pentandra was obtained from a timber processing company
in Ghana.

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A. Cocoa plantation B. Cocoa stem C. Cocoa stem particle

Fig. 2 Stages of processing of Theobroma cacao stem into particles

A. Fresh cocoa pod B. Dried cocoa pod C. Cocoa pod particles

Fig. 3 Stages of processing of Theobroma cacao pod into particles

2.1.2 Sieve analysis and grading of particles

The particle size distribution of the agro-forest residues was determined in accordance with ASTM
D 6913-17 [11]. Two hundred grammes of each of the agro-forest materials was placed in a set of
sieves with sizes: 4.75 mm, 3.15 mm, 2.00 mm, 1.00 mm, 0.60 mm, 0.425 mm, 0.30 mm, 0.15
mm and 0.063 mm and then mounted on automatic sieve shaker with serial number
YGM15418/AZ/0260 and Model YGM15418. Shaking was done for 10 minutes. Thereafter, the
weight of materials retained on each sieve was determined using an electronic balance. The
percentages of materials retained on each sieve were computed and graphs of particle size
distribution cumulative curves plotted.

2.1.3 Urea formaldehyde

Urea formaldehyde (UF) resin with a ratio of 1:1, of 65 % solid content, specific gravity of 1.266
g/cm³ at 30°C, viscosity of 2.3 MPs at 30°C, pH of 7.5 and a gel time of 65 seconds at 100°C was
used as the adhesive for making the particle board.

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2.1.4 Preparation of cassava starch

Fresh cassava tubers (Fig. 4) were obtained, washed, peeled and milled to obtain cassava dough.
The dough was diluted with clean water to form a solution. Thereafter, the solution was strained
with 1 mm wire mesh and allowed to stand for 24 hours to allow the starch to settle. The water
was decanted to obtain the cassava starch. The starch was air-dried for ten days and ground to
obtain powdered starch as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4 Cassava tubers Fig. 5 Cassava starch

2.2 Bulk density determination

The bulk density of the loose biomass materials was determined in accordance with Hartmann et
al. [12]. This was done by filling a 50-litre cylindrical container to the brim and weighing it. The
volume of the cylinder was determined by measuring its height and internal diameter. The bulk
density of the biomass materials was computed as shown in equation 1.
𝑘𝑔 𝑀𝑠𝑝
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚3) = (1)
𝑉𝑐
Where:
MSP = Mass of the biomass sample
VC = Volume of the cylindrical container

2.3 Aspect ratio

The particle width and length of one hundred and twenty particles of each specimen were measured
with a digital LED compound light microscope of 10 x magnification and analyzed with ImageJ

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1.51 Java 64-bit for determining the width and length. The aspect ratio was computed as shown in
equation 2.
𝑃𝑙
𝐴𝑅 = 𝑃𝑤 (2)

Where:
AR = Aspect ratio
Pl = Particle length
Pw = Particle width

2.4 Particleboard manufacture

The bulk density of the biomass materials were: T. cacao stem = 89.90 kg/m3; Ceiba pentandra =
94.41 kg/m3; M. paradisiaca Pseudostem = 96.63 kg/m3 and T. cacao pod = 323.96 kg/m3. The
materials were each dried to a moisture content of 4% and then thoroughly mixed with the
adhesives. Ammonium chloride was added as a curing catalyst. The resinated particles were
prepressed into an 80 mm single layer in 300 mm x 300 mm aluminium sheet mould. A 20 mm
thick metal stopper was used to ensure that the boards produced had the same thickness. The mat
was then pressed with the following conditions: Pressing temperature 170oC; pressing pressure 3.5
MPa; pressing time 8 minutes; pressing closing rate 3 - 4 mm/minutes, target thickness 20 mm;
hardener 2%; adhesive (UF and CS); and compacting time 15 minutes. The produced
particleboards were then trimmed and conditioned in a climate controlled room having a
temperature of 20 ± 2oC and a relative humidity of 62 ± 2% for 6 days before they were sawn into
various sizes for further studies.

2.5 Moisture content

The moisture content on oven-dry basis of the particleboards was determined in accordance with
the ASTM D 1037 - 06a [13]. Five samples of each of the particleboards with dimensions 50 mm
x 50 mm x 20 mm were placed in a laboratory oven at a temperature of 103 ± 2oC. Each sample
was dried until the difference in mass between two successive weighings separated by an interval
of two hours was 0.01 g or less. The moisture content of the specimen was then computed as shown
in equation 3.
𝑀𝑖 − 𝑀𝑓
Moisture content (%) db = × 100 (3)
𝑀𝑓

Where:

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Mi = Initial mass (g) of the test sample before drying

Mf = Final oven-drying mass (g) of the test sample

2.6 Density
The density of the particleboards produced was determined in accordance with ASTM D-1037 -
06a [13]. Specimen of dimensions 20 mm x 20 mm x 30 mm were prepared from the particleboards
produced and kept in a desiccator. The oven-dried mass of the specimen was determined using an
electronic balance. The dimensions of the specimen: length, breadth and height were determined
using a digital veneer calliper. Density of each specimen was then computed using equation 4.
𝑘𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚3) = (4)
𝐿𝑥𝑊𝑥𝑇

Where:
L = Length of specimen
W = Width of specimen
T = Thickness of specimen

2.7 Thickness swelling

The thickness swelling property of the particleboard was determined in accordance with ASTM
D1037 - 06a [13]. A test specimen with dimension 20 mm x 76 mm x 152 mm was soaked in pure
water at room temperature (27 oC) for 2 hours and 24 hours. The initial and the final thickness of
the specimen after the period of submersion were determined with a digital veneer calliper. The
thickness swelling for the 2-hour and 24-hour submersions was then computed using equation 5.
𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑜
Thickness swelling rate (%) = 𝑇𝑜
× 100 (5)
Where:
To = Initial thickness of test sample before soaking in distilled water
Tf = Final thickness of test sample after soaking in water

2.8 Water absorption

The water absorption property of the particleboard was determined in accordance with ASTM
D1037 - 06a [13]. A sample of dimension 20 mm x 76 mm x 152 mm was weighed and then
submerged horizontally under 25 mm depth of pure water at room temperature (27oC) for 2-hour
and 24-hour. For each of them, the excess water on the surface of the sample was removed with

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hand paper towel and was immediately weighed. The 2-hour and 24-hour water absorption
properties were then computed using equation 6.
𝑊𝑓 − 𝑊𝑜
Water absorption rate after 2 hours (%) = × 100 (6)
𝑊𝑜
Where:
Wo = Initial weight of test sample before soaking
Wf = Final weight of test sample after soaking

2.9 Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rapture (MOR)

The MOE and MOR of the particleboards were determined in accordance with the American
Society for Testing and Materials standard methods ASTM D 1037-06a [13]. Specimen of size 20
mm x 50 mm x 250 mm were prepared from the particleboards produced. An Instron Universal
Testing Machine (model Inspekt 50-1) operated with a load cell capacity of 50kN was used for the
test. The loading rate applied to measure the bond strength was 4 mm/min.
2.10 Internal Bond (IB)
The test was conducted in accordance with ASTM D 7519-11 [14] and ASTM D 1037-06a [13].
Twenty four strips of particleboards (152mm x 305mm) with three replicates produced from each
of the agro-forest residues using the two adhesives were subjected to the following exposure cycle:
16 hours of oven drying at a temperature of 70oC, followed by a 3-hour soaking in water at a
temperature of 20oC. This was immediately followed by a 2-hour oven drying at a temperature of
70oC, and immediately followed by a 3-hour soaking in water at 20oC. After the third exposure
cycle, the boards were dried for 16 hours in an oven at a temperature of 70 oC. Finally, four
specimen blocks of dimension 50mm x 50mm were cut from each of the strips. Tension
perpendicular to surface (Internal Bond) test was conducted according to the test method of ASTM
D 1037-06a [13]. The internal bond of each specimen was calculated using equation 7.

𝑁 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ( )= (7)
𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑏
Where:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum load (N)
𝑎 = Width of the specimen (mm)
𝑏 = Length of the specimen (mm)

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2.11 Hardness
The hardness of the particleboards was determined in accordance with the American Society for
Testing and Materials standard methods ASTM D 1037-06a [13]. To conduct the hardness test the
particleboards were laminated to obtain the given thickness and subsequently cut into 25 mm x 75
mm x 150mm, as specified by the standard. Janka ball test was used for determining the hardness
of the particleboards using universal testing machine model 4482, operating with a load cell
capacity of 100kN.

2.12 Ultra-structure analysis

Samples of the particleboard of size 5 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm were investigated using scanning
electron microscope (SEM). The specimens were coated with a thin film of gold and mounted on
aluminum stub using carbon tape and then analyzed with Phenom ProX desktop SEM with EID at
15kV with a magnification range of 1300x to 1500x.
3 Results and discussion

3.1 Aspect ratio of agro-forest residues

The result in Table 1 shows that M. paradisiaca pseudostem particles had the highest aspect ratio
(135.03) followed by that of T. cacao stem (61.60) with C. pentandra (60.54) being the least.
Previous studies have indicated that the mechanical properties of particleboards positively
correlate with the aspect ratio (particle geometry) of the biomass materials. This is because of the
greater surface area it provides in terms of contact between particles [15 and 16]. Furthermore,
Gozdecki et al., [17] indicated that particles with a higher aspect ratio enhance stress transfer from
the polymer matrix to the particles and ultimately improve the composite mechanical properties.
Table 1: Aspect ratio of particle of the agro-forest residues
Agro-forest residue Number of 0.5mm ≤ P < 1.5mm
samples Aspect ratio SD Range
C. Pentandra 60 60.54 23.31 33.44 - 96.18
M. paradisiaca pseudostem 60 135.03 33.48 111.89 - 204.35
T. Cacao Pod 60 Parenchymatous cells (No fibers present)
T. Cacao Stem 60 61.60 22.64 33.69 – 96.14
Legend: P = Particle size; SD = Standard deviation

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3.2 Particleboard density

Density is a measure of the compactness of the individual particles in a board, and is dependent
mainly on the density of the wood, the type of adhesive and the pressure applied during pressing
[18]. The density of the particleboards (Table 2) with cassava starch as an adhesive ranged from
497 kg/m3 to 598 kg/m3 whilst that of urea formaldehyde ranged from 421 kg/m3 to 557 kg/m3.
According to ANSI A208.1 [19], such particleboards could be graded as low density. Additionally,
particleboards produced compares favorably with those produced from medium density wood.
Besides, similar results were observed by Melo and Stangerlin [20] in a study to determine the
physical and mechanical properties of particleboards manufactured from wood, bamboo and rice
husk.
Table 2: Density of particleboard
Biomass materials Density (kg/m3)
100% Cassava starch 100% Urea formaldehyde
Ceiba pentandra 536a (11.69) 472a (67.86)
Musa paradisiaca pseudostem 543a (32.25) 493a (84.83)
Theobroma cacao pod 598b (34.31) 557b (30.90)
Theobroma cacao stem 497a (26.24) 421a (62.47)

Figures in columns with the same letters are not significantly different (p > 0.05)

The density of the particleboards produced from T. cacao pod for both cassava starch and urea
formaldehyde was significantly higher than those produced from the other biomass materials. This
could be due to the exceptionally high bulk density of its biomass raw material. Furthermore, the
particleboards produced using cassava starch as adhesive had higher densities than their
corresponding values for urea formaldehyde.

3.3 Water absorption

Understanding the water absorption property (WA) of particleboards is an important factor that
needs to be evaluated in order to improve dimensional stability of composite [21]. Table 3 shows
the water absorption property of particleboards for 2-hour and 24-hour immersion in water. The
WA property of the particleboards manufactured from T. cacao pods was highest (worst) for the
2-hour immersion, having values of 22.41% and 14.98% respectively for cassava starch and urea
formaldehyde adhesives. That of M. paradisiaca pseudostem was the least for the 2-hour
immersion, having values of 9.86% and 7.77% respectively for cassava starch and urea

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formaldehyde adhesives. The higher WA property of T. cacao pod and C. pentandra particleboards
could be due to the high content of silica and lower content of lignin present in these materials.
Component such as silica interferes with the particles’ adhesion and gluing processes [22, 23].
In all cases - 2-hour and 24-hour immersions - the particleboards produced using urea
formaldehyde had lower (better) WA properties than their corresponding values for cassava starch.
Cassava starch is hydrophilic, therefore, it tends to absorb more water, thus the bond formed
between particles, particles-starch and starch-starch is easily broken [24, 25].
Table 3: Water absorption (%) property of particleboards produced from agro-forest residue
Water absorption (%)
Agro-forest residue 2-hour 24-hour
Cassava starch UF Cassava UF
starch
Ceiba pentandra 19.15c (3.16) 13.07b (1.82) 50.08d (1.63) 30.97b (1.07)
Musa paradisiaca pseudostem 9.86a (0.84) 7.66a (1.49) 23.79a (3.13) 18.17a (1.58)
Theobroma cacao pod 22.41c (1.21) 14.98b (1.57) 59.46d (1.04) 43.80c (5.09)
Theobroma cacao stem 12.65b (1.83) 8.10a (1.32) 30.82b (2.46) 22.08a (1.64)
Figures with the same letters are not significantly different according to Tukey’s multiple tests.
UF = Urea formaldehyde

The WA property of the particleboards for the current study is similar to, or lower than those
obtained by other researchers who used wood species and agro-forest residues for particleboard
production. In a study on suitability of some fast-growing trees and date palm fronds for
particleboard production using urea formaldehyde as an adhesive, Hegazy and Aref [34] indicated
that the water absorption properties of boards produced ranged from 27.1-72.7% for 2-hour water
immersion and 38.4%-87% for 24-hour water immersion. The manufactured particleboards could
be suitable for producing cabinet, cladding and other interior fittings likely to be used in an
environment which will minimize its exposure to moisture.

3.4 Thickness swelling

Thickness swelling is perhaps the most important factor when considering moisture effects on
particleboards and it is affected by process variables such as the type of biomass raw material,
particle geometry, board density, resin level, blending efficiency, and pressing conditions [27].
Using cassava starch as an adhesive, the thickness swelling of the particleboards as indicated in
Table 4 ranged from 3.51% to 6.31% for 2-hour immersion and 13.93% to 21.49% for 24-hour
immersion. Additionally, the thickness swelling of the particleboards with urea formaldehyde as

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an adhesive ranged from 3.38% to 4.75% for 2-hour immersion and 9.37% to 16.17% for 24-hour
immersion. For both the 2-hour and 24-hour immersions, the thickness swelling of the
particleboards with cassava starch as an adhesive was significantly higher (worse) than those
produced using urea formaldehyde. This could be due to the higher hydrogen polymer chains of
the cassava starch which resulted in higher absorption of water leading to higher thickness swelling
[28].
Table 4: Thickness swelling of particleboards produced from agro-forest residue
Thickness swelling (%)
Agro-forest residue 2 Hours 24 Hours
Cassava starch UF Cassava starch UF
Ceiba pentandra 5.03b (1.04) 3.91a (0.05) 17.27c (2.23) 13.22b (2.62)
Musa paradisiaca pseudostem 3.51a (0.31) 3.38a (0.28) 11.47a (4.52) 9.37a (1.03)
Theobroma cacao pod 6.31b (1.15) 4.75a (0.77) 21.49d (2.57) 16.17c (1.14)
Theobroma cacao stem 3.67a (1.34) 3.61a (0.53) 13.93b (3.42) 11.24a (2.11)

Figures with the same letters are not significantly different according to Tukey’s multiple tests.
UF = Urea formaldehyde

The result also indicated that for both 2-hour and 24-hour immersions, irrespective of the adhesive
used, particleboards produced from T. cacao pod had a relatively higher thickness swelling whilst
those produced from M. paradisiaca pseudostem showed minimum thickness swelling. The lower
thickness swelling values of M. paradisiaca pseudostem particles could be due to its low bulk
density (96.63 kg/m3) which resulted in more compact boards, leading to better adhesion during
hot pressing. Beside the high bulk density of T. cacao pod particles (323.96 kg/m3) which could
result in poor compaction, T. cacao pod contains a high amount of parenchyma tissues which could
lead to greater affinity to absorb water [29, 30]. Kord et al. [31] indicated that the parenchyma
tissues behaved like a sponge and is also more hygroscopic compared to other cells making it
easier for the panels to absorb water.
The thickness swelling of all the particleboards produced could be considered adequate since
they were lower than that indicated in ANSI A208.1 [19] and EN 312-2005 [32]. According to
ANSI A208.1[19], particleboard for commercialization could have thickness swelling of up to
35% for 24-hour water immersion. Additionally, EN 312-2005 standards [32], indicated that
particleboards should have a maximum thickness swelling of 8% and 15% for 2-hour and 24-
hour water immersions.

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3.5 Modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) obtained for the particleboards ranged from 1031 MPa to 2413
MPa (Figure 6). The highest MOE was obtained for particleboards produced from M. paradisiaca
pseudostem using urea formaldehyde as adhesive. The lowest MOE was obtained for
particleboards produced from T. cacao pod using cassava starch as adhesive.

3000 Cassava starch

Urea formaldehyde
c
2500
c ANSI A208.1 bc
c
Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)

b M-1
2000 b

1500 a

1856 2413 a 2095

1391
1000
1758 2173 1031 2043

500

0
C. pentandra M. paradisiaca T. cacao pod T. cacao stem
pseudostem
Agro-forest Residues
Fig 6: Modulus of elasticity of particleboards produced from agro-forest residues
NB: Bars with the same letter are not significantly different according to Turkey’s
multiple range tests

With the exception of particleboards produced from T. cacao pod, all the particleboards had higher
MOE than the minimum value required for particleboards by the America National Standard
Institute ANSI A208.1 [19] which is 1550 MPa for general uses and furniture production.
The high MOE of the particleboards produced from M. paradisiaca pseudostem particles could be
attributed to it comparatively high aspect ratio which was more than twice that of the other
materials. Bax and Mussig [15] indicated that the mechanical properties of particleboards
positively correlate with the aspect ratio (particle geometry) of the biomass materials used for its
production. The result (Figure 6) also indicates that for the same agro-forest residue there was no
significant difference between the MOE of the particleboards produced using cassava starch as
adhesive and that of urea formaldehyde. This suggests that cassava starch could be used to
substitute urea formaldehyde as an adhesive for producing particleboards.
3.6 Modulus of rupture

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Modulus of rupture (MOR) is a measure of the maximum load-carrying capacity of a member in

bending and is proportional to maximum moment borne by the specimen. The MOR of the
particleboards ranged from 4.95 MPa (T. cacao pod) to 16.54 MPa (M. paradisiaca pseudostem)
as indicated in Figure 7. With the exception of particleboards produced from T. cacao pod using
both cassava starch and urea formaldehyde adhesives all the particleboards produced had MOR
higher than the minimum value indicated by ANSI A208.1 [19] for MOR required for interior
fitments (including furniture) which is 10 MPa.
Similar results were also stated for particleboards made using under utilized raw material as well
as agricultural waste and residues by Papadopoulos et al. [33], Tabarsa et al. [34], Azizi et al. [35],
Khanjanzadeh et al. [36]. Similar to the result obtained for the MOE all the particleboards
produced using urea formaldehyde as an adhesive had higher MOR than their corresponding values
which used cassava starch.

20 Cassava starch
c Urea formaldehyde
18
Modulus of Rapture (MPa)

16 ANSI
c A208.1 M-1 bc
14 b
b
12 b
10
8 a
12.61 16.54 13.15
6 a
10.61 12.93 11.12
4 6.88
2 4.95
0
C. pentandra M. paradisiaca T. cacao pod T. cacao stem
pseudostem
Agro-forest Residues
Fig. 7 Modulus of rupture of particleboards produced from agro-forest residues

NB: Bars with the same letter are not significantly different according to Turkey’s multiple
range tests

3.7 Internal Bond Strength (IB)

The internal bond strength of the particleboards using urea formaldehyde as adhesive were higher
than those produced with cassava starch (Table 5). Musa paradisiaca boards had the highest IB of

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1.14 N/mm2 and 0.97 N/mm2 for both UF and cassava starch adhesives respectively, and boards
from Theobroma cacao pods had the lowest IB of 0.63 N/mm2.
Table 5: Internal Bond strength (IB) of particleboards
Agro-forest residue Internal Bond (N/mm2)
100% Cassava starch 100% Urea formaldehyde
Ceiba pentandra 0.76a (0.09) 0.83a (0.06)
Musa paradisiaca pseudostem 0.97b (0.05) 1.14b (0.03)
Theobroma cacao pod 0.58c (0.03) 0.63c (0.09)
Theobroma cacao stem 0.70a (0.04) 0.80a (0.07)

Figures with the same letters are not significantly different according to Tukey’s multiple tests.
UF = Urea formaldehyde

This corresponds with the results of the aspect ratio of the particles of the agro-forest residues
where Musa paradisiaca pseudostem had the highest aspect ratio of 135.03 and Theobroma cacao
pods having no fibres. The boards with higher MOR and MOE had higher IBs. The minimum
value of internal bond required by ANSI A208.1 [19] is 0.5 N/mm2 and according to EN 312 [32]
is 0.40 N/mm2 (for thickness of 6-13mm). Therefore, the particleboards made comply with the
standards.

3.8 Hardness

Figure 8 shows the hardness of particleboards produced and it indicates that the highest value
which was 8.78 kN was obtained from M. paradisiaca pseudostem boards using urea
formaldehyde as an adhesive. The least hardness, 2.49 kN, was obtained for particleboards
produced from T. cacao pod using cassava starch as adhesive.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

12 Cassava starch
Urea formaldehyde
10 c

8 bc
c
Hardness (kN)

b b
6
b
ANSI A208.1
5.59 8.78 a 7.08
4
a
2 4.6
3.63
6.79 2.49 5.66

0
C. pentandra M. paradisiaca T. cacao pod T. cacao stem
pseudostem
Agro-forest Residues

Fig 8 Hardness of particleboards produced from agro-forest residues

NB: Bars with the same letter are not significantly different according to Turkey’s multiple
range tests

The results indicate that except for the particleboards produced from T. cacao pods using cassava
starch as adhesive, all the particleboards produced had hardness higher than the ANSI A208.1
standard [19] for general purpose usage which is 2.8 kN. Therefore, M. paradisiaca pseudostem,
T. cacao stem and C. pentandra sawdust \could be used to produce particleboards with adequate
hardness for general purposes using cassava starch as adhesive. On the average, for the same agro-
forest material the particleboard produced using urea formaldehyde was harder compared to those
produced using cassava starch.

3.9 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of the manufactured particleboards

The microstructural analysis of particleboards from T. cacao pod using cassava starch and UF urea
formaldehyde revealed major micro pores and loosed particles (Fig 9g and 9h). It was observed
that the particles were detached from the adhesives. The surface of the T. cacao pod particleboard
was very rough indicating that the bonding between the particles and the adhesive was poor. This
could be as a result of high bulk density and low aspect ratio of the biomass material [37 & 38].

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a: CP + CS b: CP + UF c: MPP + CS d: MPP + UF

e: TCS + CS f: TCS + UF g: TCP + CS h: TCP + UF

Figure 9: Figures 9a to 9f show smooth surfaces indicating good compatibility between particles and adhesives.
Figures 9g and 9h show discontinuity of particles and adhesives, thus detached particles from adhesives surfaces.
Legend: CP = Ceiba pentandra: MPP = Musa paradisiaca pseudostem: TCP = Theobroma cacao pod: TCS =
Theobroma cacao stem: CS = Cassava starch: UF = Urea formaldehyde

On the contrary, specimen shown in figures 8a - 8f indicated that the adhesives filled into the inter-
particle spaces of the particleboards. This therefore led to better agglomeration and compaction of
the particles and adhesives. This good interfacial bonding between the adhesive and the particles
would result in improved the mechanical strength [39].
4 Conclusions
This study investigated the physical and mechanical properties of particleboards produced from
Theobroma cacao stem and pod, Musa paradisiaca pseudostem and Ceiba pentandra. The essence
of this study was to investigate the suitability of the above mentioned agro-forest residues for
making particleboards using cassava starch or urea formaldehyde as adhesive. It could be
concluded from the study that with the exception of the particleboards produced from Theobroma
cacao pod those produced from all the other three agro-forest residues had characteristics that
could enable them to be classified as low density composite boards. The physical and mechanical
properties of the particleboards produced from Theobroma cacao stem, Musa paradisiaca
pseudostem and Ceiba pentandra had properties higher than that recommended by ANSI A208.1.
Therefore, they could be used as a raw material for production of particleboards. Such composite

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boards produced could be utilized for indoor applications and for general purposes under dry
condition such as furniture manufacturing. It is recommended that a further study that seeks to
blend cassava starch and urea formaldehyde as adhesive to produce particleboards be considered.
Additionally, it would be worthwhile considering a study that looks at the effect of blending Musa
paradisiaca pseudostem and T. cacao pod on the physical and mechanical properties of
particleboards produced.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Wood Industry and Utilization Division of CSIR-FORIG for making
their wood workshop and laboratory available for this study. We are also grateful to Mr Felix
Boakye and Ms Linda Osei Bonsu of CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana for their support
in the preparation of the samples for this study. Final appreciation goes to Ms. Dora Fianyo of the
Department of Earth Science, University of Ghana, for her immense support during the SEM
analysis.

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Biography

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Steaming and heating treatment in small sawlog for improving lumber

quality of two tropical species with moderate wood density

Roger Moya1
[email protected]
Juan David Conde Torres2
[email protected]

1 Escuela de Ingeniería Forestal, Instituto Tecnologico, Costa Rica

2 Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de Tolima, Columbia

Abstract
Approximately 20 different tropical species have been planted commercially in fast-growing
plantations in Costa Rica. The wood of these species is characterized by having a density less than 0.5
g/cm3. However, two species, Dipteryx panamensis and Hieronyma alchorneoides with a density
variation of 0.6 to 0.7 g/cm3, present the following problems: (i) during sawing the logs release the
growth tensions that result in wood with defects and cracks, (ii) during the process of drying the wood
produces drying defects and cracks and (iii) these two situations, results in the lack of a market for
the sawn wood of these species, so there are marketing problems. The objective of this research is
apply steam or heat (115 °C) to sawlog of two tropical species and measured the effect in growth
stress and wood quality (warp defects, split and crack) in lumber. It was found the growth stress
decreased after steam and heat treatment in both species and any significant difference between
species, but steaming treatment reduce the growth stress in higher proportion than heating
treatment. The crooking of sawn in sawlog and semi-log was lower heating and steaming treatment
than the log any treatment is sawn. The wood quality in lumber increased with heating and steaming
treatment. The highest decreasing was presented in crook, bow and twist and sliptting and crecking
were reduced but in lower proportions than crook, bow and twist. There was a color change, the L*,
a* and b* parameter were increased, then wood color from log with steam and heat treatment in both
species were darkest. The results presented in Dipteryx panamensis and Hieronyma
alchorneoides with high density growing fast-growth plantation showed that the lumber quality can
improvement with simple log treatment.

Biography

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Global CLT industry in 2020: Growth beyond the Alpine Region

Lech Muszynski1* – Pipiet Larasatie1 – Jose Erlin Martinez Guerrero1
– Raquel Albee1 – Eric N. Hansen1

1
Professor, Graduate Student, Graduate Student, Graduate Student, Professor
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
* Corresponding author
[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract
At the threshold of 2020, the cross-laminated timber (CLT) industry continues its incredible
growth across the globe. The total output of the industry in 2020 is projected to reach 2 million
cubic meters. The only continent where no new CLT plants come on line or are at least planned
in 2020 is Antarctica. Although many new CLT lines were recently deployed outside of the
Alpine region from where the industry evolved, Alpine countries still account for over 70% the
output volume and nearly 62% of the annual per-shift capacity. And yet, after more than 25
years of CLT technology development, the industry still feels young and no less intriguing. The
goal of this presentation is to provide updated insights into the global CLT industry structure,
output potential, production profile, internal diversity, competitiveness, innovativeness, and
perceived barriers to further expansion, including the unknown effects of the COVID-19
pandemic. The presentation is based on two global CLT industry surveys, 46 plant tours, and
supplemental information from secondary sources. These results are intended to provide
insights for potential entrants and stakeholders into the CLT manufacturing sector, including
businesses along its extensive supply chain.

Key words: cross-laminated timber, CLT, manufacturing, global industry

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Introduction
Organic development of the global CLT industry over the last 25 years has produced substantial
diversity in manufacturing processes, levels of automation, scales of operation, products and
services options as well as in market strategies. The development has not followed typical
commodity-oriented forest products industry models and it is difficult to provide an adequate
precedent.
The purpose of this presentation is to provide an insight into the global CLT industry, its basic
production characteristics, and business models. This publication is building on the first of its
kind review of the global CLT industry published in 2017 (Muszynski et al. 2017).
Existing global CLT operations provide a living laboratory that provides understanding of both
the current state-of-the-art as well as the trajectory and future development of the CLT
industry. Especially important are insights for how newly emerging markets may develop.
Methodology
The second iteration of the global CLT industry survey presented in this paper has built on the
experience of the first survey (Muszynski et al. 2017), with an improved methodology and a
focus on the emerging CLT operations outside the Alpine cluster, and on dynamics in the
industry’s vital metrics.
Three major sources of information were considered: 1) an online survey launched in winter
2019 (Albee 2019); 2) targeted site tours of CLT manufacturing lines performed in the USA,
Japan, Australia, China, New Zealand, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Estonia;
and 3) review of trade journals tracking the development of the CLT industry (mainly within the
Alpine Europe and Czechia).
The online survey was sent to 66 active CLT and similar mass-timber panel (MTP)
manufacturers, that is all that could be identified at that the beginning of 2019, of which 12
companies responded (response rate 18.2%). In addition, 29 site tours targeting CLT and other
MTP manufacturers, as well as MTP hardware manufacturers were completed in 24 months
between winter 2017 and fall 2019. In both forms of communication, the item non-response is
somewhat problematic with data in this study since not all respondents were willing to answer
all questions in electronic surveys or in scripted interviews. Also, there are operations that we
were unable to develop any reliable data about, beyond the fact that they exist.
Wherever possible, the data obtained from different sources were verified against each other.
Overlaps and gaps in the coverage of these sources were carefully resolved using the “latest
data point” approach, that is using the most recent reliable data from any of the three sources.
To ensure anonymity, information is presented in aggregate format and when discussing
regional differences, the data is parsed by large regions defined in a way to avoid exposing
information from a single manufacturer (Figure 4). One exception is the plant located in South
Africa, which agreed to share related information openly (Smily 2019).

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Other EU
N America Alpine EU

Pacific

Africa

Figure 4: CLT producing regions.

One of the methodological difficulties in reporting the potential of a non-commodity, custom-

project driven industry is that the annual output is not necessarily the best tool for gauging its
potential. For many metrics the annual per-shift capacity of production lines was selected as a
more representative context than the total annual output.

Major findings
Ownership of the CLT plants varies from family enterprises to international holdings. Press
types and sizes vary greatly (there is no size standard for CLT panels). Most CLT companies
show some level of vertical integration within their complex value chains.
The scales of operation and the level of automation vary greatly. Annual volumes of production
of CLT plants across the globe varied from less than 500 m3 to over 125,000 m3 (Figure 5a),
while the annual per-shift capacities varied from less than 500 m3 to 110,000 m3 (Figure 5b).
However, over the past three years, an increasing number of new CLT plants opt for specialized
off-the-shelf equipment solutions, characterized by high capacity, high level of automation and
an option for full integration of entire lines. The comparison of these two graphs indicates that
not all companies utilize their production capacity to the same degree. This particularly applies
to a number of high capacity plants launched in 2019 but not reaching their full production
potential in the start-up year.
The comparison of the graphs in Figure 5 indicates that not all companies utilize their
production capacity to the same degree, which is consistent with the non-commodity character
of the industry. In a particular sense, this is also true for a number of high capacity plants
launched in 2019 but not reaching their full production potential in the start-up year.

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700 8 700

Thousands
Thousands
600 600

Annual per-shift volume in m3

15
Annual volume in m3

500 500

400 400
7
300 9 300
8
200 200
31
6 9
100 100 6
22
- -
<= 10000 <= 20000 <= 30000 <= 50000 > 50000 <= 5000 <= 10000 <= 15000 <= 25000 > 25000
Annual output range in m3 Annual per-shift capacity range in m3

a) b)
Figure 5: Annual production volumes (a) and annual per-shift capacity (b) allocated to CLT lines
representing a range of production capacity scale. Number of production lines in each category
provided above the bars.

Currently, three out of four of all presses installed are fabricated by three specialized European
manufacturers (Figure 6a). Nearly four out of five of all installed CNC centers we know about
are fabricated by three leading European manufacturers (Figure 6b). As a result, many new
production lines launched since 2017 are rather similar. That trend applies to the oldest and
largest CLT companies in Alpine Europe as they upgrade their lines to meet demand.

Other A
Other/Unknown A
19% 42%
25% 25%

C
20% B
30% C
B
33%
6%

a) b)
Figure 6: Shares of known CLT lines equipped with presses (a) and CNC finishing centers (b)
manufactured by three leading providers of respective equipment category.

Even as some companies operate more than one line under the same roof, few decide to build
another plant in different location and even fewer build new production lines in foreign
markets. This is true even for the major Alpine Region players that are very successful pursuing
projects in foreign markets. An almost proverbial example is the activity of leading Austrian
companies in the Australian market.
One interesting dynamic on the fringe of the CLT industry is the rise of complimentary
“adhesive-free” cross-laminated panel products that use nails, wooden dowels and other
alternative panel integration systems. In Europe, there are about 30 licensed manufacturers of

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nailed cross laminated panels marketed as MassivHolzMauer or MHM (MHM 2020) and no less
than 10 lines producing panels bonded with wooden dowels (TechnoWood 2020).
Since the publication of the first global survey (Muszynski et al. 2017), substantial production
capacity has been added outside the core Alpine region of Europe, including a new plant in
South Africa, pilot plant in China, two short lived lines in Indonesia and feasibility studies
conducted in Brazil and Chile. The only continent where no new CLT plants have come on line
or at least planned in 2020 has been Antarctica.
In most countries outside the Alpine Region, growth of the CLT industry has been encouraged
by the governments motivated by the desire to find a stable, economically viable outlet for
substantial volumes of domestic lumber of lesser quality. The incentive programs used as a tool
in these campaigns vary by country in terms of scale, specific form and duration, and not all are
equally successful.

Africa DACH+I+C
N America Pacific N America DACH+I+CZ
Z Africa
12% 4% 0.13% 21% Pacific 62%
70% 0.16%
5%

Rest of EU
14%

Rest of EU
12%

a) b)
Figure 7: Regional distribution of the total global CLT output volume (a) and per-shift capacity (b).…

Annual global output of CLT in 2019 that we can attribute to 60 specific production lines is
about 1.44 million m3. The global annual per-shift capacity in 2019 based on 58 (two companies
reported total output but not per-shift capacities) specific production lines is about 0.94 million
m3. The Alpine region still accounts for over 70% the output volume (Jauk, 2019) and nearly
62% of the annual per-shift capacity (Figure 7). Considering known CLT operations for which the
produced volumes/capacities are outdated or currently unavailable, the total 2019 output may
be estimated at the level of 1.6-1.8 million m3. Further, considering the number of high-capacity
plants that, by pre-pandemic standards, would likely reach full capacity in 2020, it, it is that by
the end of 2020 the global annual output might reach 2.0-2.5 million m3.
Gauging the potential for the capacity of individual regions or countries to grow their CLT
manufacturing market potential is notoriously difficult. This is because of substantial
differences that exist between regions in terms of the strength of their economies, robustness
of their construction markets, size and level of sophistication of their forest products industries,
but also the density of population and myriad other factors that could be considered. Here we

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use a simple and manageable approach of creating estimates. However, a very rough estimate
may be arrived at by using a set of substitute gross indicator metrics widely available for
individual countries and possible to summarize for regions. For instance, while GDP per capita
may be a readily available measure of a country's economic output that accounts for the size of
its population, it must be combined with another metric indicative of that country’s access to
structural forest products and its ability to process them for meaningful estimates of CLT
industry potential.
The metrics used in this study included the volume of softwood production (2018 data, FAO
2020), GDP (2018 data, World Bank 2020), population density (based on 2018 population and
area data, FAO 2020), number of CLT lines, annual CLT output volume in 2019, and CLT per-shift
production capacity all summarized by regions. All metrics except population density are
expressed per capita. To facilitate an assessment of the potential of an individual country or
region, One may view the metrics relative to that reference country or region. In the example
presented in Figure 8, the relative metrics considered in this comparison are listed along the
vertical axis, while the regions being compared are listed along the horizontal axis. Values of
individual metrics are reflected by the area of the bubbles for a given metric and region. In this
example, the reference country of interest is the United States of America. Accordingly, the size
of the bubbles in the first column are the reference unit for other columns.
When metrics are compared visually via Figure 6, it is easy to see that there are no dramatic
differences between the regions in terms of GDP or softwood production per capita. One
somewhat differentiating metric is the population density, substantially higher for countries
included in the Alpine region, which by Holzkurier standards include Austria, Czechia, Germany,
Italy and Switzerland. But even with that distinction, this relatively small region outweighs all
others in terms of number of installed CLT manufacturing lines (followed by the rest of CLT
producing Europe and by the Pacific region) and has no equal in terms of the total annual CLT
output volume or in per-shift production capacity. These gaps may be interpreted as an indirect
indicator of the potential for regions that seem to be otherwise similar to the Alpine region in
other gross metrics scaled per capita.
With due respect to the gross simplifications of this approach, it is possible to cautiously
conclude that in order to match the level of saturation seen in the Alpine Europe, the US
market should be able to support as many as 70 CLT production lines of various sizes (currently
5) and 16-fold increase of the production output volume from the level seen at the threshold of
2020 (117 thousand m3/year). These numbers may be scaled down to 40 production lines and
4x increase in production volumes if the CLT producing countries in other parts of Europe are
considered as a model.

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Figure 8: A comparison of selected socio-economic metrics scaled by population of CLT producing

regions with per-capita CLT production in 2019 for each (combined sources).

Overall, at the threshold of 2020s the CLT industry continued its exponential growth across the
globe. However, that upbeat picture could not possibly have predicted the pandemic triggering
tectonic shifts in global economies.
The big question today is how does the pandemic impact the CLT industry as-we-speak and what
are the perspectives of CLT players regarding the post-pandemic new normal.
The industry has a substantial degree of intrinsic flexibility and is oriented towards custom-
made products serving premium construction projects. Myriad questions arise from our current
context:

What will be a winning strategy in the post-pandemic economy?

Will the industry’s internal diversity provide sufficient resilience to weather the changes?
Will the high level of automation be an advantage in the post-pandemic new normal?
Will all elements of the complex supply chain of the industry be equally resilient?
How will the post-pandemic world affect the export prospects of CLT companies that typically
export to overseas markets?
Will public enchantment/enthusiasm last?
Finally, with respect to governments, will utilization of low-value local species remain a priority?
Will the industry be perceived as a dispensable luxury or a part of a solution for the new normal?

The anecdotal evidence based on brief unstructured conversations with the industry leaders in
the US suggests that the CLT industry in the Pacific Northwest is navigating the pandemic

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relatively well. This sentiment is corroborated by the latest news from Alpine Europe (Jauk &
Guzely 2020).
Summary and Conclusions
Overall, at the threshold of 2020s the CLT industry continued its exponential growth across the
globe. There has been substantial growth in the number of new, high capacity lines in regions
outside Alpine Europe and an increase of production coming out of that region. After 25 years of
development, the industry still feels very young and as exciting as ever. However, that upbeat
picture is clouded by the pandemic triggering tectonic shifts in global economies and leaving us
with more questions and unknowns than answers.

Acknowledgements
This project was funded by USDA ARS program. Additional support: Softwood Export Council,
Linnaeus University, Estonian Forest and Wood Industries Association. The authors also
acknowledge support of Dr. Chris Knowles (OSU), Ms. Tomoko Igarashi and and Mr. Yuichi
Hayashi (American Softwoods, Japan), Ms. Jasmin Rainer and Mr. Günther Jauk (Holzkurier).

References
Albee R.R. (2019): Global Overview of the Cross-Laminated Timber Industry. MS thesis. Oregon
State University, Corvallis, OR. 114 pp.
Albee R.R., L. Muszyński, E.N. Hansen, C.D. Knowles, P. Larasatie, J.E. Guerrero (2018): Recent
developments in global cross-laminated timber (CLT) market. World Conference on Timber
Engineering, Proceedings of the WCTE 2018, Seoul, Korea, August 20-24: 6 pp.
FAO (2020): Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data. Access date: 07/03/2020
Jauk G. (2019): Holzkurier (CLT special issue)
Jauk G. & E. Guzely (2020: Corona is not going not stop CLT. Timber-Online, May/June, 2020.
https://www.timber-online.net/wood_products/2020/05/corona-is-not-going-not-stop-
clt.html. Accessed: 10/6/2020
MHM (2020): https://www.massivholzmauer.de/en/about-us/sales-offices/locations/mhm-
producers.html. Accessed: 13/06/2020
Muszyński L., E. Hansen, B.M. S. Fernando, G. Schwarzman, J. Rainer (2017): Insights into the
Global Cross-Laminated Timber Industry. BioProducts Business. 2(8): 77-92
Smily J. (2019): XLam ZA, personal contact. 28/10/2020
TechnoWood (2020): https://www.technowood.ch/downloads/technowood/tw-portfolio.pdf.
Accessed 13/06/2020
World Bank (2020): https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD. Access date:
07/03/2020

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

How Megaplatypus mutatus behaves inside a trunk? Studying its galleries

via Computerized Axial Tomography and Digital Images Processing

Andres Dolinko1
[email protected]
Yasmil Costales2
[email protected]
Cecilia Carmaran1
[email protected]
Esteban Ceriani Nakamurakare1
[email protected]

1 CONICET Researcher, DBBE-FCEyN, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

2Undergraduate Thesis Student, Universidad Favoloro, Argentina

Abstract
Megaplatypus mutatus (syn. Platypus sulcatus), an ambrosia beetle native to South America, is one of
the main forest pests in Argentina and an emergent foreign pest in Europe, representing a potential risk to
forest and fruit plantations due to its low specificity. Special attention has been given to poplar plantations
as a result of the high economic impact. This ambrosia beetle attacks vigorous hosts producing multiple
attacks per tree, triggering a structural weakening and eventually causes the breakdown of the tree trunk;
especially when weather conditions are unfavourable. Even though the relevance of understanding the
microhabitat where this complex system develops, this is the first comprehensive study that characterizes
the galleries of this forest pest analyzing the topology of tunnels, the implications in the wood structure
and the reproduction of M. mutatus. In this context, two commercial plantations were sampled where we
studied 28 attacked trees with a Philips-MX16-slice tomographer, generating ≈ 5200 slides. A special
computer algorithm that allows isolating the galleries from the rest of the image was specially developed.
This allowed characterizing with high precision the geometry, dimensions and topological properties of
the galleries in all the samples, as well as, a 3D visualization of the structure. The impacts of the obtained
results in the frame of the pathogenic system are discussed.
Keywords: Computed Tomography, Digital image processing, 3D Visualization, Populus, Megaplatypus,
Platypodinae, Ambrosia, Forest Pest.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Introducing the SWST Wood Technology Student Chapter at DISAFA,

University of Torino, Italy

Francesco Negro1
[email protected]
Carlo Grignani1
[email protected]
Eva Haviarova2
[email protected]
Victoria Herian3
[email protected]
Roberto Zanuttini1
[email protected]

1 DISAFA, University of Torino, Italy

2 Purdue University, USA
3 SWST, USA

Abstract
The Wood Technology Student Chapter (WTSC) was activated in December 2019 at the Department of
Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Torino, Italy, within the Education
Program of the International Society of Wood Science and Technology(SWST). First SWST European
Student Chapter, named WTSC-DISAFA, aims at broadening student perspectives and deepening their
wood science and technology knowledge. This will be pursued in particular by: organizing activities
such as seminars, experimental testing, visits etc.; exploring wood technology at national and
international levels; highlighting the linkages between wood technology and other disciplines;
encouraging relationship with other student associations.

The presentation provides an insight into the WTSC-DISAFA function and feedback from currently
enrolled students. The presentation will also describe features of DISAFA and the wood technology
education. The Student Chapter, its Constitution and the process that led to the Chapter formation are
described. Students’ interests and some of the current and future activities are also introduced.
Sharing this experience, highlighting the main grounds on which is this new Student Chapter based,
could motivate other wood products programs to create additional SWST student chapters.

Key words: DISAFA, Education, Student Chapter, SWST, Wood Technology

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Investigation of the damping behaviour of beech material

Gábor Németh
[email protected]
Endre Magoss
[email protected]
Sándor Borza
[email protected]

University of Sopron, Hungary

Abstract
Although there are numerous papers and studies regarding the topic, the dynamical aspects of wood
physics still remain one of the lesser-studied subtopics of wood sciences. One of the particularly
neglected areas of this subtopic is the measurement of the damping coefficient of different types of
wood material subjected to transversal waves.

The main goal of this research is to present the driving influence factors of the structural damping
coefficient (such as the thickness of the probe, the rigidity of the support and the amplitude of the
vibration) through the example of the bending mode of beech cantilever beams. In order to achieve
this, beech beams of various thickness values (ranging up to 25 mm) have been used, with all of them
subjected to free (bending) vibration of similar initial amplitude and boundary condition. By changing
the starting amplitude and/or the strength of the end support, their effect on the damping coefficient
are then directly measurable.

As a secondary target, using the aforementioned measurement method we would also like to
determine whether or not it is possible to compare the damping coefficients due to transversal and
longitudinal waves directly. Since those damping coefficients are well-known from various acoustic
studies, this step requires no additional physical tests or experiments as it can be done as a
straightforward comparison.

Biography

581
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Measuring the heat of interaction between lignocellulosic materials and

water

Martin Nopens 1, Lars Wadsö 2,*, Christian Ortmann 3, Michael Fröba 4, and Andreas Krause 1
1 Department of Wood Science and Technology, Universität Hamburg, 21031 Hamburg,
Germany
2 Building Materials, Lund University, 223 63 Lund, Sweden
3 TA Instruments, 65760 Eschborn, Germany
4 Institute of Inorganic and Applied Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg,
Germany
Abstract
Measuring the heat of interaction between lignocellulosic materials and water
Wood properties are influenced by moisture content, and wood-water-interactions have
therefore been studied for decades. Sorption of water on lignocellulosic materials leads to heat
production (sorption enthalpy) which, together with sorption isotherms, can be used to
characterize the sorption process.
Several explanations have been proposed to connect the sorption enthalpy with accessibility
and amount of hydroxyl groups as well as with the number of sorbed water molecules in wood.
Therefore reliable values for sorption enthalpy are needed. However, sorption enthalpies are
non-trivial to measure. For the first time, sorption enthalpies are measured with four different
methods on the same materials to be able to compare the methods’ strengths and weaknesses.
Isosteric heat, solution calorimetry, sorption calorimetry, and RH perfusion calorimetry have
been applied to beech and scots pine wood. Advantages and disadvantages for all methods will
be presented. As we noticed problems in comparing published enthalpy results for wood-water
interaction, because different methods, definitions, and units have been used, we propose a
sorption nomenclature.
Generally, the mixing enthalpy is a robust measure and therefore can be used to characterize
the interaction between water and wood. The results for beech and pine were similar, and also
agree with existing literature, but there is a significant scatter in the result. Especially
investigations of sorption enthalpy using isosteric heat of sorption seems to be complicated
and the results are highly influenced by both the isotherm raw data and the method of
evaluation.
We do not recommend one methods over the other, as they can be used to elucidate different
aspects of wood-water interactions. The four methods all have their advantages and
disadvantages. Therefore we recommend using more than one method in parallel. However,
the isosteric method - which is most commonly used due to availability of sorption isotherm
data - should be used with caution.
Keywords
Sorption enthalpy, isosteric heat, solution calorimetry, sorption calorimetry, RH perfusion
calorimetry, beech, pine, isotherms

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Literature
Nopens, Martin; Wadsö, Lars; Ortmann, Christian; Fröba, Michael; Krause, Andreas (2019):
Measuring the Heat of Interaction between Lignocellulosic Materials and Water. In: Forests 10
(8), S. 674. DOI: 10.3390/f10080674.

Biography

583
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Combined FTIR spectroscopy and rheology for investigating the influence

of different wood extracts on adhesive curing

Merve Özparpucu
[email protected]
Elisabeth Windeisen-Holzhauser
[email protected]
Klaus Richter
[email protected]

Technical University of Munich, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Wood Research Munich,
Germany

Abstract
Adhesive bonding of wood plays a crucial role in the development of new advanced wood-based
materials and composites. However, wood bonding is not a straightforward process as wood has
inherently complex chemical and structural properties. In particular, wood extracts can accumulate at
the surface and create a chemical boundary layer with different surface permeability, polarity, and
wettability as well. Therefore, the interactions between the wood and adhesives are supposed to
determine the quality of wood-adhesive bonds. In this study, interactions between the wood adhesives
and extractable wood constituents were investigated systematically. The simultaneous examinations of
the progress of chemical reactions and rheological properties of both pure adhesives (e.g. MUF, PUR,
EPI and PRF) and adhesive-extract mixtures were performed using a real-time FTIR spectroscopy
and in situ rheology. The results confirm significant influences of the extracts on the curing process of
the adhesives, in particular for the extracts having a higher amount and acidity level such as chestnut
extract (pH=3.8), and provide fundamental information on their chemical interaction.

Biography

584
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

An anionic polyelectrolyte hybrid for wood-polyethylene composites with

high strength and fire safety via self-assembly

Mingzhu Pan,
[email protected]
Nanjing Forestry University, China

Abstract
Wood-plastic composite (WPC), as a renewable and sustainable material, has received wide attention,
but its inherent flammability greatly limits its broad application in residential construction and so on. In this
work, to derive high-performance, high-function, and high-value-added WPC, an anionic polyelectrolyte
hybrid was applied to simultaneously improve the flame retardancy and mechanical properties of wood-
polyethylene composite. The anionic polyelectrolyte hybrid (APP-CNC) was constructed with ammonium
polyphosphate (APP) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) by self-assembly with ionic and hydrogen
bonding. The physical crosslinking network between APP-CNC hybrid and WPC enabled the whole
materials possess both high load capacity and good deformation capacity synchronously. According to
the digital image correlation (DIC), the strain transferred uniformly from HDPE molecular to wood fibers
via the physical crosslinking network based on hydrogen bonding, and hence an increased high
deformation region occurred and distributed uniformly in WPC/APP-CNC. Compared with neat WPC, a
42.69 % increase in tensile strength and a 75.9 % increase in Young’ modulus of WPC/APP-9wt%CNC
were obtained. During pyrolysis, CNC promoted hybrid to pyrolyze ahead (T5% of 298 °C) and provided a
carbon skeleton for char forming. Meanwhile, physical crosslinking network further caused a more
compact char residue with a higher graphitization during combustion of WPC. With an incorporation of 20
wt% APP-9wt%CNC hybrid, WPC had a significant decrease in average heat release and total heat
release of 62.6 %, and 23.8 % respectively, compared with neat WPC. This work indicated that
polyelectrolyte hybrid had a potential application prospect in preparation of high-performance, high-
function and high-value-added WPC.

Biography

585
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Dynamic behavior of phenol-formaldehyde modified wood under cyclic

loading

Jaka Gašper Pečnik1

[email protected]
Andreja Kutnar1
[email protected]
Holger Militz2
[email protected]
Matthew Schwarzkopf1
[email protected]
Hannes Schwager2
[email protected]

1Innorenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia

2University of Göttingen, Germany

Abstract
Chemical modification of wood can increase the potential number of wood applications through improved
performance, reduction of maintenance, and better durability. In this study, Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) were modified with a low molecular weight phenol
formaldehyde (PF) resin. This study assessed the effect that this modification had on mechanical
properties including fatigue strength, cyclic creep, and cyclic modulus of elasticity. Quasi-static, three-
point bending tests were conducted on a universal testing machine after modifing the wood samples.
Reference and modified specimen groups (n=25 for each group) underwent cyclic fatigue testing
resembling previously completed static testing. Our measure for fatigue strength was determined as
complete value of 106 pulsative loading repetitions using 10 Hz sinusoidal waveform. The upper stress
limit was calculated based on an estimated value designated for individual specimens correlated from
modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture obtained under qausi-static test, while the lower stress level
limit was close to 0. The PF modified wood showed brittle material characteristics that were further
correlated to a reduction in fatigue strength and change in cyclic creep behavior. Modification using PF
increased the ratio of elastic-to-plastic deformation, which is the result of less pliable and more rigid
matrix created from crosslinking PF resin and cell wall. Modification of both wood species decreased their
fatigue strength. On the other hand, cyclic creep was found to be lower than for the reference groups. A
decisive observation was found for a reduction in cyclic modulus that was negligible compared to the
reference groups. This presentation will discuss the effect of modification on cyclic creep behavior and
observations from cyclic modulus of elasticity that were found to have different behavior compared to
normal untreated wood. Observed from static test, the ratio between total and plastic deformation was
found to be significantly different from unmodified groups, which could be correlated to the dynamic
behavior of the material. Modified wood did not show any signs of identified failure during the test, as the
cyclic hysteresis loops typically did not show any reduction in stress-strain loading diagrams. Therefore,
these findings are important for understanding of dynamic behavior of PF modified wood under cyclic
loading in order to be used in high-demanding environments.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The way of using logging waste in wood-based panels production

Olena Pinchevska
[email protected]
Olha Baranova
[email protected]
Yuriy Lakyda
[email protected]

National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine

Abstract
Every year in Ukraine, the issue of efficient and complete utilization of timber, including forest harvesting
residues, is becoming increasingly acute. In 2018 alone, the amount of harvesting residues amounted to
about 9 million m3, mainly accumulated in logging areas (tree tops, branches, decayed parts of trees, etc.)
and subsequently incinerated. Among the harvesting residues, a considerable part is occupied by
branches that are not used in the manufacture of wood-based panels and fuel briquettes due to its high
bark content. It is suggested to use branches of poplar wood ( Populus ) for production of wood-
composite material. For this purpose, the wood component is not crushed as in the manufacture of known
wood-composition material - chipboard, OSB, and are flattened.

Biogrphy

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Utilization of Juniper residues for strandboard manufacturing

Tomas Pipiska
[email protected]
Scott Leavengood
[email protected]
Fred Kamke
[email protected]

Oregon State University, USA

Abstract
Western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) acreage in the Great Basin of the western United States has
increased dramatically in the past century. In Oregon alone, western juniper woodlands have expanded
from approximately 607,000 hectares (1.5 million acres) in 1930 to about 2.6 million hectares (6.5 million
acres) today.
Juniper heartwood is resistant to fungi and insects and used for a variety of applications such as raised-
bed gardens, gazebos, and decking as well as for interior uses like tables and cabinets. Juniper sawmills
in Oregon, produce approximately 6,000 m3 (2000-2500 MBF) of lumber each year. Lumber production
results in generation of residues like slabs, edgings, and trim ends. These residues are usually sold as
firewood or burned by the sawmills.
The main purpose of this study is to explore utilization of juniper residues for value-added products. Slabs
and edgings from the production of lumber usually contain bark. The first part of the research was
focused on production of strands from slabs and edgings and the reduction of the bark on the strands
during the manufacturing process. After that, we were focused on strandboard manufacturing from juniper
strands and comparison of the physical and mechanical properties with other typical species for
strandboard manufacturing.
Production of the strands with the comparable processes like in OSB mills showed the possibility of the
manufacturing and reduction of the bark on the strands. The physical and mechanical properties of the
juniper strandboards are comparable with other wood species.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Surface Modification of Bamboo Fibers for Reinforcing Cement-based

Composites

Yang Ban
[email protected]
Wendi Liu
[email protected]
Renhui Qiu
[email protected]

Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China

Abstract
The incorporation of fibers into cement-based materials can improve the toughness and reduce the
shrinkage cracks of the materials. Bamboo fiber (BF) has good physical-mechanical properties such as
high specific tensile strength and modulus. The replacement of traditional fibers with bamboo fibers in
cement-based composites is of great significance in promoting green construction materials and
sustainable development. However, bamboo fibers are hydrophilic and easily degraded by
microorganisms. Surface modification of bamboo fiber would enhance interfacial adhesion between
bamboo fiber and cement, and thus improve durability of bamboo fiber-reinforced cement composites.
In this work, two coupling agents, i.e., γ-glycidyl ether oxypropyl trimethoxysilane (KH560) and
isocyanatepropyltriethoxysilane (IPTS) were used to modify BFs, and then the modified fibers were
used as reinforcements in cement-based composites. The resulting fiber-reinforced cement-based
composites were evaluated in terms of flexural and compressive strength tests, cube compressive
strength test, tensile strength tests, capillary water absorption test, chloride ion erosion test, dry
shrinkage test, and freeze-thaw cycle test. The results showed that the modified BFs improved the
flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and tensile strength of the composites compared to the
control composites using untreated BFs. The modified BF/cement composites had better aging
resistance than the control. The modification of BFs with IPTS and KH560 decreased the degree of
plastic shrinkage cracking and delayed the time of plastic shrinkage of the composites. Also, the
modified BFs composites presented good anti-shrinkage capacity, impermeability and frost-resistance.
FTIR, XPS and NMR analyses confirmed that the two silanes were bonded onto the fibers, which
greatly improved the interfacial adhesion between BFs and cement.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Mapping of moisture on wood surface with hyperspectral imaging

Jakub Sandak1
[email protected]
René Herrera Díaz2
[email protected]
Daniel Chuchala3
[email protected]
Faksawat Poohphajai4
[email protected]
Veerapandian Ponnuchamy4
[email protected]
Nezka Sajincic4
[email protected]
Piotr Taube5
[email protected]
Kazimierz Orlowski3
[email protected]
Anna Sandak1
[email protected]

1InnoRenew CoE & University of Primorska, Slovenia

2University
of the Basque Country, Spain
3Gdańsk University of Technolog, Poland
4InnoRenew CoE
5SYLVA Sp. z o.o., Poland

Abstract
The water and wood relations influence greatly the technological processes of timber transformation
as well as the performance of diverse products derived from wood. It is extremely important therefore
to control moisture content at all stages of its use in order to assure optimal, functional and long-life
service. There are several direct and indirect technical solutions enabling non-destructive assessment
of the water present in wood, including electrical resistance, capacitance, microwave, attenuation or
polarization of diverse electromagnetic radiations or variety of spectroscopic solutions, among the
others. Especially use of the near-infrared spectroscopy was recently identified as highly suitable
technique, combining ease of use, high sensitivity, and superior accuracy. Even if this technique
enables rapid estimation of the wood moisture content (together with several other properties, such
as density, chemical composition, mechanical strength or even cellulose crystallinity or extractives
content), most of the available instruments are limited to off-line applications and measurement of a
single point at each scan. As an alternative, the latest developments of hyperspectral imaging enable
scanning of object surface with very high speed (up to several hundred spectral profiles per second)
still assuring superior spatial and spectral resolution. The goal of this work was to compare the
performance of three state-of-the-art hyperspectral imaging systems, covering different spectral
bands. All cameras were produced by SPECIM (Oulu, Finland) and included FX10 (400-1000nm), FX17
(900-1700nm) and SWIR (1000-2500nm). Three sets of wood samples representing softwood
(Norway spruce, Picea abies), ring-porous species (ash, Fraxinus sp.) and disuse-porous hardwood

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(beech, Fagus sylvatica) were conditioned in climatic chambers to predefined equilibrium moisture
content. The relative humidity was varying from 0 to 100% RH by controlling the partial pressure of
the vapor over a selection of salt solutions. Conditioned wood samples were scanned simultaneously
by three investigated cameras and resulting hyperspectral images were used for the development of
chemometric models. Breeze software package (Predictera, Umea, Sweden) was implemented for
image pre-processing (background correction with Principle Components Analysis) and moisture
content prediction (Partial Least Square algorithm). The performance of all cameras was satisfactory
and the moisture content root mean squared error of prediction varied from less than 1 to 4%. A
unique advantage of hyperspectral imaging system was a possibility for mapping of the moisture
distribution over the surface of scanned samples. All tested cameras are suitable for practical
application in the wood industry, including on-line wood quality control.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the European Commission for funding the InnoRenew project
[Grant Agreement # 739574] under the Horizon 2020 Widespread-Teaming program and the Republic
of Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European Regional Development
Fund).

Part of this work was conducted during project Multi-spec (BI-IT/18-20-007) funded by ARRS.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ivo Valchev1 – Viktor Savov2* – Yvailo Yordanov1

1University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 8 Kl. Ohridski blvd., 1756
Sofia, Bulgaria,
[email protected]
2University of Forestry, 10 Kl. Ohridski blvd., 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria,
Corresponding author
[email protected]

Production of dry-processed fibreboards is dominant and account more than 80% of the total
production of this type of wood-based panels. A major challenge for the development of the
technology for the production of dry-processed fibreboards is the reduction of formaldehyde
emissions from the panels. This can be achieved by the reduction of the content of synthetic binders
based on formaldehyde.
This report presents a study on the possibility of partial substitution of phenol-formaldehyde resin
by technical, hydrolysis, lignin in the adhesive system for dry-processed fibreboards. Technical
lignin is a residual product after diluted acid hydrolysis of wood to sugars and as such its cost is
low. The investigations was carried out in laboratory conditions as total content of adhesives was
10% to absolutely dry fibers. The content of phenol-formaldehyde resin varied from 10 to 2% and
respectively the content of hydrolysis lignin was from 0 to 8%. The substitution of phenol
formaldehyde resin with hydrolysis lignin was by step of 2%.
It is obtained that the addition of hydrolysis lignin more than 6%, leads to considerable difficulties
in its homogeneous distribution in the fibreboards. This necessitates a decrease in the concentration
of the lignin-phenol formaldehyde suspension. On the basis of the experimental studies, an analysis
was made on the variation of the physical and mechanical properties of the fibreboards and on the
minimum possible content of phenol-formaldehyde resin in adhesive system. The all produced
dry-processed fibreboards meet the requirements of the relevant EN standards.
Key words: dry-processed fibreboards, phenol-formaldehyde resin, technical hydrolysis lignin

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The growing requirements to limitation of formaldehyde emissions from wood-based panels, in

particular from dry-processed fibreboards, necessitate looking for solutions with full or partial
substitution of binders now used with natural ones. Formaldehyde emissions from dry-processed
fibreboards depend on a great number of factors (Corenberg, C. and Bertolloti, G. 2019), such as
tree species, refining conditions, conditions of exploitation, boards age, etc. A main factor,
however, remain the type and content of binder in wood (Carvalho, L. et al. 2012). Lignins play
the role of natural binder in wood (Lu YC. et al. 2020). In recent years, a number of investigations
on the possibility for use of lignin as binder in production of fibreboards were conducted (Mancera
C. 2011; Nordström., E. et al. 2018, Ghaffar SH. and Fan, M. 2014). These investigations are
mainly focused on production of boards with addition of residual lignin from enzymatic
hydrolysis of biomass to sugars for bioethanol production, with such production being yet to enter
the practice. A main shortcoming of technical lignin, to which the enzyme lignin belongs, is its
water insolubility. This leads to inhomogeneous lignin distribution in boards and to prolongation
of the press factor (Zhouh, X. et al. 2011, Tupciauskas, R. et al. 2017).
For our country, of interest is the use of industrial technical lignin that is a waste product from acid
hydrolysis of wood to sugars. In old production landfills of hydrolysis factories in Bulgaria,
significant amounts of this lignin that is also very low-priced are available (Petrin, S. et al. 2013).
Our previous investigations show that, when introducing the hydrolysis dry lignin into wood-fibre
pulp, the lignin becomes poorly active and performs more the role of a filler (Yotov et al. 2017 a).
Better results are achieved when introducing the hydrolysis lignin in the form of suspension (Yotov
et al. 2017 b). Similar regularities are also observed in other investigations, with the homogeneity
of the fibres and lignin mixture seeming to be a problem, which should be investigated
(Tupciauskas, R. et al. 2017). Other researchers successfully substitute phenol with technical lignin
in phenol-formaldehyde resins that are used in production of wood-based panels (Cavadar A.D. et
al 2008; Xiaodi, J. and Guo, M. 2018; Panga B. et al 2017). It has been established that these
resins give better strength and mainly water-resistant indicators to the boards (Kumar, R. N. and
Pizzi, A. 2019).
The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of substitution of phenol-formaldehyde resin
by industrial technical hydrolysis lignin and to analyze the effect of concentration of the adhesive
system on the properties of dry-processed fibreboards.

In order to be investigated the possibility of partial replacement of the phenol-formaldehyde resin

with hydrolysis lignin was used the experimental plan presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Experimental plan

Series № Phenol-formaldehyde resin content P, % Technical hydrolysis lignin content L, %
1. 10 0
2. 8 2
3. 6 4
4. 4 5
5. 2 8

It was used industrial wood-fiber pulp, produced by the Asplund thermo-mechanical refining
method. The pulp was provided by “Welde Bulgaria”. The pulp was composed of 60% beech
(Fagus Silvatica L.), 20% Turkish oak (Quercus Cerris L.) and 20% poplar (Populos alba L.). The

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

moisture content of pulp was 11%. Phenol-formaldehyde resin manufactured by “Dynea –

Romania” was used.
Technical hydrolysis lignin from the hydrolysis plant, which is not operated at present, was used
in this investigation. The industrial technology process was based on the high temperature diluted
sulphuric acid hydrolysis of sawdust and softwood and hardwood chips to sugars, which were
further subjected to yeast fodder production. There are still about 200,000 tons of lignin in an
industrial landfill.
Chemical analyses of technical hydrolysis lignin were determined according to the follow
methods: cellulose (Kürschner, K. and Hoffer, A. 1929); lignin (TAPPI standard T 222 om-11),
ash (TAPPI standard T 211 om-12) and Elemental Analyzer Euro EA 3000 is used for analysis of
C, N, S and H.
Respectively, the panels from the first to the fourth series were produced by introducing phenol
formaldehyde resin and lignin at a concentration of 30%. Due to the impossibility to import lignin,
at a content above 6%, at this concentration, the last series of panels was produced at an import
concentration of 10%. The blending of the pulp with the phenol-formaldehyde resin and the
hydrolysis lignin was performed on a short retention blender at 850 rpm with needle shaped
paddles. The spraying of the binders was for 50 s, followed by retention in the blender for 300 s.
For the hot-pressing was used laboratory press type PMS ST 100, Italy. The target density of the
panels was 850 at 6 mm thickness of fibreboards. The press factor was 90 s.mm -1 and the
temperature of hot-pressing was 200° C.
The regime of hot-pressing was as follow: 1-st stage – duration of 80 s at specific pressure of 4
MPa; 2-nd stage – duration of 80 s at specific pressure of 1.2 MPa; 3-rd stage – duration of 300 s at
specific pressure of 0.8 MPa; and 4-th stage – duration of 80 s at specific pressure of 1.5
MPa. Closing of the press was for 10 s and opening time was 30 s.
The physical and mechanical properties of the panels were determined by testing of 8 test pieces
by the methodology determined by the relevant EN standards (EN 310; EN 317; EN 319; EN
323). To be determined the mechanical properties of the panels was used Zwick/Roell Z010
universal testing machine.

Results and Discussion

Results of chemical analysis of the used technical hydrolysis lignin, presented in Table 2, show the
presence of 25% of residual cellulose, which is characteristic of hydrolysis lignin produced after
enzymatic or acid hydrolysis. This distinguishes them from the group of kraft, soda and
organosolv technical lignin in which the carbohydrates content is minimal. The higher residual
content of cellulose may exercise positive influence on the bonding of fibres in fibreboards
production.

Table 2: Characteristics of the technical hydrolysis lignin from the diluted sulphuric acid
hydrolysis plant
Ash content,
Lignin, % Cellulose, % C, % S, % H, % N, %
%
72.6 25.5 2.8 55.54 0.74 7.10 0.26

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

The relatively low ash content and sulphur content also may be taken as an advantage of the used
industrial hydrolysis lignin.
Upon production of fibreboards with participation of hydrolysis lignin, a main difficulty manifests
itself in the introduction of lignin into the wood-fibre pulp. Although a hydrolysis lignin fraction
with a size of 215-100 μm has been used, and the introduction into the pulp has been performed
through a nozzle with a diameter of 1.5 mm, as a result of the rapid sorption of the water by the
lignin and, respectively, its swelling, at introduction concentration of 30% and lignin content of
more than 6%, its injection through a nozzle is impossible. This problem is solved with reduction
of the suspension concentration to 10%. This also becomes possible due to the relatively high hot
pressing factor of 90 s.mm-1.
Results of determined density of dry processed fibreboards with various phenol formaldehyde resin
and hydrolysis lignin content are presented in Table 3. As a whole, the density of the boards
produced is relatively equal, very close to the set one, with deviation within the statistical error.
The boards produced with 8% phenol-formaldehyde resin and 2% hydrolysis lignin makes an
exception. As already mentioned, due to the impossibility for introduction of the significant
amount of hydrolysis lignin at suspension concentration of 30%, in the case of these boards, the
hydrolysis lignin and the phenol-formaldehyde resin have been introduced at concentration of
10%. This determines the density higher by 3.9% of the boards produced under these conditions
in comparison with the set one.

Table 3: Density of dry-processed fibreboards at various content of phenol-formaldehyde resin

and hydrolysis lignin
Series Content of phenol formaldehyde Content of hydrolysis Density ρ,
№ resin P, % lignin L, % kg.m-3
1 10 0 858±7.72
2 8 2 851±9.36
3 6 4 848±9.80
4 4 6 847±10.73
5 2 8 883±11.63

Results presented in Figure 1 show that water absorption of boards produced deteriorates with
increase of the substitution of phenol formaldehyde resin with hydrolysis lignin, with this change
in series 4 being by 67%. Of interest is series 5 characterized by 8% hydrolysis lignin and only
2% phenol-formaldehyde resin, but at suspension concentration of 10%. In this case of these
boards, water absorption is relatively improved, being by 28% only higher than the basic value.
Explanation here may be sought in the more uniform distribution of the lignin introduced with
lower concentration, as well as with the improved plasticization and, subsequently, lignin
activation under the conditions of hot pressing, due to the increased water content of the press
material and of the lignin itself. The lignin activation and the increased number of bonds with the
fibrous elements may also explain the observed higher density of the boards produced.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

80
70

Water absorption А, %
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Series 10;0 Series 8;2 Series 6;4 Series 4;6 Series 2;8

Content of phenol-formaldehyde and hydrolysis lignin, %

Figure 1. Water absorption of dry-processed fibreboards at various content of phenol-formaldehyde resin and
hydrolysis lignin

Similar regularity is also observed with respect to the swelling in thickness of the boards (Fig. 2).
Maximum deterioration of 56% is observed in the case of series 4, whereas, again in the case of the
boards of series 5, characterized by 2% phenol-formaldehyde resin and 8% hydrolysis lignin,
introduced at concentration of 10%, relative improvement of this property is observed.

30
Swelling in thickness Gt, %

25

20

15

10

0
Series 10;0 Series 8;2 Series 6;4 Series 4;6 Series 8;2

Content of phenol-formaldehyde and hydrolisis lignin, %

Figure 2. Swelling in thickness of dry-processed fibreboards at various content of phenol-formaldehyde resin and
hydrolysis lignin

It must be noted that all produced boards meet the requirements with respect to this indicator of
EN 622-5 for use in dry environment (swelling in thickness below 30%). The boards with

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

hydrolysis lignin content of up to 2% and phenol-formaldehyde resin content not less than 8%
meet the requirement for use in dry environment (swelling in thickness below 18%).
The bending strength of dry-processed fibreboards at various phenol-formaldehyde resin and
hydrolysis lignin content is presented in Fig. 3. It has been established that this property decreases
with increase of technical hydrolysis lignin content, with maximum deterioration of 31% being
observed in the case of series 4.

50
Bending strength fm, N.mm-2

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Series 10;0 Series 8;2 Series 6;4 Series 4;6 Series 2;8

Content of phenol-formaldehyde and hydrolisis lignin, %

Figure 3. Bending strength of dry-processed fibreboards at various content of phenol-formaldehyde resin and
hydrolysis lignin

Of interest again are the boards with 2% phenol-formaldehyde resin and 8% hydrolysis lignin,
introduced into the wood-fibre mass at concentration of 10%. In the case of this series, values of
bending strength similar to those in the case of boards produced with phenol-formaldehyde resin
only are recorded. This again confirms that, as a result of the more homogeneous distribution and
increased water content, lignin activation and better bonding with the fibres are observed.
It must be noted that the boards of all series meet the requirements of EN 622-5 for bending
strength for general-purpose boards for use in dry and in humid environment (bending strength
above 30 N.mm-2). Except for the boards with 6% and 4% of phenol-formaldehyde resin content,
all remaining boards meet the most rigorous requirements with respect to bending strength, viz.
for bearing structures and use in humid environment (above 34 N.mm-2).
The modulus of elasticity of dry-processed fibreboards with various participation of phenol-
formaldehyde resin and hydrolysis lignin is presented in Fig. 4. Low decrease of this indicator in
case of introduction of lignin into the series with 30% suspension concentration is observed.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

4500

Modulus of elasticity Еm N.mm-2

4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Series 10;0 Series 8;2 Series 6;4 Series 4;6 Series 2;8

Content of phenol-formaldehyde and hydrolisis lignin, %

Figure 4. Modulus of elasticity of dry-processed fibreboards at various content of phenol-formaldehyde resin and
hydrolysis lignin

The improvement in the value of the modulus of elasticity in series 5, in the case of which the
suspension concentration is 10%, the hydrolysis lignin content is 8% and the phenol-formaldehyde
resin content is 2%, is clearly expressed. These boards have higher modulus of elasticity even in
comparison with those of series 1 with 10% phenol-formaldehyde resin. The explanation may be
again sought with the lignin activation and the higher flexibility (elasticity) that the lignin bonds
give in comparison with those produced with synthetic resins. It is because of the increased
elasticity due to the lignin bonds that wet-processed fibreboards, almost without participation of
binders, have considerably bigger modulus of elasticity than dry process ones (with considerable
participation of synthetic binders). Except for the board produced with 6% of phenol-
formaldehyde resin and 4% of hydrolysis lignin, all remaining boards meet the most rigorous
requirements to modulus of elasticity (above 3,000 N.mm-2) – for bearing structures and use in
humid environment (EN 622-5).
Results for internal bond (IB) strength of dry-processed fibreboards with various participation of
phenol-formaldehyde resin and hydrolysis lignin, presented in Fig. 5, show low decrease with
increase of the introduced lignin amount.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

1.00

Internal bond strength ft, N.mm-2

0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Series 10;0 Series 8;2 Series 6;4 Series 4;6 Series 2;8

Content of phenol-formaldehyde and hydrolysys lignin, %

Figure 5. Internal bond strength of dry-processed fibreboards at various content of phenol-formaldehyde resin and
hydrolysis lignin

The trend noted in the case of the previous investigated indicators, viz. towards improvement of
the property values in the case of the boards produced at content of phenol-formaldehyde resin of
2% and content of hydrolysis lignin of 8%, introduced at concentration of 10%, is observed again.
The IB strength in the case of this series is lower than the basic series 1 by less than 5%. All boards
produced meet the most rigorous requirements to the indicator, 0.7 N.mm-2, for fibreboards for
bearing structures and use in humid environment.

Summary and Conclusions

The produced dry-processed fibreboards with adhesive system from phenol-formaldehyde resin
and hydrolysis lignin meet the requirements of the relevant EN standards.
A main difficulty in the dry-processed fibreboards production with participation of hydrolysis
lignin is the homogeneous introduction of lignin into the wood-fibre mass. Due to the rapid
sorption of the water by the lignin and, respectively, its swelling, at concentration of 30% and
lignin content of more than 6%, its injection through a nozzle is impossible. This problem is
solved with reduction of the suspension concentration to 10%. This also becomes possible due to
the relatively high hot pressing factor.
At concentration of phenol-formaldehyde resin and lignin of 30%, with increase of the substitution
of phenol-formaldehyde resin with hydrolysis lignin, deterioration in all properties of the boards
is observed, except for a relative improvement of elasticity of boards having been established in
case of a lignin content of more than 40% in the adhesive system.
The dilution of the adhesive suspension to 10%, allows, at 80% substitution of the resin with
lignin, to achieve properties higher than those obtained with use of phenol-formaldehyde resin
only. The positive result may be explained with the more homogeneous distribution of the
hydrolysis lignin, as well as with the lignin plasticization and activation as a result of the increased
moisture content in the press material and in the lignin itself. Prolongation of the press factor is
necessary in order to separate the gas-vapour mixtures from the press material.

Acknowledgements

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

This research was supported by the project № КП-06-КОСТ/1 “Study of the potential of lignin
raw materials in Bulgaria and development of technologies for their modification and effective
application in industry” funded by Bulgarian National Science Fund.

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Methods and Industrial Perspectives. 2012, p. 44. researchgate.net/publication/236273710.
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manufactured using kraft lignin phenolic resin. Journal of materials processing technology 202,
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strength.
EN 317:1998 Particleboards and fibreboards - Determination of swelling in thickness after immersion in
water.
EN 319:2002 Particleboards and fibreboards - Determination of tensile strength perpendicular to the
plane of the board
EN 323:2001 Wood-based panels - Determination of density.

EN 622-5:2010 Fibreboards - Specifications - Part 5: Requirements for dry process boards.

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Adhesives;48, 2014, pp. 92–101.
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utilization of technical, hydrolysis, lignin, in composition of medium density fiberboard.
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Zouh, X., Tan, L., Zhang, W., Chenlong, Lv., Zheng, F., Zhang, R., Du, G., Tang., B., Liu, Xu
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Biography

601
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Life cycle assessment of the new InnoRenew CoE research building – hot
spots and the effects of methodological differences on the results for a
wooden frame building

Erwin M. Schau1
[email protected]
Eva Prelovšek Niemelä1
[email protected]
Urban Kavka2
[email protected]
Andreja Kutnar2
[email protected]

1InnoRenew CoE, Slovenia

2InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia

Abstract
The construction industry accounts for around 15 % of all greenhouse gas emissions. During their use
phase, buildings use 40 % of the total energy consumption, which contributes significantly to air pollution
and other environmental impacts. Energy consumption during the use phase is predicted to decrease as
efficient buildings, like zero and near zero energy buildings, become more common. However, climate
change and other environmental problems from the production or raw materials, construction and end of
life remain serious concerns that need to be solved urgently.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) and the EU-recommended Environmental Footprint (EF) are well known and
accepted tools to measure a comprehensive set of environmental impacts throughout a product’s life
cycle. In this contribution, we assess the InnoRenew CoE building being constructed in Izola, Slovenia.
This is the largest wooden frame building in the republic and will host offices and laboratories for 50+
researchers on a total area of 8200 m2. We show the environmental hot spots and how different
methodological choices in the LCA modelling and life cycle impact assessment phase influence the
results. We also show how the results could be used to develop a reference model for other non-
residential buildings suitable for architects and designers to improve the life cycle environmental impacts
of wooden buildings.
Keywords: Life cycle assessment (LCA), non-residential buildings, wood frame, Product Environmental
Footprint (PEF)
Acknowledgement The author(s) gratefully acknowledge(s) the European Commission for funding
InnoRenew CoE (grant agreement #739574) under the H2020 Widespread-Teaming programme and
Republic of Slovenia (investment funding of the Republic of Slovenia and the European Union’s European
Regional Development Fund).

Biography

602
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Adhesives Based on Lignin, Tannin and Liquefied Wood

Milan Sernek
[email protected]
Jaša Saražin
[email protected]

University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Slovenia

Abstract
Wood industry is significant consumer of adhesives. The largest amount of adhesives is consumed in
wood based-composites, where mainly aminoplastic adhesives (urea- and melamine- formaldehyde),
phenolic adhesives (phenol- and resorcinol- formaldehyde) or isocyanate adhesives are used. Majority
of these wood adhesives are on formaldehyde basis, which makes them harmful to health and
environment. Nowadays, there are many efforts placed on development of new bio-based adhesives,
which could at least partially substitute the formaldehyde adhesives. The proposed solutions of this
paper are focused on different adhesive formulations based on lignin, tannin and liquefied wood. Main
disadvantage of these adhesives are lower strength and durability properties and higher consumption
of energy for curing.

Biography

603
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Structural joints of furniture made of cardboard and plywood

Lukáš Fictum
[email protected]
Alena Sobotkova
[email protected]
Milan Šimek
[email protected]

Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
The article describes and explains current trends in cardboard and plywood furniture that is produced
by a combination of laser technology and a plotter. The main material is a cardboard sheet made of
recyclable raw materials. The aim is to re-utilize raw materials that end up in waste and have no
further use today, once they serve as packaging material. Cardboard boards are sandwiches that have
sufficient strength and rigidity if properly oriented on the product and for specific applications, such as
starting furniture for young families or new businesses, they can save both raw materials and costs.

Our project deals with the development of the technology for processing furniture made on the basis
of corrugated and coated cardboard and plywood. It is expected that the furniture will be primarily
intended for final assembly by the customer, based on the Ready-to-Assemble (RTA) principle.

This is an experimental project using cardboard as the main construction material. Cardboard furniture
as a theme that recurs repeatedly with the requirements for recyclability of consumer furniture has
been elaborated by students, designers and architects many times during the last half century
(Alvarado, Davies, Jacobs, Gehry, Guiomar). However, cutting cardboard furniture always entails
considerable wear of the cutting tools, which is further increased if the panels are composed of
multiple layers of cardboard or paperboard glued to each other.

Testing of material behavior and experimenting with shape possibilities will result in design and
prototype of chair intended for interior, working chair. The prototype will be subsequently tested in the
furniture testing room according to the european standards.

In order to lighten and strengthen the whole structure, the structure will be conceived as combined
with the supporting part of the structure consisting of plywood, seat part and decorative backrest of
cut, engraved cardboard. The following structural joints are considered to be used in project:
insertion, bending, grooving, eventually tenon and mortise or dowel. For the production of furniture
samples and joint testing a new combined universal CNC machine will be used (laser, plotter).

Keywords: cardboard furniture, laser cutting, plotter

ASHBY, M. F. Materials and the environment: eco-informed material choice. 2nd ed. Boston:
Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann, c2013. ISBN 9780123859716

BARBERO, S. - COZZO, B. Ecodesign. Potsdam: Tandem, 2012. 349 s. ISBN 978-3-8331-6308-1.

JIVKOV, Vassil; STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF NEW LIGHTWEIGHT PANELS FOR FURNITURE AND
INTERIORS, Conference: 23rd International Scientific Conference on Wood is Good - with Knowledge
and Technology to a Competitive Forestry and Wood Technology Sector Location: Zagreb, CROATIA
Date: OCT 12, 201, ISBN: 978-953-292-026-0

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

HOLMAN, Will. Guerilla furniture design: how to build lean, modern furniture with salvaged materials.
North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-1612123035.

ŠIMEK, M. -- KOŘENÝ, A. -- SEBERA, V. -- TIPPNER, J. -- DLAUHÝ, Z. Development of Ready-to-

Assemble Furniture Constructions. In BARNES, H M. -- HERIAN, V L. 57th SWST International
convention. 7th Wood structure and properties conference. 6th European hardwood conference. 1.
vyd. Monona: Society of Wood Science and Technology, 2014, s. 837--846. ISBN 978-0-9817876-4-0.

Biography

605
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Paper and plastic waste composite boards for furniture

Alena Sobotkova
[email protected]
Milan Šimek
[email protected]
Lukáš Fictum
[email protected]

Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
This article focuses on the use of wastepaper and plastic material which is used for creating composite
material – paper-plastic boards. The idea of using cardboard as a material for furniture is valuable
because of its sustainability. There is a lot of wastepaper which would no longer have other use. There
are companies which are using cardboard for 100 % sustainable furniture. The paper which is used is
packaging material or other cardboard taken from recycling companies. Second material which works as
a binder for paper boards is re-used plastic material from a company production. Different types of
postfactory a postconsumer plastic is used for creating the boards.
The goal of this project is to create boards which are made with high temperature and pressed by single
opening hydraulic press. After the pressing the boards are climatized and their physical and mechanical
properties are tested and compared with industrially manufactured boards and with another composite
boards made from waste material. The testing is done according to the European standards. The most
important tests for the use as furniture parts are bending strength and modulus of elasticity, internal bond,
screw withdrawal resistance, swelling in thickness and water absorption.
After the testing and comparison with other materials, the results are used for design of furniture which is
used in interior. Mostly the material can be used as a desk for table or storage furniture.

Biography

606
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Attracting children to wood science and renewable material professions

Vesna Starman1
[email protected]
Črt Tavzes1
[email protected]
Eva Prelovšek Niemelä1
[email protected]
Marica Mikuljan1
[email protected]
Jaka Gašper Pečnik1
[email protected]
Nastja Podrekar2
[email protected]

1InnoRenew CoE, Slovenia

2InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska, Slovenia

Abstract
A decreasing trend of interest for wood science professions has been observed in the field. Early
engagement with the field may help develop interest later in life, when young people are choosing career
paths. Therefore, we are performing workshops for elementary school students to introduce the field at an
early age. In 2019, we performed several different workshops where children from elementary schools
were able to experiment with wood and other natural materials. Wood was presented to them from
microscopic to macroscopic levels. They learned about different wood species and engineered wood
products and their properties. Furthermore, children were able to experiment with their hands. In order to
present to them which professions can be directly and indirectly connected to wood, they met
kinesiologists, architects, wood engineers, chemists, and biologists that are working as researchers at the
InnoRenew CoE, a renewable materials research centre in Slovenia.
In this presentation, the main lessons learned will be presented along with further needs in early
education that will lead to attracting new generations of workers, researchers, and enthusiasts to the
sector.

Biography

607
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Effect of Moderate Thermal Treatment on Properties of Resonance

Spruce for Piano Soundboard

Jan Tippner
Jakub Dömény
Petr Zatloukal
Pavlina Suchomelova

Department of Wood Science and Technology

Faculuty of Forestry and Wood Technology
Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
Thermal modifications of wood could provide perspective way to reduce negative effect of moisture on
musical instruments. Resonance spruce (Picea abies L. Karst) used for soundboards is characterized
by high sound velocity in longitudinal direction, low internal friction and high specific dynamic modulus
of elasticity. The moderate thermal treatment with steam protection can maintain original acoustic
properties with significant influence on equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and dimension stability. To
test the effect of thermal treatment the 3 groups of specimens (44mm × 450mm × 12mm) of
resonance wood selected from piano soundboards manufacturing have been prepared (un-treated,
180°C, 200°C) and conditioned in 20°C and relative humidity steps of 40%, 60% and 80%. The
relative weight loss 4.7% and 7% was achieved by modifications at 180°C and 200°C respectively.
EMC, longitudinal and bending dynamic modulus of elasticity, logaritmic decrement of damping and
acoustic conversion efficiency (ACE) were evaluated in every step of conditioning. The decreasing of
EMC by both thermal treatment is significant, the specimen modified at 180°C showed about 36%
lower EMC at 60% relative humidity, the treatment by 200°C brought about 42% decreasing of EMC.
Both treatments significantly affected EMC but the effect on acoustic properties was not statistically
significant, however, the changes for 200°C treated group were more perceptible. Acoustic properties
were compared at every step of conditioning too. Dynamic moduli and ACE decreased with higher EMC
and the damping increased for control group and both modified groups.

Biography

608
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Effect of cutting parameters on dust emission and surface roughness

during helical planing sucupira wood

Roger Hernández1
[email protected]
Bruno Ugulino2
[email protected]
José Tarcisio Lima3
[email protected]

1Laval University, Canada

2 FPInnovations, Canada
3 Universidade Federal de Lavras, Brazil

Abstract
Dust produced during the usual operations of wood machining may not be totally captured by the devices
integrated to machinery, and be dispersed in the workshops. Thus, the decrease of dust emissions during
wood machining is of great interest. The machining parameters can influence the chip thickness and
resulting dust emission and surface quality of wood. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect
of cutting parameters on the airborne dust emission (0.1 to 15 µm) and surface roughness produced by
helical planing sucupira wood (Diplotropis sp.). Four feed speeds that produced four average chip
thicknesses (0,10 mm to 0.22 mm) were studied at 8% and 12% moisture content (MC) of wood. The
results showed that dust emission decreased as chip thickness increased. Dust emission was higher at
12% MC than at 8% MC but for thicker chips (>0.14 mm). For thinner chips, dust emitted was similar for
the two studied moisture contents. Furthermore, higher values of chip thickness produced higher surface
roughness. The best planing condition was obtained when using 8% moisture content and 16 m/min feed
speed. This condition was the fastest feed speed allowable to obtain the best surface quality while
minimizing dust production

Biography

609
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Effects of Radial Growth Rate on Wood Quality Parameters of Superior

Teakwood from Muna Island, Indonesia

Imam Wahyudi
[email protected]
Alvin Muhamad Savero
[email protected]

IPB University, Indonesia

Abstract
Supply shortage of best quality teakwood as raw material for wooden furniture industry in Indonesia is a
major problem. Under this condition, several fast-growing Tectona grandisseedlings had been developed
and planted including the superior teak from Muna Island. Feasibility of using the superior Muna
teakwood for material production was studied. Samples of T. grandis were collected from one area of
man-made forest in Kampung Baru Region, Muna Sub-district, Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia.
Various wood qualities were measured and related to the radial growth rate. Radial growth rate did not
significantly affect the longitudinal released strain of the surface growth stresses, wood color, wood grain,
wood density, specific gravity, and dimensional stability. However, it affected wood figure and texture.
Higher radial growth rate tends to promote more distinct wood figure, higher density, smoother wood
texture, and lower absolute values of the released strain. Smaller diameter trees tend to produce longer
fiber length and higher portion of tension wood. In general, the superior Muna teakwood produced from
bigger and medium diameter trees are suitable as raw material for wooden furniture manufacturing.
Keywords: fiber length, growth stress, Tectona grandis, tension wood, wood density

Biography

610
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Impacts of Activation Methods on the Porous Structure of Biomass-Derived

Activated Carbons for Energy Storage

Changle Jiang
[email protected]
Nan Nan
[email protected]
Ed Sabolsky
[email protected]
Jingxin Wang
[email protected]

West Virginia University, USA

Abstract
The porous structures of activated carbons allow the transportation and storage of ions, therefore
activated carbons can be well applied for energy storage, such as, the electrodes of supercapacitors
and batteries. In this study, four activation methods, including two routs (direct and indirect) and two
activation reagents (carbon dioxide (CO2) and KOH), have been used to active the carbons to
investigate the forming mechanism of porous carbons from lignocellulosic biomass under different
activation conditions. The results show that the lignocellulosic biomass was converted into hierarchical
porous carbon materials with macro-, meso- and micro-pores. The activation process preserved the
natural porous structure of biomass and further developed the porosity. Moreover, the carbons in both
direct and indirect CO2 activations had a mixture of Type I and II isotherm, which refers to a dominant
microporous structure along with minor larger pores. The morphology reveals tortuous porous
structure preserved after activation. The specific surface area, total pore volume, and microporous
volume of the direct KOH activated samples were relatively higher than others. Additionally, the direct
carbonization samples showed higher yield than indirect carbonization.

Biography

611
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Modeling of Thermal Performance of Cellulose Insulation Imbedded with

Phase Change Material

Xun Wang
[email protected]
Sheldon Shi
[email protected]
Weihuan Zhao
[email protected]
Liping Cai
[email protected]

University of North Texas, USA

Abstract
Over the past decades, the phase change materials (PCM) have become one of the main topics of
energy efficiency enhancement due to its latent heat storage capability. Imbedding PCM into the
building walls has been an effective method to reduce the energy consumption and enhance the
feeling comfort in the building. In this paper, the idea of improving the thermal insulation performance
and energy efficiency of building applications with using PCM/cellulose composites has been
investigated. The PCM composites were prepared by filling and sealing the PCM into a veneer-
honeycomb sandwich structure with several different thicknesses and sizes of the honeycomb mid-
layer. By testing and comparing the thermal performances (heat flux) of PCM composite wall and
standard drywall at the same conditions, it can be concluded that the PCM composite can significantly
increase the wall thermal insulation performance and reduce the energy consumption effectively. An
effective R-value is developed for the PCM/cellulose composite insulation, which is comparable to the
R-value of the regular insulation materials. The thermal insulation performance model of PCM/cellulose
composites are generated by using the thermal insulation data form these tests.

Biography

612
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Segmentation of Knot Defects on Coniferous Lumber Surface

Using Deep Neural Network
Hwanmyeong YEO1*–Hyunbin KIM2–Hyunwoo CHUNG3–Sang-Yun YANG4 –
Yonggun PARK5– JongGyu CHOI6–Un Taek Hwang7

1 Professor, Department of Forest Sciences and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life
Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of
Korea
* Corresponding author
[email protected]
2 Ph.D. Student, Department of Forest Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul

National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

[email protected]
3 Ph.D. Student, Department of Forest Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul

National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

[email protected]
4 Senior Researcher, Department of Forest Sciences and Research Institute of Agriculture and

Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic
of Korea
[email protected]
5 Research Assist Professor, Department of Forest Sciences and Research Institute of Agriculture

and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul,
Republic of Korea
[email protected]
6 Undergraduate Student, Department of Forest Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life

Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

[email protected]
7 Undergraduate Student, Department of Forest Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life

Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

[email protected]

Abstract

For using wood practically, it is necessary to objectively and speedily detect and assess their
defects such as wood knots. Visual lumber grading or defect classification by human eye may
result in differences due to subjective decisions. Deep learning technology, which has recently
been increasingly used in computer vision for image analysis and pattern recognition due to its
high accuracy and speed, was studied to detect and segment surface knots of lumber in this
study. 938 wood images were obtained from larch, red pine, Korean pine, cedar, cypress, D- fir,
and radiata pine. 1172 Images of four kinds (Decayed, Encased, Sound, Spike) of knot were

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extracted from the wood images. With dataset on type and location of the knots, learning
algorithm was proceeded. The dataset was split into training and test sets for validation with the
ratio of 4:1. Mask R-CNN (Regions with Convolutional Neural Network) model was performed
using ResNet101 to learn knot segmentation based on Feature Pyramid Network. The Feature
Pyramid Network is a method for improving resolution to a compressed feature map by adding
a low-resolution feature map image and a high-resolution image using interaction of the top-
down pathway and bottom-up pathway. The reduction in computation speed due to resolution
correction was compensated by applying the residual network. Feature Pyramid Network, whose
strides were 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64, was used as a structure for image pre-processing. Region
Proposal Network, whose anchors were 32, 64, 128, 256 and 512, was applied to the technique
for detecting and partitioning knots. Mask R-CNN model used in this study shows high
performance in image segmentation of wood surface knots, even some wooden patterns were
detected as a knot. Overfitting occurred after 202nd epoch of learning, at that time, minimum
loss of the model was 0.35%. Also, even there was a large difference in the number of images by
knot types, the model does not show a drastic bias regardless of the difference in the number of
images. It is expected that the knots can be segmented with higher accuracy by further massive
training of various types.
Key words: Deep-learning, Convolutional Neural Network, Knot detection, Knot classification

Biography

614
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Classification of Heat Treatment Degree of Wood Components

Using Near-infrared Spectroscopy
Yonggun PARK1, Sang-Yun YANG2, Hyunbin KIM3, Hwanmyeong YEO4*

1
Research Assist Professor, Department of Forest Sciences and Research Institute
of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul
National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
[email protected]
2
Senior Researcher, Department of Forest Sciences and Research Institute of
Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul
National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
[email protected]
3
Ph.D. Student, Department of Forest Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life
Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
[email protected]
4
Professor, Department of Forest Sciences and Research Institute of Agriculture
and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National
University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
* Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

This study was carried out to classify heat treatment degree of wood components using near-
infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. NIR reflectance spectra were acquired from the larch wood (Larix
kaempferi) which was heat-treated at the various temperatures and time conditions (7
temperature conditions at 10°C intervals between 160 and 220°C and 12 temperature conditions
at 1-hour intervals between 1 and 12 hours). The changes in the NIR spectral shape of heat-
treated larch wood were found at 1216, 1580, 1785, 2134 nm wavelength bands, which
correlated with cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The acquired raw spectra were math-
preprocessed by 3-point moving average and standard normal variate (SNV) in sequence to
improve the accuracy of analysis by removing the noise of spectra. A hierarchical clustering
analysis (HCA) using preprocessed NIR spectra resulted in three distinct clusters (A: 220 °C 7–12
h, B: 220 °C 3–6 h and 210 °C 8–12 h, and C: the others). When the result of HCA was applied to
principal component analysis (PCA), A principal component score plot of the NIR spectra was well
grouped by the grouping result, and the first principle component (PC1) reflected the cluster
analysis grouping well. A partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was performed to
develop the discriminant regression model of the three heat treatment degrees. The
determination coefficient (R2) and root mean square error of validation (RMSEV) were over 0.9

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

and under 0.2, respectively. From the result of this study, NIR spectroscopy is considered to be a
good candidate to routinely measure the degree of heat treatment for wood components.

Key words: Heat treatment degree, Near-infrared spectroscopy, Principal component analysis,
Hierarchical clustering analysis

Biography

616
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Enhancing Particleboard Panels’ Performance Properties by

Nanocellulose and Boric Acid Reinforcement

Mert Yildirim1*– Zeki Candan1

1
Department of Forest Products Engineering, Faculty of Forestry,
Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 34473, Istanbul, Turkey
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract

The major goal of this study was to develop nanocellulose (NC) and boric acid (BA) reinforced
particleboard panels with enhanced physical and mechanical properties. Urea-formaldehyde
(UF) resin used to produce particleboard panels was reinforced with NC at loading level of 0%,
1%, 3%, BA at loading level of 0%, 1%, 3% and %5. To obtain physical properties density, thickness
swelling (TS), and water absorption (WA) tests were performed while modulus of rupture (MOR),
modulus of elasticity (MOE), and internal bonding strength (IB) tests were carried out to acquire
mechanical performance properties of the particleboard panels. The findings obtained in this
scientific study revealed that NC and BA reinforcement significantly affected the physical and
mechanical performance properties of the particleboard panels. It was determined that the
dimensional stability of the particleboard panels improved by all the NC and BA used in this study.
It was determined that using 1% NC and 5% BA in the particleboard panels had the best results
in the WA analysis. It was also determined that using 3% NC and 3% BA in the particleboard panels
had the best results in the MOR, MOE, and IB tests. It was concluded that the physical and
mechanical performance properties of the particleboard panels could be enhanced by using
proper NC and BC loading levels. In addition, NC and BA reinforcement technique could be used
to develop novel furniture components and interior design materials.

Keywords: Nanocellulose, Boric acid, Nanoscience, Nanotechnology, Particleboard, Performance

properties, Wood-based composite panels, Furniture components

Biography

617
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Development of Low Formaldehyde-Emitting Furniture

Components by Nanocellulose and Boric Acid Reinforcement
Mert Yildirim1* – Zeki Candan1 – Oktay Gonultas2

1
Department of Forest Products Engineering, Faculty of Forestry,
Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 34473, Istanbul, Turkey
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
[email protected]

2
Department of Forest Products Engineering, Faculty of Forestry,
Bursa Technical University, 16310, Bursa, Turkey
[email protected]

Abstract

Formaldehyde emission from wood-based composite panels such as plywood, particleboard,

medium-density fiberboard, oriented strandboard, laminated veneer lumber, etc. is of great
importance since it could affect human health. The major raw material of furniture production is
particleboard panel. It is also used for interior design and architectural applications. Developing
low formaldehyde-emitting particleboard panels as an environmentally friendly material by
nanotechnology application was objected in this work. Urea-formaldehyde adhesive used to
produce particleboard panels was reinforced with various loading levels of nanocellulose and
boric acid. Formaldehyde emission analysis was carried out according to EN ISO 9397-1997. The
findings showed that the formaldehyde emission of the urea-formaldehyde adhesive improved
by all the nanocellulose and boric acid used in this study. It is determined that boric acid has no
significant effect on free formaldehyde, while increasing the amount of nanocellulose slightly
decreases it. By using nanocellulose reinforcement, it is possible to produce low formaldehyde-
emitting particleboard panels so that environmentally friendly furniture could be manufactured.

Keywords: Nanocellulose, Boric acid, Formaldehyde emission, Wood-based composite

panels, Particleboard, Furniture components

Introduction

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Thanks to its unique properties, particleboard panel is one of the most important products of
furniture production. Particleboard panel is wood-based composite panels manufactured under
pressure and heat from particles of wood and/or other lignocellulosic material in particle form
with the addition of an adhesive. Particleboard panel is the most used wood-based composite
panels in furniture production and interior decoration. Other wood-based composite products
include medium-density fiberboard, plywood, oriented strandboard, laminated veneer lumber.

Urea-formaldehyde adhesive is the most common synthetic resin adhesive used in particleboard
panel because of its advantages, such as low cost, good adhesion, high curing rate, which make
it plays an effective role in the manufacturing of the wood-based composite panels (Dunky et al.
2002; Candan et al. 2015). Despite their advantages, there are also some disadvantages of UF
adhesive. Their strength against humidity is low particularly in high temperatures. Therefore,
wood-based composite panels that have been produced by urea-formaldehyde adhesive is
suitable for use in closed areas. Moreover, the biggest problem is exposure to formaldehyde
emission that is emitted from wood-based composite products (Gao et al. 2018).

The formaldehyde emissions of wood-based composite panels due to their formaldehyde-based

resin content are a disadvantage in many applications. Formaldehyde emissions are very
important issue to consider for particleboard panels that will be used in furniture and decoration.
Formaldehyde emissions are a toxic gas known to be carcinogenic by many health organizations
in the world (Candan et al. 2014; National Cancer Institute 2012; Roffael 2006; Salthammer et al.
2010).

In the past, many studies have been made to decrease the free formaldehyde content of urea-
formaldehyde adhesive and the formaldehyde emission of its bonded products (Candan et al.
2013; Wang et al. 2013). Boron compounds have been used in the protection of wood-based
composite panels for quite a long time (Grexa et al. 1999). The use of nanotechnology in the
production of particleboard panel is of critical importance to overcome the formaldehyde
emission problem (Candan 2012; Candan 2014; Ciraci 2005; Jones et al. 2005; Roughley 2005). It
has been revealed that the addition of nanocellulose may have beneficial effects on the
properties of resin. The addition of nanocellulose decreased the formaldehyde emission values
of wood-based composite panels (Candan et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2011).

The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of the addition of nanocellulose and boric acid
to urea-formaldehyde adhesive on the properties of particleboard panels formaldehyde
emission.

Materials & Methods

Materials

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Urea-formaldehyde adhesive, and hardener were supplied by Kastamonu Integrated Wood

Industry and Trade Inc., located in Gebze, Turkey. UF resin (E1 grade) with solid content of 50
wt% was used in the production of particleboard panels. Liquid ammonium sulfate (NH₄)₂SO₄
with solid content of 20 wt% was added to the UF resin as a catalyst. Nanocellulose and boric
acid were used to modify urea-formaldehyde adhesive.

Methods

Urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesive used to produce particleboard panels was reinforced with NC
at loading level of 0%, 1%, 3%, BA at loading level of 0%, 1%, 3% and %5. As a catalyst, liquid
ammonium sulfate was incorporated into the urea-formaldehyde adhesive.

Formaldehyde emission analysis

Formaldehyde emission analysis was carried out according to EN ISO 9397-1997. The free
formaldehyde was determined by an oximation reaction with hydroxylamine hydrochloride. The
formed hydrochloride acid from this reaction has been determined by potentiometric titration
using sodium hydroxide solution. Samples were taken from the reaction mixture and poured into
a beaker. Then, they were dissolved by 50 ml of a mixture using a magnetic stirrer. The solution
was adjusted to pH 3.5 with 0.1 M HCl. Twenty-five milliliters of hydroxylamine hydrochloride
solution was stirred for 10 min. The sample was then back-titer to pH 3.5 with 0.1 M NaOH.

Results and Discussion

The formaldehyde emission values of the particleboard panels are shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Formaldehyde emission results of the nanocellulose and boric acid reinforced
particleboard panels.
The results of this study revealed that all of the nanocellulose (NC) and boric acid (BA) reinforced
particleboard panels had lower formaldehyde emission values than the unreinforced
particleboard panels. The particleboard panels reinforced with 3% NC and 3% BA had the lowest

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formaldehyde emission values. The maximum decrease in formaldehyde emissions of the

particleboard panels was 22%. Figure 3 also indicates that boric acid has no significant effect on
free formaldehyde, while decreased with increasing nanocellulose loading level.

Summary and Conclusions

Formaldehyde emissions from particleboard panels are of great importance because of their
negative impact on human health. The nanocellulose significantly affected the formaldehyde
emission values of the particleboard panels. Increasing the amount of nanocellulose used in this
study could significantly reduce the free formaldehyde content of urea-formaldehyde adhesive
and the formaldehyde emission of particleboard panels. It was determined that using 3%
nanocellulose (NC) and 3% boric acid (BA) in the particleboard panels had the best results in the
formaldehyde emission. The use of nanocellulose and boric acid reinforcement on thermosetting
resins can help develop novel particleboard panels that are environmentally friendly.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa Research Fund for its financial
support in this project (Project No: 31076). The authors thank Istanbul University Research Fund
(Project No: 4806, Project No: 19515, Project No: 31014, Project No: 43150 and Project No:
49525). The authors would like to express their appreciation for the assistance provided by
Kastamonu Integrated Wood Industry and Trade Inc., located in Gebze, Turkey. The authors also
would like to thank TUBA Turkish Academy of Sciences for its support.
References

Candan, Z., (2012) Nanoparticles use in manufacture of wood-based sandwich panels and
laminate flooring and its effects on technological properties, Ph.D. Thesis, 289 pp., Istanbul
University, Istanbul, Turkey.

Candan, Z., Akbulut, T. (2013). Developing environmentally friendly wood composite panels by
nanotechnology. BioResources 8(3): 3590 – 3598.

Candan, Z., Gonultas, O., Akbulut, T. (2013). Nanocellulose reinforced adhesives for wood
composites. COST FP1205, December 3 – 4, SWEDEN.

Candan, Z. (2014). Environmentally friendly wood composites by nanocellulose. COST FP1205,

October 15 – 16, SPAIN.

Candan, Z., Akbulut, T. (2014). Nano-engineered plywood panels: Performance properties.

Composites Part B: Engineering 64, 2014, 155 – 161.

Candan, Z., Akbulut, T. (2014). Low formaldehyde-emitting wood composites by nanotechnology.

57th Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention, June 23 – 27, Zvolen,
SLOVAKIA.

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Candan, Z., Akbulut, T. (2015). Physical and mechanical properties of nanoreinforced

particleboard composites. Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología 17(2): 319 – 334.
Ciraci, S. (2005). “Science and technology at one of a billionth of a meter,” Science and Technique,
Tubitak, Ankara, Turkey.
DIN EN ISO 9397., (1997). Determination of free formaldehyde content by hydroxylamine
hydrochloride method.
Dunky, M., and Pizzi, A. (2002). Wood adhesives. In Adhesion Science and Engineering – 2.
Surfaces, Chemistry and Applications. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1039–1104.
Gao, Q.; Liu, C.; Luo, J.; Li, X.; Chen, L.; Wang, W.; Li, J., (2018). Effects of resin open time and
melamine addition on cold pre-pressing performance of urea-formaldehyde resin. Eur. J. Wood
Prod., 76: 1253-1261.
Grexa, O.; Horvathova, E.; Besinova, O.; Lehocky, P., (1999). Flame retardant treated plywood.
Polym. Degrad Stabil., 64: 529-533.
Jones, P., Wegner, T., Atella, R., Beecher, J., Caron, R., Catchmark, J., Deng, Y., Glasser, W., Gray,
D., Haigler, C., Joyce, M., Kohlman, J., Koukoulas, A., Lancaster, P., Perine, L., Rodriguez, A.,
Ragauskas, A., and Zhu, J. (2005). “Nanotechnology for the forest products industry – Vision and
technology roadmap,” Report Based on Nanotechnology for the Forest Products Industry
Workshop, Landsdowne, Virginia, USA, October 17-19, 2004, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA, USA.
National Cancer Institute (2012). “Formaldehyde and cancer risk,”
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/formaldehyde.
Roughley, D. J. (2005). “Nanotechnology: Implications for the wood products industry. Final
Report,” Forintek Canada Corporation, North Vancouver, Canada, 73.
Roffael, E. (2006). “Volatile organic compounds and formaldehyde in nature, wood and wood-
based panels,” Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 64(2), 144-149.
Salthammer, T., Mentese, S., and Marutzky, R. (2010). “Formaldehyde in the indoor
environment,” Chem. Rev. 110(4), 2536-2572.
Wang X.M., Li J.Z., Zhang J.Z., Gao Q. (2013). Technics and Properties of Plywood Manufacture
with Modified Urea-formaldehyde Resin. Adv. Mater. Res., 602:743–746.
Zhang H, Zhang J, Shong S, Wu G, Pu J. (2011). Modified nanocrystalline cellulose from two kinds
of modifiers used for improving formaldehyde emission and bonding strength of urea-
formaldehyde resin adhesive. BioResources 6(4), 4430 – 4438.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Improving the Mould and Blue-Stain Resistance of Bamboo through Acidic

Hydrolysis

Zixuan Yu
Department of Biomaterials, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, China

Abstract
Bamboo is much easier to be attacked by fungus compared to wood, resulting in shorter service life
and higher loss in storage and transportation. It has been long accepted that the high content of
starch and sugars in bamboo is mainly responsible for its low mould resistance. In this paper, acetic
acid, propionic acid, oxalic acid and hydrochloric acid were adopted to hydrothermally hydrolyze the
starch in bamboo, with the aims to investigate their respective effect on the mould and blue-stain
resistance of bamboo. The glucose yields, weight loss and color changes of solid bamboo caused by
the different acidic hydrolysis were also compared. The results indicated that weak acidic hydrolysis
was capable of improving the fungus growth rating to 1 or 2 from previous 3 (for the mould
Aspergillus niger) and 4 (for the blue-stain fungus Botryoplodia theobromae) resistance. The surface
color of bamboo was only slightly influenced by the four different acid treatments with the highest
overall color change value (∆E*) only 6.83 for the hydrochloric acid treatment. The results in this
study demonstrate acidic treatment can effectively remove the starch grains in bamboo but only result
in limited improvement in fungus resistance. Therefore, the origins of the low mould and blue-stain
resistance of bamboo cannot be solely attributed to the existence of starch particles. Other possible
mechanism like the content of soluble carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, sucrose) should be further
explored.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Physical and mechanical properties of flatten bamboo panel and bonding

performance in different bonding surface

Xiubiao Zhang
[email protected]
Huanrong Liu
[email protected]

International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, China

Abstract
Based on the latest no crack bamboo culm flattening technique, the density and shrinkage rate, the
static flexural strength and modulus, compressive strength, tensile strength and shear strength
parallel to the grain of flattened bamboo was studied, the phenolic resin was used to explore the shear
strength and impregnation stripping length of flattened bamboo with different bonding interfaces
(outer layer- outer layer, outer layer- inner layer, inner layer - inner layer) , the result shows that the
density of the flattened bamboo show a slight increase for the process of culm flattening is a
compressed and densified process, especially in outer layer; The drying shrinkage rate is generally
shown as tangential drying shrinkage rate > radial drying shrinkage rate > longitudinal drying
shrinkage rate, the tangential drying shrinkage rate in the outer layer is greater than that in the inner
layer, the longitudinal drying shrinkage rate in the inner layer is greater than that in the outer layer.
The static bending strength and elastic modulus, the tensile strength, the compressive strength and
the shear strength parallel to the grain basically retain the original mechanical properties of the
bamboo. When bonding at different interfaces, the interlayer shear strength was shown as : outer
layer - outer layer > outer layer - inner layer > inner layer - inner layer, however, in the impregnation
stripping test, the peeling length of outer layer - inner layer is smaller than that in outer layer - outer
layer and inner layer - inner layer. Based on the test results, the size stability of the flattened bamboo
was poor, which is the focus of the future study.

Biography

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ajayi, Babatunde

Expertise: Wood Products, Wood Science and Bio-resources Technology

Biography:
Professor Babatunde Ajayi was born on 25th August, 1955 in Ijan Ekiti, Nigeria. He obtained his HND in General
Forestry at the Federal College of Forestry, Ibadan, PGD in Timber and Material Technology at High-Wycombe,
UK in 1986, MSc in Forest Industries Technology at the University College of North Wales Bangor, UK in 1990
and PhD in Wood Science and Bio-Composites Technology from the Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Nigeria, in 2000. He assumed the status of a Professor in 2010 and has served as the HOD of Forestry and Wood
Technology Dept., FUTA, Nigeria between 2012 and 2015. He has also supervised many students at PhD,
M.Agric.Tech, and B.Agric.Tech, as well as co-supervised postgraduate students from other Departments in the
University.
Prof. Ajayi has served as external examiner to undergraduate and postgraduate students in some universities. He has
published more than 70 papers in reputable local and international journals and presented papers at more than 33
conferences and professional meetings in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa etc. His
research focus is on the use of conventional biomaterials (Wood) and non-conventional bio-materials from
agricultural wastes, common weeds, waste paper and other wastes prevalent in Nigeria and world environment to
produce value-added panel products using Portland cement, pozzolan, virgin plastic (HPDE), recycled plastic
(LPDE), and car battery case (CBC) as binders, by the application of simple, innovative and adaptable technologies
in the manufacturing processes. In 2011, he received a Merit Award as the best innovative researcher for Local Raw
Materials Content, R&D from the Raw Materials Research and Development Council of the Federal Ministry of
Science and Technology at the TECHNO-EXPO 2011 in Abuja, Nigeria.
Prof Ajayi, has presented his research findings at various places globally including: Vancouver, Canada in 2004;
Grand Rapids, Michigan USA, 2004; Brisbane, Australia 2005; Brazil, Sao Paulo, 2006, Pirassununga and Lavras
2007; Taipei, Taiwan 2007; Madrid, Spain 2008; St LOUIS, Missouri, 2008; Aalborg Denmark in 2010; Brazil,
Pirassununga 2010; Madison, Wisconsin 2010; Seoul, Korea, 2010; Cairo, Egypt 2010; Portland, Oregon 2011;
Washington, DC 2012; Canberra, Australia in 2012; Austin, Texas 2013; Portugal, 2014; Atlanta, Georgia 2015;
Jackson, Wyoming 2015; Vietnam in 2015; Portugal 2016; Cape Town, South Africa, 2018. He is a senior expert on
Climate Change and Environment to CTA and is currently serving as chairman or member of various committees in
the university. He is the chairman of the Anti-Corruption and Transparency Unit (ACTU) under the Independent
Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC).

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Akinyele, Adejoke

Expertise:Tree Improvement and Silviculture

Biography - Adejoke Akinyele
Dr Adejoke Olukemi Akinyele is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Forest Production and Products, University
of Ibadan, Nigeria. She served as the Sub-Dean Undergraduate (Forestry) in the old Faculty of Agriculture and
Forestry, University of Ibadan from 2012- 2016. She is currently the Sub-Dean Postgraduate for the Faculty of
Renewable Natural Resources, University of Ibadan.
She became a Commonwealth Academic fellow in School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography,
Bangor University, Wales, United Kingdom in 2016. She is a CIPSEM fellow under the UNEP/UNESCO/BMU
fellowship at Technische Universitat, Germany in 2013. She is a recipient of the Netherlands Fellowship
Programme, Wageningen International, The Netherlands in 2012 and 2010. She is an alumnus of BioVision, The
World life Sciences Forum, Scientific Foundation of Lyon and French Academy of Sciences. She is also a member
of the United States Alumni group through the Norman E. Borlaug International Agricultural Science and
Technology Fellowship Program. She was a visiting scientist in the School of Forestry and Conservation, University
of Florida, Gainesville, USA in 2009. She won the Federal Government of Nigeria Postgraduate Award as well as
Basorun M.K.O. Abiola Research Fellowship for Postgraduate students in 2002. She also won the African Network
for Agroforestry Education (ANAFE), Kenya, part fellowship award for Master’s Degree Students in 2000. Dr
Akinyele is a member Nigerian Young Academy, Forestry Association of Nigeria, full Member of the Organization
for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD) and an associate member of Competence Platform for
Bioenergy in Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems of Africa (COMPETE). She is also a member of Society for
Conservation Biology (SCB), International Union of Forestry Research Organisations (IUFRO), African Forest
Forum (AFF), Society for American Foresters as well as Commonwealth Forestry Association.
She has successfully supervised students at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She has several peer
reviewed journal articles, chapters of books and conference proceedings to her credit.

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Alpar, Tibor

Expertise: Cement-bonded wood products, recycling of wood based products, liquefaction of

wood, WPC, reducing formaldehyde emission, bio-composites
Name: Alpár Tibor L., PhD.
Date and place of birth: 1969. 10. 31.
Knowledge of languages: English, German
Education: MSc. of wood sciences, 1994
BSc. of information technology engineer, 2004
Scientific degrees: PhD. 2000
Affiliation: Institute of Wood-based Products and Technologies, Simonyi Károly Faculty of Engineering, Wood
Sciences and Applied Arts, University of West Hungary
Present status: associate professor
Work experience:
1997-2000 University of Sopron, Faculty of Wood Sciences, Department of Wood Composites, researcher
1998-2001 independent advisor of Falco Rt.
2000-2003 University of West Hungary, Faculty of Wood Sciences, Department of Wood Composites, senior
researcher
2001-2003 STA (Science and Technology Agency) fellowship of Japanese government at Forestry and Forest
Products Research Institute (Tsukuba), Wood Composites Laboratory
2003- University of West Hungary, Faculty of Wood Sciences, Department of Wood Composites, associate
professor
2003-2004 head of Center of Higher Education at University of West Hungary, Faculty of Wood Sciences
2004- head of FAIMEI Material and Product Testing Laboratory
2004- MC member of COST E31 – Management of recovered wood
2008-2010 vice dean at Faculty of Wood Sciences, University of West Hungary
2011-2013 director of NRRC Natural Resources Research Center, University of West Hungary
2013-2017 dean of Simonyi Károly Facultiy of Engineering, Wood Sciences and Applied Art
2018- Vice Rector for Research and International Relations, University of Sopron
Major research fields were/are:

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cement-bonded wood products, recycling of wood based products, liquefaction of wood, WPC, reducing
formaldehyde emission, bio-composites.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Armando de Barros, Julio

Expertise: Physical properties of wood and its components, energy dissipation dependence on
wood anatomy, molecular dynamics view of cellulose-ions interactions for green energetic
devices
Biography - Júlio Amando de Barros
I am a Master's student on Physics at the University of São
Paulo - Brazil. Interested on the many applications of cellulose for
nanotechnologies, I am now working on a theoretical approach for
understanding the interactions between ions and modified cellulose for
green energy purposes. Our methodology is based on computational
simulations, from ab initio calculations to molecular dynamics systems.
For more information please look for me!

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Antwi, Kwaku
Expertise: Wood Science and Technology
Biography - Kwaku Antwi
Dr Kwaku Antwi is a Ghanaian based lecturer and researcher. He holds Bachelors, Masters and PhD in Wood
Science and Technology

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Appiah-Kubi, Emmanuel
Expertise: Civil engineering with expertise in Wood and Structural Engineering Efficient
processing of wood, the design and supervision of construction of timber structures, concrete and
reinforced concrete and steel structures Efficient processing and utilization of wood, bamboo and
other bio-materials
Biography - Emmanuel Appiah-Kubi
Emmanuel Appiah-Kubi is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education
(University of Education, Winneba), Kumasi Campus, Kumasi, Ghana. I was a Research Scientist at CSIR-Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana (CSIR-FORIG), Kumasi, between 2010 and 2018. I was a Demonstrator/Teaching and
Research Assistant at the Civil Engineering Department, KNUST after BSc study between 2005 and 2009.
I had my BSC, MPhil and PhD Degrees in Civil Engineering from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, and has had a lot of international internships and research stays in European
institutions. I had an internship at the School of Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Bern University of
Applied Sciences (BFH), Biel, Switzerland during my MPhil study where I worked with colleague Swiss students
for my project work. I also had a 6-month research stay at the Georg-August University of Goettingen, Germany as
a doctoral research student with sponsorship from the German Academic Exchange Services (DAAD), where I
conducted part of my PhD research. I am a member of the Ghana Institution of Engineering (GhIE) i.e. a registered
Professional Civil Engineer, with expertise in Structural Engineering. I have also had a lot of experience in the wood
industry in Ghana through processing of wood and bamboo and the construction of wooden and bamboo structures. I
conduct research into the technological properties of wood, bamboo and other wood-based materials for efficient
utilization. My research work has helped to promote and enhanced the use of lesser-used wood species in Ghana
through efficient processing methods and techniques. I have helped to establish and also manages the Wood and
Furniture Testing Laboratory at CSIR-FORIG. I am currently a member of the International Bamboo and Rattan
Organization (INBAR) Task Force for Structural uses of Bamboo, and also a member of the International
Standardization Organization (ISO) Technical Committee ISO/TC 165 -Timber Structures.

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Areo, Olusola Samuel

Expertise: Forest Products, Wood and Fiber Science
Biography - Olusola Samuel Areo
I am a Principal Research Scientist and Head of the Wood Processing Section in the Institute responsible to,
Formulate and execute research and collaborate with other scientists both within and outside the Institute in
developing appropriate technologies for value addition of wood species. I also engage in capacity building of
subordinate staff and students from tertiary Institutions through departmental and Institution seminar series. I
disseminate research findings through the extension service unit of the Institute and publications in academic
Journals and Conference Proceedings.
Participation at this congress will subject my presentation to constructive criticism, comments and suggestions that
would assist me to make improvement on the work and by extension to other projects. I will also listen and learn
from participants’ presentation on related subject and interest in the area of wood science and sustainable forest
product utilisation, which will further equip me with new methodologies that I can adapt and apply to my research
activities. It will assist to broaden my horizon, improve on my research skill and effectively improve my
productivity in my Institute, Nigeria and Africa.

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Arnič, Domen
Expertise: Wood properties, Forest-based bioeconomy, Wood anatomy
Biography - Domen Arnič
After a master's degree in “Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources” at the Biotechnical Faculty, University of
Ljubljana (Slovenia), I am now continuing with postgraduate education at the same university at the field of
Economics of natural resources. The topic of my Ph.D. is related to the impact of climate change on productivity
and properties of beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) wood and availability of wood (wood
biomass) for Slovenian forest-based bioeconomy. Currently, I am employed as a young researcher at the Slovenian
Forest institute.

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Asafu-Adjaye, Osei
Expertise: Wood Composite and Adhesive Development
Biography - Osei Asafu-Adjaye
Osei is a PhD candidate interested in wood based adhesives, wood composites, Mass timber and CLT. He holds a
MSc in Polymer and Fiber Engineering, MPhil in Wood Technology and BSc in Wood Science and Technology.

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Aslam, Sidra
Expertise: Security and Privacy in Blockchain chain technology
Biography - Sidra Aslam
Sidra Aslam has completed a Master of Science in
Computer Science (MSCS) from COMSATS Institute of
Information Technology Islamabad, Pakistan in January
2017. She was awarded the best research paper shield from
National Software Engineering Conference (NSEC), IEEE
in December 2015. She is pursuing her Ph.D. at the University of Primorska Slovenia. She is associated with a
research team;
working on the wood supply chain, Ontology-based
Semantics, and privacy at the ICT group. Her research interest includes Information
security and privacy, Knowledge-Based Systems, and Semantic web
Technologies.

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Azadfar, Mohammadali
Expertise: Mechanics and chemistry of wood and wood composites; conversion of
lignocellulosic biomass into value-added products; industrial extension/outreach in forest
products
Biography - Mohammadali Azadfar
Mohammadali Azadfar is an assistant professor of environmental & renewable resources in the SUNY Morrisville
School of Agriculture, Business & Technology. Prior to joining Morrisville in 2019, he was a postdoctoral research
associate in the Composite Materials and Engineering Center at Washington State University (Pullman, Wash.). He
received his Ph.D. in bioenergy and bioproducts engineering from the Department of Biological Systems
Engineering at Washington State University in 2016 and completed his M.S. and B.S. in natural resources
engineering - wood science and technology in Tehran, Iran.
Technical Interests Mechanics and
chemistry of wood and wood composites; conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into value-added products;
industrial extension/outreach in forest products.
Teaching Interests Engineered wood
composites; wood chemistry; secondary wood processing; wood drying and preservation; wood glues, laminating
and finishes; lumber manufacturing and grading; furniture design construction.

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Baar, Jan
Expertise: Wood degradation, weathering, wood structure
Biography - Jan Baar
Jan Baar is assistant professor of Wood science at Mendel University in
Brno, he joined the department in 2012. His research interest includes
wood preservation, wood extractives influence on wood properties and
wood discoloration.

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Balasso, Michelle
Expertise: Forestry, wood sciences
Biography - Michelle Balasso
Michelle is a PhD candidate and researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia, within the Australian Research
Council funded Centre for Forest Value, working across the wood production chain of plantation timber. She holds a
BSc in Forest and Environmental Technologies and an MSc in Forest Science and has been a Research Assistant at
the Forest Ecology and Remote Sensing Department at the University of Goettinghen, in Germany. She is a
passionate researcher with a soft spot for forestry, while being very involved in the wood production industry and
collaborating with the major forestry companies in Tasmania. Originally from the Dolomites in Italy, she is a trail
runner, nature-lover with a strong bond with wild and alpine environments. She’s been traveling to several countries,
developing a strong network in the forest, ecology, and wood production sectors, presenting her research at
remarkable international conferences. She is involved with several projects and is frequently busy in public speaking
events bringing her traveling and woman-in forestry experience, as well as forestry and wood quality expertise.

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Baranova, Olha
Expertise: Wood-based materials, non-destructive testing of wood-based materials, powder
coating
Biography - Olha Baranova

Senior Lecturer of Department of Technology and Design of Wood Products University of Life and Environmental
Sciences of Ukraine.
Scientific interests- technology of protective and decorative coatings, and non-destructive testing of wood.

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Barbero-Lpez, Aitor
Expertise: Wood Preservation
Biography - Aitor Barbero-López
Aitor is an Early Stage Researcher in the University of Eastern Finland. His aim is to identify bio-based antifungal
chemicals in forestry side-streams, which can be used for wood preservation.
Before starting his DSc, Aitor worked in the Finnish Forest Research institute of Finland, and he studied an MSc in
Wood Materials Science. His research interests are wood preservation, wood modification and wood decay. Due to
his background, he also has interest in plant and tree ecophysiology and mycorrhizae.

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Barcic, Andreja Pirc

Expertise: Business Innovation, marketing and trade in wood based industry, business planning
and calculations
Biography: Non available

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Bartuska, Birger
Expertise: Wood technology, manufacturing and digitalization in the wood industry
Biography - Birger Bartuska
Birger Bartuska is a junior researcher at the competence center Wood K plus area wood materials technologies.
After finishing his masters in wood technology and mangaement at the university of applied life sciences in Vienna
on the topic of hemp fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites he is doing his phd in the field of digitalisation and
new production technologies in the wood industry.

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Beranič, Tina
Expertise: Digitalization, software engineering
Biography - Tina Beranič
Tina Beranič received a PhD degree in computer science and informatics from the University of Maribor in 2018.
She is a Teaching Assistant and a Researcher at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,
University of Maribor. Her research interests are in the area of software quality, especially the domain of software
metrics and software metrics thresholds. She is also working in the digitalization domain, researching the application
of digital tools and digital transformation.

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Böger, Thomas
Expertise: Adhesives and Laboratory Managment
Biography - Thomas Böger
Since 2018 Thomas Böger is a researcher at the Technical University of Munich in the research group of wood
based materials. His field of research is adhesives for solid wood applications. He studied Wood Engineering
(B.Eng.) and Timber Technology (M.Sc.) in Germany and Switzerland. After his studies he worked several years as
a test and application engineer for adhesive producers with applications in the wood- and microelectronic-industry.

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Brabec, Martin
Expertise: Wood mechanics, Digital Image Correlation, Material characterization
Biography - Martin Brabec
An investigation of mechanical behaviour of wood and live trees by menas of full-field optical technique based on
digital image correlation (DIC).

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Brémaud, Iris
Expertise: Wood physics in the scope of diverse connections: between artisanal and scientific
knowledge on wood; between the complexity of physical behaviour and the botanical diversity
of wood; between biological and cultural diversity; the relationship between humans and wood
in instrument making and in traditional crafts
Biography - Iris Brémaud
Iris Brémaud is researcher at CNRS - French National Centre of Scientific Research - in the “Wood Team” of
Laboratory of Mechanics and Civil Engineering in Montpellier. She followed an initial University training in plant
biology, while starting to learn guitar and lute making. From 2000 she specialised her work on wood material (with
a focus on wood for instrument making) through her MSc in Wood Science and PhD in Mechanics. Her doctoral
thesis (2006) was on “Diversity of woods used or usable in musical instruments making”. She subsequently
continued research on wood diversity and wood physics, focusing on cross-cultural views of wooden instruments
and on the structure-chemistry-properties relationships in wood mechanics, as a Post-Doc researcher in Japan, then
in Nancy (France), then in Switzerland. In 2013 she was recruited as permanent CNRS research fellow. In 2014 she
founded the International Symposium “Wood Science and Craftsmanship”. In 2016 she obtained the degree of
Habilitation to Supervise Research with a thesis entitled “Towards and ethno-bio-mechanical vision of wood”.
Her current research in CNRS Montpellier aims at a systemic approach to wood behaviour, diversity and cultural
uses, by relating fundamental wood physics/mechanics to botanical origin and to “hand knowledge” of wood
craftsmen. There is still a focus on musical instruments making but the research now extends to several
woodworking trade specialities. Recent works, often in collaboration with artisans, involve early stage researchers
and national or international collaborations.

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Bruno, Maria Roberta

Expertise: Analysis from chemical-biological point of view agricultural waste in order to create
new eco-sustainable industrial products
Biography - Maria roberta Bruno
Maria Roberta Bruno graduated in 2012 and continues to carry out activities related to the world of agriculture and
environmental protection, initially as a field technician in companies organic following both the technical and the
administrative part. Subsequently plays activities in the field of experimental research in the CREA research center
in Metaponto (MT), where it analyzes various eco-sustainable agricultural systems. She currently carries out
research at the University of Basilicata analyzing from a chemical-biological point of view agricultural waste in
order to create new eco-sustainable industrial products.

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Burnard, Michael
Expertise: Human health in the built environment; Sustainability of wood construction; Wood
composites, wood quality, wood value chains; Data Science
Biography - Michael Burnard
Dr. Michael (Mike) Burnard was born in the United States of America but moved to Slovenia in 2013 to complete
his PhD. Mike is now an assistant professor at the University of Primorska where he is the coordinator of the Data
Science Masters programme and, performs research, teaches, and mentors students. He is also the deputy director of
the InnoRenew CoE, a research organisation founded in 2017 following successful funding from the H2020
Widespread-Teaming programme. His research interests are focused on enhancing human health and using wood in
the built environment as well as advancing sustainability through intelligent use of renewable resources, particularly
in buildings. Mike also works in many other areas including business management, innovation, data science, and
ICT.

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Burns, Candra
Expertise: International Social Media Consultant in the Forest and Wood sector
Biography - Candra Burns
Candra Burns built her foundation by volunteering in her local community as a child. She started applying for
scholarships and grants in high school to go to college because she was raised low-income and first generation.
Candra took advantage of the support programs on both of her college campuses. Within five years, she earned 25
scholarships and grants claiming her a debt-free education.
Since 2015, she has been the social media communications chair for Washington State Society of American
Foresters and holds that chair while she lives in Germany with her Air Force husband. She realized her passion for
media marketing through these efforts which gave her the ideas to start Talking Forests, a social media based
communication business in 2016.
Candra's business wishes to help others have a voice and build an online presence. Her inspiration comes from the
people who gave her hope and the people who give her hope for the future. These are the generous people who work
every day to grow and help each other equally.
In 2018, she gave a refreshing social media speech at the International Forest Business Conference in Poland,
documented the #forestproud conference in Atlanta, and taught military spouses how to use social media at a
regional conference with her "Building the Future with Social Media" speech at the American's Working Around the
Globe Conference at Ramstein Air Base.
In 2019, she taught social media seminar classes in Edelweiss Resort at the American’s Working Around the Globe
Annual Conference to inspire spouses with "A Future with Social Media” and “LinkedIn 101" to show them how to
leverage social media to achieve any goal they have.
She was a speaker in the fall of 2019 at the Society of Wood Science and Technology’s International Convention in
Yosemite National Park and to the Society of American Forester's National Conference in Kentucky. She holds two
associates degrees from Grays Harbor College and a Bachelor of Science from The Evergreen State College. She is
a proud military spouse with the ability to work from anywhere in the world.

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Cahyono, Tekat Dwi

Expertise: Wood bio-composites; Wood modification;Wood preservation
Biography - Tekat Dwi Cahyono
I was born in Malang, Indonesia, 1st July 1975. I graduate from Bogor Agricultural University (Doctoral Program) at
2015. I am a lecturer at University of Darussalam Ambon, one of the private college in Ambon, Indonesia. I have
research team and our research interest are basic properties and wood modified.

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Carrero, Tulio
Expertise: Civil Engineering
Biography - Tulio Carrero
Tulio E. Carrero R. BIODATA.
Tulio Enrique Carrero Roa received his BS in Venezuela from the Universidad de Los Andes in 2015 and MS
degree from the Universidad Católica Andrés Bello in 2018. Nowadays, he is Ph.D. Candidate from the Pontificia
Universidad Católica de Chile “PUC” in 2017-2021. His tutors are Pablo Guindos and Hernan Santa Maria. He won
the Conicyt Scholarship in 2017. He is a Civil Engineer Professional with proven capabilities and knowledge in
technical areas of civil engineering such as structural engineering, geotechnical, soil, sanitation, hydrology,
hydraulics, roads, surveying, pavements as well as personnel management, control and project management. He had
work in VEPICA Company, included in the 100 best tops of engineering companies of the world. He specializes in
the design and construction of Timber Structures. He is working on a Fondecyt Program about Cross-Laminated
“CLT” Wood structures.

Next, I will indicate the different works in which I have worked:

• Conference Korea-2018: Carrero T, Ureta-Céspedes F, Cabrera T, Cárcamo S, Santa María H, Guindos P.

(2018). “Global analysis of light-framed timber construction detailing and its performance during major
contemporary earthquakes,” 2018 World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Seoul, Corea, August 20-
23 2018.

• Patent: Aprobado el concurso DTD-UC, revisión del documento final de patente con el nombre: Muro
Estructural compuesto del Tipo Marco-Plataforma de CLT.

• Conference CLEM-2019: . Carrero T, Montaño J, Santa María H, Guindos P (2019) “Comportamiento

cíclico de conexiones híbridas de lsl, hormigón y acero con clt”. 2019 4to congreso Latinoamericano de
Estructuras de Madera, Montevideo, Uruguay, Noviembre 18-20 2019.

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Cermak, Petr
Expertise: Wood Modification, Thermal Modification, Wood Charring, Process Development
Biography - Petr Cermak
Petr Čermák is academic staff - researcher at Department of Wood Science and Technology (Faculty of Forestry and
Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno). He got his Ph.D. at Mendel University in Brno. Since 2014 was as
a postdoctoral researcher granted at the same university. He is focused on material engeneering of natural
lignocellulose materials with special focus on wood. His scientific interests lie mainly in area of wood modification,
hygro-thermo mechanical treatment of wood, wood-water interaction, wood welding and material properties testing.
His expertise was gained not only at MEDELU, but also during short/long term visits at foreign institutions in
Finland (Aalto University), Germany (Eberswalde University of Sustainable Development, Gottingen University),
Hungary (University of Sopron) and others. He is as a project leader/member active in participation in the national
and international research projects (GAČR, TAČR, OPVK, IraSME, CZ/DE bilateral project(s), etc.) and publishing
of his research in high-quality peer-review journals and presenting at international conferences.

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Chen, Nairong
Expertise: Wood adhesives
Biography - Nairong Chen
My research interests in green materials, particularly in bio-based resins, wood based composites, and bio-based
porous materials. Recent projects have examined the properties of soy-based adhesives developed for interior wood
composites. Other studies have investigated the room temperature curing formaldehyde-free adhesives for
construction engineering, and those for protecting environment and human beings. In my research field of bio-based
adhesives and wood products, I have a good profile with 37 peer review journal publications and 14 patents, and was
awarded “2016 Excellent Youth Science of Fujian Province, China ”. I have been the project manager and
collaborator of several NSFC projects on my research areas.
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (FAFU) is jointly sponsored by the Ministry of Agriculture, State
Forestry Administration, and Fujian Provincial Government. The university has been rated “A” in terms of
undergraduate teaching by the Ministry of Education. FAFU currently owns 75 provincial and national innovative
platforms, and ranks second among the country’s provincial agricultural and forestry universities with its high-
quality faculty, social services, and researches. FAFU altogether some 672 research findings have received
provincial or national scientific and technological awards, 28 of which are entitled to China’s top three research
awards.

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Class, Seung Hyun

Expertise: Wood science and engineering, CLT, Fire test
Biography - Seung Hyun Claas
na

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Couceiro, José
Expertise: Wood drying and computed tomography
Biography - José Couceiro
José Couceiro finished his Forestry Engineering bachelor in the University of Vigo, Spain, in 2009 and moved to
Sweden to enrole on a master progam in Wood Technology in Luleå University of Technology in Skellefteå. He
later became a PhD student and defended his thesis on september 2019, focusing on the use of computed
tomography to study moisture distribution in wood. Now he is Associate Senior Lecturer in the division of wood
science and engineering.

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Cristini, Valentino
Expertise: Biodegradation of wood, wood decay fungi, arboriculture, tree biomechanics
Biography - Valentino Cristini
Born and grown up in northern Italy, in 2012 moved to the Czech Republic and attended university study of
arboriculture and forestry at Mendel University in Brno. From 2012 to 2019 worked as an arborist within the fields
of tree assessment, biomechanics, and phytopathology. Since 2019 I'm a Ph.D. student at the Department of Wood
Science and Technology of Mendel University in Brno. My main field is the biological deterioration of wood in
standing trees and its material properties.

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Dahle, Sebastian
Expertise: Physics, Surface Science, Plasma Technology, Wood Science and Technology
Biography - Sebastian Dahle
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Sebastian Dahle
+38613203618 +4915154206509
[email protected]
www.sebastiandahle.de
Skype sebastian.dahle
WORK EXPERIENCE
01/09/2018–Present
Marie Curie fellowship
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
01/07/2013–31/08/2018
Postdoctoral research fellow
Clausthal University of Technology, Germany
- Conducting research
- Leading research projects
- Supervising a team of up to 8 co-workers
01/03/2010–30/06/2013
Research fellow
Clausthal University of Technology, Clausthal-Zellerfeld (Germany)
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
01/10/2017–26/03/2018
Assist. Prof. (Slovenian: docent)
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Habilitation in Wood Science and Technology
01/03/2010–22/03/2013
Dr. rer. nat. (doctor of natural sciences) EQF level 8
Clausthal University of Technology, Germany
01/10/2005–22/02/2010
Dipl.-Phys (diploma in physics) EQF level 7

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Clausthal University of Technology Germany

Physics and Physical Technology

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Darmawan, Wayan
Expertise: Wood Science and Technology, Wood Machining, Wood Surface Coating, Wood
Modification
Biography - Wayan Darmawan
Wayan Darmawan is a full professor at the Department of Forest Products, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural
University (IPB) since 2012. He received his doctorate at the University of Shimane, Japan in 2000. He continued
his post-doctoral study at the Ecole Nasionale Superior de Art et Metier, France in 2002–2003. He was an Erasmus
Mundus visiting professor fellow at Dresden University, Germany in 2009. He had been serving as Director of the
Forest Products Department in 2010–2014. He concentrates his research work in the domains of wood machining,
wood quality improvement by surface coating. He has been a member of the SWST since 2012.

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De Arana-Fernández, Marina
Expertise: Architecture, forestry, construction, cultural heritage
Biography - Marina de Arana-Fernández
2010 - 2016. Degree in Architecture by Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

2016 - 2017. Master in Architecture by Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

2017 - 2018. Architect in Geneva, Switzerland

2018 - 2019. Master in Rehabilitation of Cultural Heritage by Università degli Studi RomaTre

2019. Stage as an Architect in Parco Archeologico di Pompei, Italy

2019 - present. PhD in Wood and Cork Technology Research Group by Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

2020 - present. Researcher Associate in Timber Construction Research Group of the Universidad Politécnica de
Madrid, Spain. Topic: Reuse and recycle of timber from demolition in structural products and design for the
deconstruction in the future (InFutUReWood European project).

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De Mil, Tom
Expertise: Wood anatomy, Wood technology, X-ray Computed Tomography, dendrochronology
Biography - Tom De Mil
Tom De Mil obtained his PhD in 2017 at UGent-Woodlab in close collaboration with the Royal Museum for Central
Africa. With fieldwork in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, his main focus was on X-ray CT scanning of tree
cores from tropical forests. He made a field-to-desktop toolchain that allows to perform tree ring analysis and
microdensitometry. In his current FWO project he uses this toolchain to analyze rings of the oldest trees in the
world: ancient bristlecone pine.
He has made several contributions in peer-reviewed scientific journals (as author and co-author) and presented his
progress on conferences, by means of oral and poster presentations

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Derikvand, Mohammad
Expertise: Wood science and engineering
Biography - Mohammad Derikvand
Mohammad Derikvand is a postdoctoral researcher from Department of Civil Engineering at Aalto University,
Finland. Mohammad does research in a range of different topics related to Wood Science and Engineering. He has
been involved in wood-related research activities for more than 12 years and has teaching experience in three
different countries. Mohammad's most recent research activities are focused on the shear performance of timber-
concrete composite connections and evaluation of the accuracy of various test methods for bond strength
measurement of wood adhesives.

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Devallance, David
Expertise: Renewable Composite Materials
Biography - David Devallance
David is the research group leader in Renewable Materials Composites at the InnoRenew CoE. He received a
Bachelor of Science in wood products processing and manufacturing from the Pennsylvania State University and his
Master of Science and PhD in wood science from Oregon State University.

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Díaz, René Herrera

Expertise: Wood treatments, non-destructive techniques, wood protection, analytical techniques
Biography - René Herrera Díaz
MSc and Ph.D. in Renewable Materials Engineering from the University of the Basque Country (Spain). Currently,
I'm a Postdoctoral researcher funded by the Basque Government at the Innorenew COE research center (Slovenia),
where I work on wood modification methods, characterization techniques and valorization of wood products.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Djafaripetroudy, Seyedrahman
Expertise: Cellulose nanotechnology and Biorefinery
Biography - Seyedrahman Djafaripetroudy
I have be working as an Assistant Professor at Biorefinery engineering department at SBU in IRAN. Here we are
focusing on the production of cellulose nanomaterials from different agro-based residues such as Bagasse, Wheat
and Rice straw for varying industrial application such as paper and board, novel biocomposites. Working on the
extraction of hemicelluloses from the mentioned lignocellulosic materials for packaging application will be our
future endeavor.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Dolezal, Franz
Expertise: Building acoustics and sound insulation, Sustainability of building products and
buildings
Biography - Franz Dolezal
Master studies of architecture at TU Vienna and RWTH Aachen with emphasis on building physics. Doctoral
studies at TU Vienna, civil engineering, with building physical subject (flanking transmission in solid wood
structures).
Professional experience in building physics, consulting engineer for sustainability and energy conservation and
research in building acoustics and sustainability of building products. Since 2017 at IBO in charge for research
projects on building acoustics and Life Cycle Assessment of building products.
Member of several national and European standardisation committees and building LCA related boards.

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Dömény, Jakub
Expertise: Wood modification and improvements of material properties of solid wood,
microwave treatment applications, acceleration of chemical reactions by microwave heating,
microwave plasticization and microwave drying
Biography - Jakub Dömény
Dr. Jakub Dömény is academic staff - researcher from Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood
Technology, Department of Wood Science. His expertise lies in field of wood modification and improvements of
material properties of solid wood. He is mainly focused on microwave treatment applications, especially
acceleration of chemical reactions by microwave heating, microwave plasticization and microwave drying. He is
lecturer of various courses, mainly wood modification, physical and mechanical properties of wood, wood drying
and development of new wood-based materials.

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Dupleix, Anna
Expertise: Wood sciences, social sciences
Biography - anna dupleix
I began my research career by studying the impact of the physical-mechanical properties of wood on its mechanical
machining (peeling process) and its use in civil engineering. After a year of agricultural training to acquire technical
skills in beekeeping and a post-doctoral project at the University of Aalto (Finland) on the energy contribution of
wood use inside human housing, I began to wonder about the influence of the wood material used to build hives on
the health of bee colonies, which are now under threat. The first results of an interdisciplinary approach that brings
together anthropology, wood science and ecology to confront traditional knowledge with scientific knowledge
reveal habitat properties that can affect living organisms, bees and their parasites, which we then experiment in the
laboratory at the level of individuals and colonies. In particular, instrumental devices under development
demonstrate the repellent effect of volatile compounds in chestnut wood on the bee parasitic mite, varroa destructor,
and quantify the influence of the thermal and radiative properties of the wood and the environment on the internal
climate.

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Dvoracek, Ondrej
Expertise: Data analysis, Wood disintegration, Machine prototyping
Biography - Ondrej Dvoracek
Ondrej Dvoracek works as a Junior Researcher in the Team Mechanical Disintegration of Competence Centre for
Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry, Austria. He received his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees from the Brno
University of Technology in Mechanical Engineering Design. He is a doctoral candidate at the Technical University
of Graz in the Institute of Production Engineering. He also worked as a research worker focused on studying smart
magnetorheological fluids used in damping systems, university lector of 3D modelling and developer of long-time
prosthetic feet fatigue testing machines. His current research interests include mechanical processes taking place
during high-speed cutting of hardwood. He is developing a device which enables to study it.

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Effah, Bernard
Expertise: Wood Product Science, Composite Materials Microscopy and Spectroscopy (AFM),
Materials Characterisation, Engineered wood, Bioenergy (Biomass)
Biography - Bernard Effah
Dr. Effah is a Senior Lecturer at Kumasi Technical University in Ghana. He holds a PhD in Wood Product Science
from Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He also holds the following: Galileo Master Certificate in Renewable
Energy (Biomass) from the European Energy Centre (UK); MSc. Wood Science from the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology – Ghana and MA. in Educational Leadership from the University of
Education, Winneba – Ghana. Dr. Effah’s research interest are; Composite Materials, Microplastics, Microscopy &
Spectroscopy (AFM), Materials Characterisation, and Biomass. Dr. Effah is an external examiner for some
Universities and a reviewer for some Journals.

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Espinoza, Omar
Expertise: Marketing and Management of Forest Products
Biography - OMAR ESPINOZA
Omar Espinoza is Associate Professor at University of Minnesota’s Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems
Engineering, and chairs the Forest Products Management Development Institute. He is Director of Undergraduate
Studies for the Sustainable Systems Management (SSM) major. He worked in managerial positions in the forest
products industry for seven years. Omar’s educational background include a BS in Industrial Engineering, an MBA,
and MS and PhD degrees in Wood Science & Forest Products. His research is focused on marketing and
management of innovative wood products.

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Fang, Changhua
Expertise: Wood/Bamboo modification
Biography - Changhua Fang
Present: Professor at International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, China
2007-2011: Postdoctoral Fellow at the Wood Research Center, Laval University, Quebec, Canada
2003-2007: Ph.D in Wood Science and Technology, University of Montpellier II, France

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Ferrer, Maria Busquets

Expertise: Material science and engineering
Biography - Maria Busquets Ferrer
Maria Busquets Ferrer works as a Junior Researcher in the Team Smart Wood Natural Materials of Competence
Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry in Austria, while finishing her doctoral studies in the University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna. Previously, she completed her bachelor’s and master’s degree in
Carlos III University of Madrid, in the topic of material science and engineering.
Her research is focus on porous materials made from natural resources.

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França, Frederico José Nistal

Expertise: Nondestructive tests, physics and mechanics of wood
Biography - Frederico José Nistal França
Frederico José Nistal França is an Assistant Research Professor at Mississippi State University, USA. Originally
from Brazil, he holds a PhD degree in Sustainable Bioproducts from Mississippi State University (2017), a Master
degree in Forest Science (2014) and a Wood Industry Engineering degree (2012) from the Federal University of
Espírito Santo, Brazil. His areas of interest are: physical and mechanical properties of wood, nondestructive
evaluation of wood (NDT). Currently, he is conducting the hardwood basic properties project in agreement with
Stairways Manufacture Association and the USDA Forest Products Laboratory.
In 2016, Dr. França won the Graduate Student Research Award from College of Forest Resources and Wildlife
Research Center. The research was predicting the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) of
southern yellow pine based on NDT and visual grading. In 2015, Dr. França was chose to represent Mississippi State
University at the Schweighofer Students Workshop in Vienna, Austria, where students in wood science field from
had a change to be part of young researchers group to exchange ideas on technology and innovation in the wood
industry. In 2013 and 2016 Fred did internships at the Forest Product Laboratory, Madison, WI USA, where he
received a Certificate of Appreciation from USDA Forest Service (2013) for his research contribution to the USDA
Forest Product Laboratory.

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Fredriksson, Magnus
Expertise: CT-scanning, Process control, Sawing optimization, Sawing simulation, Sawmill
technology, X-ray scanning
Biography - Magnus Fredriksson
Present employment:
2018- Senior project manager, RemaSawco AB (50 %).
2020- Senior lecturer, Luleå university of technology (LTU), Division of Wood Science and Engineering.
Previous academic employment:
2017-2020 Associate senior lecturer, Luleå university of technology, Division of Wood Science and Engineering.
2014-2016 Researcher, Luleå university of technology, Division of Wood Science and Engineering.
Additional information:
2018- Leave of absence 50 % from LTU to work at RemaSawco AB.
2016 Visiting Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada.
2010-2014 PhD student, Luleå university of technology, Division of Wood Science and Engineering.
2012-2014 Local representative in Skellefteå for the PhD student association, Luleå University of Technology.
2013 Five weeks as guest student at Forstliche Versuchs- und Forschungsanstalt Baden- Württemberg (FVA),
Freiburg, Germany.
2009 MSc in Mechanical Engineering, Linköping University, Sweden.

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Frias, Mariana
Expertise: Wood science, chemical and mechanical engineering
Biography - Mariana Frias
Mariana Frias is a M.Sc. candidate at Laval University in Canada, where she studies the parameters involved in the
process of wood impregnation under the program of Wood Sciences.

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Fruehwald-Koenig, Katja
Expertise: Wood Technology; Products for Timber Engineering; Properties of Wood, Wood and
Natural Fibre Based Products; Production of Wood Based Composites; Utilization of
Hardwoods; Utilization of Oil Palm Lumber
Biography - Katja Fruehwald-Koenig
1999 Graduation (Diploma) in Wood Science and Technology at the University of Hamburg, Germany
1999-2002 Head of the research group wood technology at JOANNEUM RESEARCH Forschungsgesellschaft
mbH, HOLZ.DESIGN.INSTITUT, Judenburg, Austria (applied R&D, consultancy)
2002-2005 Graz University of Technology, Austria (2002-2003 Delegated as scientific officer to Umwelt- und
Innovationszentrum Judenburg GmbH, Zeltweg, Austria, duties: technology transfer, consultancy in timber and
timber engineering; 2003-2005 Senior researcher (teaching and R&D) at the Institute for Timber Engineering and
Wood Technology)
since 2005 Tenure Professor for Products and Production in Timber Engineering at Ostwestfalen-Lippe University
of Applied Sciences and Arts, Lemgo, Germany, Department for Production Engineering and Wood Technology,
Study Courses Wood Technology (Bachelor + Master Program in German), Production Engineering and
Management (Master Program in English), Production Engineering and Management (Master Program in German)
Head of the Laboratory for Timber Engineering: Products and Production
Since 2014 several R&D projects on properties and utilization of oil palm wood

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Fu, Yu
Expertise: Material Biodegradation
Biography - Yu Fu
Yu Fu is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering at the University of North
Texas. Her research currently focuses on the biodegradation of natural fiber and plant-based adhesives. Yu received
her bachelor’s degree from the Northeast Forestry University in China where she majored in Wood Science and
Engineering.

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Gallardo, Alberto Quintana

Expertise: Sustainable Building Construction, Life Cycle Assessment, Building Acoustics
Biography - Alberto Quintana Gallardo
Alberto was born in Valencia, Spain. He obtained a bachelor’s degree in Technical Architecture in 2014. After that,
he decided to study a master’s degree in Acoustic Engineering. It was during that period when he started to be
interested in research. As its master’s final dissertation, he programed and performed a FDTD simulation of sound
diffusers based on sonic crystals. After publishing and presenting those results in the Spanish National Congress on
Acoustics (Tecniacústica), he was offered a position as a research assistant. The position implied working on the
Life Cycle Assessment of sustainable building materials and to characterize their acoustic properties. Over the last
four years he has been working on different materials such as, bio-epoxy composites, sheep wool, wooden-framed
rice straw panels and clay concrete. He is currently working on a project to boost the valorization of the rice straw
generated in Valencia and projects to boost the use of wood in the Spanish building sector.

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Gardner, Douglas
Expertise: Wood Science and Technology
Biography - Doug Gardner
Douglas J. Gardner is Professor and Program Leader of Forest Operations, Bioproducts & Bioenergy in the School
of Forest Resources at the University of Maine. He is also member of the Advanced Structures and Composites
Center and Forest Bioproducts Research Institute. Gardner’s research, teaching, and service activities focus on
polymer and interfacial science aspects of wood-polymer composite materials. He is also involved in research in the
areas of adhesion and surface science, cellulose nanocomposites, extruded wood plastic composites, and additive
manufacturing. He has co-authored over 230 technical publications and 140 research presentations, and 5 patents.
Gardner is a Fellow and Past-President of the Society of Wood Science and Technology (SWST). He is also a
member of the American Chemical Society, Forest Products Society, and Society of Plastic Engineers. Doug serves
on the editorial advisory board of Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives. He has been recognized for his work by
receiving the 1992 Cahn Award, and the 2004-2005, 2011-2012 and 2018-2019 G. Peirce and Florence Pitts Weber
Outstanding Researcher in Forest Resources Award, the 2007 Director’s Outstanding Faculty Award at the AEWC
Center, University of Maine, 2008 Forest Products Society L. J. Markwardt Wood Engineering Award and the
SWST 2010 2nd Place, 2012 3rd Place, 2013 Honorable Mention, and 2017 1st Place George Marra Award of
Excellence. He was awarded the SWST Distinguished Service Award in 2014 and the SWST Distinguished
Educator Award in 2018. He appeared in Strathmore’s Who’s Who 2007-2008. In December 2005 he was a visiting
lecturer at Beijing Forestry University, and in June 2006 was a visiting lecturer at BOKU, Vienna, Austria and in
March 2015 was a visiting lecturer at the Slovak Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia. He was recognized as an
Honorary Member of the Union of Wood Processing Manufacturers of the Slovak Republic in 2000.
Doug has a BS degree in Forestry (1980) and Certificate of Advanced Study in Pulp and Paper Management (1981)
from the University of Maine, and a PhD degree from Mississippi State University (1985).

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Gavric, Igor
Expertise: Civil engineering, timber engineering, seismic engineering, structural engineering,
cross-laminated timber, mass timber, timber connections
Biography - Igor Gavric
Dr. Igor Gavric is a researcher in the Sustainable Building with Renewable Materials research group at the
InnoRenew CoE and an assistant at the Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies,
University of Primorska. He graduated in Civil Engineering at the Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering,
University of Ljubljana in 2009. In 2013 he earned his PhD degree in Civil Engineering from the University of
Trieste, Italy, in collaboration with the Trees and Timber Institute of Italian National Research Council (CNR
IVALSA) in Trento. His PhD research focused on experimental testing and analytical modelling of seismic
behaviour of cross-laminated timber (CLT) buildings. During his doctorate programme he was a visiting researcher
at FPInnovations, Vancouver, Canada, and at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand and actively participated
in COST action FP1004. After completing his PhD, he worked on postdoctoral research projects with University of
Sassari, Italy and as a researcher at FPInnovations in Vancouver, Canada. He also has 5 years of experience in
structural design practice, construction of timber buildings, and in R&D national and EU projects that he gained at
CBD d.o.o. and at the development center Intech-les. His main research interests are on advanced timber and hybrid
structural systems, tall timber buildings, seismic behaviour and design methods of cross-laminated timber (CLT)
buildings, and cyclic behaviour of timber building wall systems and connections. Dr. Gavric is a member of
CEN/TC250/SC8/WG3 working group Eurocode 8: Earthquake resistance design of structures – Timber structures.

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Gazo, Rado
Expertise: Wood Products Processing
Biography - Rado Gazo
Rado Gazo, PhD is a professor of Forestry and Natural Resources in the Department of Forestry and Natural
Resources Wood Research Laboratory at Purdue University. He authored or co-authored 63 successful proposals for
grants and contracts, totaling $6.5 million (attributable to him), with over $5.5 million of that related to evaluating
tree, log and lumber quality using CT, laser and image scanning research and development. He has published 40
refereed research journal articles, 5 teaching articles, 6 book chapters, 50 refereed proceeding articles and 175 other
publications. He has given more than 115 invited and 210 other presentations to research an industry groups. He also
teaches several classes including Properties of Wood, Secondary Wood Products Manufacturing and Furniture
Design for CNC.
Rado is an active member of his professional societies. He served for many years as a chair of the Ohio Valley
Section and board of director of the Forest Products Society and the Society of Wood Science and Technology. He
currently serves as a board director of Ohio Valey Lumber Drying Association.
Before attending graduate school, Rado worked in a sawmill and a furniture company. He received his M.S. in 1989
from the Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia and his Ph.D. in 1994 from Mississippi State University. Before
joining Purdue University, Rado worked as a researcher at the Louisiana Forest Products Laboratory and as a
visiting scientist at the New Zealand Forest Research Institute.
Rado has worked with over 100 companies, often in consulting capacity. His research focuses on the application of
industrial engineering and operation research techniques to problems in primary and secondary wood products
manufacturing industries. In this field, he was the first to develop a flow simulation program that models processing
of wood in a furniture company. Companies using his program were able to increase significantly their raw material
utilization and process effectiveness. His continuing efforts in this area have brought him international recognition
that includes invited papers, a paid visiting research scientist position in New Zealand and a grant from Canadian
government/industry research institution, among others.
Since 2004, working closely with Indiana primary and secondary industry, Indiana Hardwood Lumbermen’s
Association and others, Dr. Gazo helped to formulate a strategy for research on advanced wood products
manufacturing. This strategy has now been adopted by then newly created Indiana State Department of Agriculture
and was actively supported by Purdue University’s Center for Advanced Manufacturing. In the framework of these
efforts, Dr. Gazo refocused a major portion of his research activities on the development of CT scanning of logs and
lumber, and establishment of a Hardwood Scanning Center. He organized a consortium of Indiana hardwood lumber
and veneer manufacturers and other state and national institutions to fund this new area of research. In 2012, this
effort has successfully brought the industry first-ever commercially available industrial-grade CT scanner and

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related optimization software, and in 2018, the industry first-ever successful automated hardwood lumber grading
system.

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Georgiades, Maria
Expertise: Wood Technology and Management
Biography - Maria Georgiades
Maria Georgiades is a starting master student in Wood Technology and Management at the University of Natural
Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna, where she did her Bachelor Degree in Wood and Fibre Technology. For her
bachelor thesis she had a project on climbing holds made from epoxy and different bio-based materials. Then she
started a part-time job at the Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials in a research project dealing
with wood dust.

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Guebitz, Georg
Expertise: Enzyme Technology
Biography - Georg Guebitz
Prof. Dr. Georg M. Guebitz obtained his PhD in Biotechnology from TU-Graz in 1996. As an Erwin-Schroedinger
Fellow, he investigated enzymatic processes for lignocellulose processing at University of British Columbia, Canada
from 1996 – 98. Since 2013, he holds a full professorship at University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna and is the head of the Department of Agrobiotechnology and of the Institute of Environmental
Biotechnology with focus on biotechnical functionalisation and processing of materials. He has participated in 30
European projects related to polymer processing and coordinated 9 out of which. In parallel, he cooperated with
industry and research centres such as ACIB. Gübitz has published more than 350 scientific papers in peer reviewed
journals, he holds 16 patents and has edited various books.

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Gusenbauer, Claudia
Expertise: Wood characterization, atomic force microscopy, chemical force microscopy, wood
functionalization, wood cell wall science
Biography - Claudia Gusenbauer
Claudia Gusenbauer is currently working as a doctoral student at the Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable
Materials, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences. In her thesis, she focusses on novel, high
resolution characterization techniques. The core of her experimental work is Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), a
method which revealed astonishing insights into lignocellulosic materials. With the further development of this
method together with complementary approaches such as Raman and Infrared Microscopy, she intends to support
the optimization of wood modification procedures. From May to July 2019, she was working at Lehigh University,
PA, USA, at the Department of Chemistry at a Scanning Probe Microscopy research lab, in which she learned
functionalization procedures and optimized measurement set-ups.
During her master´s program wood technology and management (BOKU), she studied
for one semester at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) in Uppsala, Sweden. In her master thesis,
which was awarded with the Klaus-Fischer Innovation Award and BOKU Talent Award, she was developing new
insulation materials. At the research institute Wood K plus and in the innovation team of Weitzer Parkett, an
Austrian wood flooring producer, she gained work experience in the fields of wood adhesive systems, standards and
regulations which are relevant in the field of wood science and technology.

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Hadi, Yusuf Sudo

Expertise: Wood bio-composites; Wood modification;Wood preservation
Biography - Yusuf Sudo Hadi
Head of Biocomposites Division.

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Hansmann, Christian
Expertise: Wood modification and functionalization, Natural building materials
Biography - Christian Hansmann
Christian Hansmann finished his PhD at BOKU and Wood K plus in 2004 on the topic of "Chemical modification of
solid wood". After that he started working as a Senior Researcher at the competence center. Now he is Key
Researcher, Teamleader of the team Smart Wood and Natural Materials and Area Manager of the area Wood
Materials Technologies. His main research focus is besides fundamental research into wood modification on the
development of functionalised all new biobased materials.

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Haviarova, Eva
Expertise: Sustainable Wood Products Design
Biography - Eva Haviarova
Dr. Eva Haviarova is an associate professor of Wood Products Engineering and Strength Design in The Department
of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University. She is responsible for teaching of World Forest and Society,
Global Sustainability Issues, and several Wood Products Development courses. She is conducting research in areas
of Strength Design, Sustainable Product Development, Value Added for Hardwoods, Design and Development of
Low-Cost Furniture for Underprivileged, Design of Light Timber Frames, Global Sustainability Issues, and
advanced Wood ID. She has published over 50 peer-reviewed publications and delivered over 200 professional
presentations. Through her outreach activities, she is working mainly with the forest products industry. She is active
member of several professional associations and currently serves as the President of the Society of Wood Science
and Technology.

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Heim, Lucie
Expertise: Agroforestry, wood development
Biography - Lucie HEIM
I am a french PhD student. My thesis entitled "Understanding the mechanisms of xylogenesis and the physiology of
poplars, black locust and walnut trees in agroforestry for a valorization in the wood sectors" just started in January,
2020. Three laboratories are involved : LaBoMaP (ENSAM), UMR PIAF (INRAE) and UR BioWooEb (Cirad).

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Hellmayr, Raphaela
Expertise: Cradle to cradle in wood technology
Biography - Raphaela Hellmayr
Raphaela Hellmayr is a PhD student at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna at the
Institut of Wood Technology and Natural Materials. She holds a Masters Degree in Wood Technology and
Management obtained at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna. She obtained a Bachelors
degree in Forest Products Technology & Timber Construction at the Salzburg University of Applied Sciences
(Campus Kuchl, Austria). During her studies she did extensive internships, such as at Stellenbosch University
(South Africa), or at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zuerich. Her research is about novel bio-based
adhesives and applications as well as on specific aspects in wood-processing.

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Hellmeister, Marilia
Expertise: Wood Science, Mass Timber, Sustainability, Life Cycle Assessment
Biography - Marilia Hellmeister
Master's student at the University of Maine - School of Forest Resources. Research interests in the area of Mass
Timber, Carbon emissions, Life Cycle Assessment and environmental impacts. Forest Engineer graduated from Sao
Paulo State University, Brazil. Studied abroad at the University of Kentucky (2013-2014) and completed a summer
internship at the Forest Products Laboratory (FPL-USDA) in the sector anatomy of wood. Experience in Wood
Frame Structures, Forest Logistics and wood certification.

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Hess, Dominik
Expertise: Physical properties of wood, modification of wood
Biography - Dominik Hess
Dominik Hess is a Ph.D. student and young researcher from Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and
Wood Technology, Department of Wood Science and Technology. He is mainly focused on wood modification and
physical properties of wood.

693
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Hogger, Elfriede
Expertise: Research on existing adhesive systems, Method development and analysis of
adhesives
Biography - Elfriede Hogger
Elfriede Hogger is currently working as a Junior Researcher and PhD student at Wood K plus, Kompetenzzentrum
Holz GmbH.
Education:
-2010-2013 Bachelor studies: Forest Products Technology and Timber Construction, FH Salzburg Kuchl
-2013-2015 Master studies: Forest Products Technology and Management, FH Salzburg Kuchl
- 2015-current PhD studies: Wood technology and renewable materials, University of Natural Resources and
Applied Life Sciences, BOKU, Vienna
Focus:
- Research on existing adhesive systems
- Method development and analysis of adhesives

694
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Horváthová M, Michaela
Expertise: Fire engeneering, testing materials on wood and bio based
Biography - Michaela Horvathova
none

695
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Hyytiä, Annika
Expertise: Sustainable development internationally in forests and forest products
Biography - Annika Hyytiä

Annika Rantala (Hyytiä)

Student, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences

Doctoral Student, Forest Economics and Marketing, "Sustainable development – International framework –
Overview and analysis in the context of forests and forest products", Department of Forest Sciences, University of
Helsinki, Finland

696
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Jahan, Md Sarwar
Expertise: Pulping, Biorefinery and Wood Chemistry
Biography - Md Sarwar Jahan
After completing M.Sc in Applied Chemistry, Dr. Jahan joined in BCSIR Labs in 1992 and started his carrier on
pulp and paper. He received PhD degree, completed postdoctoral research on wood and pulping chemistry. Dr.
Jahan was a Visiting Scholar at the University of New Brunswick. So far I have published more than 160 research
articles in different international journals. His main focus of research is to utilize lignocelluloses in producing pulp,
chemicals and biomaterials.

697
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Jakob, Matthias
Expertise: Wood modification, Wood densification
Biography - Matthias Jakob
Matthias Jakob is currently working as a doctoral candidate at the Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable
Materials, BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna.
After a school education in cooking, he is today more often cooking wood veneers than vegetables, to get the best
out of wood. His research topic focusses on the modification of wood to enhance its mechanical and physical
properties and to make it more competitive to metals and well-established polymer composites. The main idea of his
work is to increase the wood's density by transversal compression to exploit the well-known density-strength
relationship of wood. To avoid damages during densification, he reduces the cell wall rigidity by a partially
delignification of wood.
Matthias Jakob holds a bachelor degree in “Environment and Bio-Resources Management” and a master degree in
“Material and Energetic Exploitation of Renewable Raw Materials”. During these highly interdisciplinary programs,
he found his passion in wood and natural fibers sciences. True to the motto “Try to use wood in a material way, at
the end you can still burn it.”, he is today focusing more on the material- than on the energetic exploitation.

698
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Jambrkovic, Branimir
Expertise: Additive Manufacturing (Fused Deposition Modeling), Bio-based composites (Wood
filaments), 4D printingRaman spectroscopy, Forest Products Technology, CNC Technology
Biography - Branimir Jambreković
Branimir Jambreković was born on December 10, 1991, in Bjelovar. He finished elementary school in Nova Rača
and high school of mathematics in Bjelovar. In 2010, he enrolled at the Faculty of Forestry, University of Zagreb,
where he graduated in 2015 and earned a master's degree in wood technology. He has been employed since May 16,
2016, at the Faculty of Forestry as an assistant at the Institute of Wood Science, where he enrolled in the
postgraduate doctoral study the same year. On the Institute of Wood Science, he is entrusted with the
implementation of exercises from the teaching courses Technical properties of wood 1, Technical properties of
wood 2, Physical properties of wood, Mechanical properties of wood, Investigation of physical and mechanical
properties of wood, Special products of wood, Technological properties of wood .

699
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Jullien, Delphine
Expertise: Analysis of the hygromechanical behavior of wood for the conservation of painted
panels from cultural heritage, Characterization of the physical properties of tropical wood used in
clarinets, Tree biomechanics: growth stresses and wind effect, Material constituting the hives:
interaction between wood and health of bee colonies
Biography - delphine jullien
PhD 1995 (University of Montpellier),
assistant-professor 1998- (University of Montpellier),
head of Wood team of LMGC (University of Montpellier) 2017-.
Research in wood mechanics, especially tree biomechanics: growth stresses assessment and modelling in trees,
relation with tree morphology; application to conservation of wooden objects from cultural heritage: monitoring of
in situ microclimate and deformations of painted panels, use of image correlation, hygroscopic behaviour of wood,
mechanical simulation of restoration acts or artwork manipulations in close collaboration with restorers; and more
recently interaction between the beehive material and the honey-bee colonies: influence of wood specie on bees
health.

700
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Justin, Atanasso Akpovi

701
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kain, Stefan
Expertise: Additive Manufacturing (Fused Deposition Modeling), Bio-based composites (Wood
filaments), 4D printingRaman spectroscopy, Forest Products Technology, CNC Technology
Biography - Stefan Kain
DI Stefan Kain, BSc completed his master's degree in 2016 (degree program: wood technology and wood
management) at the University of Applied Sciences Salzburg. In the same year he started working as a junior
researcher at the University of Applied Sciences Salzburg (Campus Kuchl) and was entrusted with the research
project "TFP Hybrid Materials", which was successfully completed in December 2019.
Since January 2020, he has been working as a junior researcher for the "SCSM - Salzburg Center for Smart
Materials" project, in which he deals with the processing and characterization of biogenic materials for Fused
Deposition Modeling (3D printing). In addition, Stefan Kain is working on his doctorate at the University of
Salzburg (NAWI) under the supervision of Prof. Alexander Petutschnigg (University of Applied Sciences Salzburg)
and Prof. Maurizio Musso (University of Salzburg).

702
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kamgoj, Gourav
Expertise: Wood Science and Technology
Biography - Gourav Kamboj
Gourav Kamboj

• Education:

2009 – 2012 Graduate in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics. Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra-India.
2012 – 2014 Masters in Wood Science and Technology. Forest research Institute (Dehradun)-India.
Since 2017 Doctoral degree program in Wood Processing and Technology in Czech University of Life Science-
Prague
• Other knowledge -foreign languages, passing special courses, etc:
English. Hindi.
• Employment and work experience - including student stays:
2014 –2015 -quality inspector of furniture in C.L. Gupta Export Pvt. Ltd. India.
2015 – 2018 -quality executive in Fab India overseas Pvt. Ltd.

703
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kasal, Bohumil
Expertise: Wood Civil Engineering

Dr. Bohumil Kasal graduated in 1980 from the Technical University Zvolen in Slovakia with the engineering degree
(Ing.) in Wood Technology. Between 1980 and 1987 he worked at the State Wood Research Laboratory in
Bratislava, Department of Physics as a Research Engineer. Between 1987 and 1989, Dr. Kasal worked at the area of
wood composites at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, USA and received a MS
degree in Sustainable Biomaterials. He then moved to Oregon State University (1989-1992) where he worked as a
Research Associate and received a MS degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering (Structures) and PhD degree
in Renewable Materials with minors in Applied Mathematics and Structural Engineering. In 1992 he worked at
Alpine Engineered Products, Inc. in Pompano Beach, Florida as a Research and Development Engineer. Since 1992,
Dr. Kasal was an Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor at the North Carolina State University in
Raleigh, NC at the Department of Wood and Paper Science. He also held a faculty position at the department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering. At NC State, Dr. Kasal´s work focused on engineering applications of wood,
relations between genetic markers and wood properties, and methods for the in-situ evaluation of timber. Dr. Kasal´s
work in historic timber evaluation was presented by the US National Science Foundation in its budget request to the
Congress of the United States in 2005 as one the examples of a successful international research. Dr. Kasal´s
research on light-frame wood structures under natural hazard loads was discussed in various media networks such as
ABC, NBC or NBC International, and in 2001-2002, Dr. Kasal was a Senior Fulbright Scholar and Visiting
Professor in Dresden, Germany. During that time, he led an EU research project on seismic performance of timber
frames that was featured by the EU as an example of a successful team research.
In 2005, Dr. Kasal was named the Bernard and Henrietta Hankin Chair of Residential Building Construction at the
Pennsylvania State University at University Park, PA – a prestigious endowed chair position. He was also appointed
a Professor of Architectural Engineering and a Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and directed the
Pennsylvania Housing Research Center. At Penn State, Dr. Kasal conducted research on low-rise buildings
subjected to wind loads and directed international research on timber structures under seismic loading and composite
wood structures. He taught courses in wood mechanics, wood composites and the design of timber structures. Dr.
Kasal held honorary appointments at the University of Bristol, UK and University of New Brunswick, Canada,
adjunct Professorship at the North Carolina State University, USA and he is a Professor at the Czech Technical
University in Prague, Czech Republic and Professor at the University of Primorska, Slovenia.
In 2010, Dr. Kasal was selected to be the Director of the Fraunhofer Institute for Wood Research, Wilhelm-
Klauditz-Institute WKI. At the same time, he was appointed as a Professor of Organic and Wood-based
Construction Materials at the Technical University of Braunschweig.
Kasal is a member of the American Academy of Mechanics, American Society of Experimental Mechanics, Society
of Wood Science and Technology and a number of other professional societies and editorial boards and has authored
over 200 publications. He is also accredited as a professional engineer in the area of diagnostics and building
evaluation. In 2011 he was elected a Fellow of the International Academy of Wood Science and in 2017 a Member
of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

704
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kibleur, Pierre
Expertise: Wood-based panels, X-ray micro-tomography, Image processing
Biography - Pierre Kibleur
Pierre Kibleur obtained his master's degree in Computational Science and Engineering from EPFL (Ecole
Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne), in 2018. His current research at Ghent University revolves around the
dynamic behavior of wood-based panels, particularly swelling due to water absorption.

705
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Koc, Kucuk Huseyin

Expertise: Industrial management, furniture, quality improvement applications
Biography - Kucuk Huseyin KOC
He is a faculty member at Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Industry
Engineering. His work focuses on forest industry, furniture, industrial management and quality. He has around 140
publications in the study area. 16 of these publications have been published in international refereed journals. 25 of
the publications are papers presented at international scientific meetings and their full text is published. 75 of them
are articles published in national refereed journals. 40 of the publications are in the form of papers presented at
national scientific meetings and published in full text. He has also published two books, a common national patent
that has been approved, and several ongoing and completed projects.

706
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kolajo, Tolulope
Expertise: Pulp and Paper technology, Biocomposites, Biomass processing
Biography - Tolulope Kolajo
Bio-sketch on Tolulope Eunice KOLAJO
I am a young faculty member who has just obtained a Ph.D. and given a teaching position at the Department of
Wood Products Engineering, Faculty of technology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. A thorough, meticulous and
excellence driven person with special interest in teaching and research. My research has been focused on the
indigenous plants in pulp and papermaking as well as conversion of agricultural and forest wastes to renewable
energy resources.
Among other researches, I have designed and constructed a chemical reactor that operates on low temperature
(published in International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT). ISSN: 2278-0181.Vol. 5
Issue 01, January-2016. Pg. 217-219) for delignification of non-woody biomass into cellulose pulp laps for the paper
industry and bio-refineries. The reactor was constructed using locally sourced materials and technology and can be
easily operated, repaired and maintained, providing more earnings from maize production as well as job
opportunities for the teeming unemployed youths. I have conducted a study to obtain the optimum chemical
pretreatment schedule for the maize stalk biomass, produced and characterized bio-ethanol from maize stalks.
I have presented some research findings on some indigenous plants that have been found suitable for papermaking
as well as biosynthesis in some local conferences (35th and 39th Annual Conference of the Forestry Association of
Nigeria, 3rd Biennial National Conference of the Forest and Forest Products Society). My research focus is the use of
other agricultural wastes: coconut husks, banana and plantain stalks, cassava peels, sugarcane bagasse which are
abundantly cultivated in Nigeria into renewable energy resources to maximize output from farming and forest
operations, and domesticating the machines and processes.
An opportunity to attend the SWST 2020 Convention will provide the requisite exposure, learning new techniques in
bio-energy conversion and storage, learning new information, finding solutions to problems.

707
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kovacevic, Marko
Expertise: VOC emission from wood and wood-based materials; process optimization regarding
VOC-emission
Biography - Marko Kovacevic
Marko Kovačević is a junior researcher at Kompetenzzentrum Holz (Wood K Plus), a research institute in the area
wood and wood-related resources located in Austria. Since 2018 Marko’s main research topics have been VOC-
emission from wood and wood-based products, as well as VOC-emission reduction by modifying production
process parameters. He is a PhD-Student at University of Renewable Materials and Life Sciences (BOKU) and is
currently enrolled in a Micromasters program in Data Analytics at Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech).
Marko graduated from University of Belgrade with a diploma degree in wood science and from University of
Renewable Materials and Life Sciences (BOKU) with a master’s degree in wood technology and management.

708
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Krajnc, Luka
Expertise: Forestry, wood, mechanical properties, silviculture, non-destructive evaluation
Biography - Luka Krajnc
Luka Krajnc, PhD, is a forestry researcher studying what affects mechanical and physical properties of wood and
how to manipulate them in the forest. He specialises in using non- and semi-destructive methods for assessing
mechanical and physical properties of wood at various stages, from standing trees to wood products.

709
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Krystofiak, Tomasz
Expertise: Proecological adhesives and lacquer products, Glue-lines and lacquer coatings, Wood
modification, Wettability and surface phenomena, Wood based materials
Biography - Tomasz Krystofiak
Tomasz Krystofiak - Dr habil. eng.; He works in the Department of Wood Based Materials, Laboratory of Gluing
and Finishing of Surfaces on Poznan University of Life Sciences (Poland). In 2002 he finished PhD. work. He is
interested in proecological adhesives and lacquer products, properties of the glue-lines and coatings, wettability and
adhesion processes, activation and modification of the different surfaces. Member of Management Committee in the
COST Action CA15216.

710
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Kuzman, Manja Kitek

Expertise: Developing wood construction, innovative use of wood, sustainable wood products
and product design, energy-efficient timber construction, building modernization with
prefabricated components and architects’ perception of engineer wood product, 3D-printing
design and healthy living environment with wood
Biography - Manja Kitek Kuzman
Dr. Manja Kitek Kuzman is an associate professor of architecture at the Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood
Science and Technology, University of Ljubljana. She is responsible for teaching of construction and design,
innovations and sustainable wood architecture. Her research and teaching interests revolve around developing wood
construction, innovative use of wood, sustainable wood products and product design. Her current research interests
include comparison of wood constructions in US and Europe and architects’ perception of engineer wood product,
3D-printing design and healthy living environment with wood.

711
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Larasatie, Pipiet
Expertise: competitive marketing and business management strategies of forest products
industries, including business development of engineered wood products, public perceptions of
wooden multi storey building (Tall Wood Buildings), digitalization in business, and gender
diversity in the forest sector workforce and higher education
Biography - Pipiet Larasatie
Interdisciplinary scholar and social scientist studying competitive marketing and business management strategies of
forest products innovation, including business development of engineered wood products (Cross Laminated
Timber/CLT), public perceptions of wooden multi-storey building (Tall Wood Buildings), and gender diversity in
the forest sector workforce and higher education.
For more information about her research, please visit www.competitive-forest.com

712
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Leban, Jean-Michel
Expertise: Wood Science
Biography - Jean-Michel LEBAN
Jean-Michel Leban is Research Director, EFPA, INRA, Champenoux, France.
He is Editor in chief for Annals of Forest Science
He was Professor, Director of the School of Wood Science (ENSTIB), Lorraine University
Research area, linking Growth and Yield and Wood Properties models, microdensitomtry

713
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Lechowic, Daniel
Expertise: Machining processes of wood and wood-based products and smart manufacturing
solutions for the wood industry
Biography - Daniel Lechowicz
Daniel Lechowicz studied Wood Technology at Poznań University of Life Sciences and majored in Mechanical
Wood Technology. He is a Junior Researcher in Competence Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry in
Tulln, Austria. As a member of the Mechanical Disintegration Team, his current research interests include
machining processes of wood and wood-based products and smart manufacturing solutions for the wood industry.

714
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Leiter, Lena Maria

Expertise: Wood Technology and Management, Material and Energetic Exploitation of
Renewable Raw Materials
Biography - Lena Maria Leiter
I am about to graduate in the two master degrees "Wood Technology and Management" and "Material and Energetic
Exploitation of Renewable Raw Materials (NAWARO)" at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna. Last year I did a 6 month student exchange via ERASMUS at the Ghent University (Belgium) as part of my
studies.
I have a great passion for working with wood, especially as a renewable raw- and building material. During my
school time at a high school with a focus on forestry I had the opportunity to work in several forestry companies,
which extended my knowledge of the business aspects of working with the material. During my studies, I
concentrated on the processing of wood and thus expanded my experience with wood as a material.
At my high school I practiced my communicative skills as a pupil representative and at the University I continued as
an elected student representative for forestry and wood industry. It was not only my job to help students, but also to
keep an active communication with the
lecturers. Thus, I also became a member of the "academic study commission for the development and improvement
of the related curricula (forestry, timber industry, natural dangers and wild life)".
Through this work I had the opportunity to participate in the "Student workshop at schweighofer Prize 2017". In
2019 I was part of a team that participated in the "Evergreen Innovation Camp Hackathon".

715
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Li, Jing
Expertise: Structure and mechanical characterization of biomass materials
Biography - jing li
Personal biography
Jing Li, Chinese citizen, Female, Born on August 15, 1985. Devoted to scientific research on the structure and
function of biomass materials. Mainly engaged in the studies on the macroscopic and microscopic morphological
structure characterization of wood/bamboo, mechanical properties testing and its environmental factors etc;
Introduced the artificial intelligence deep learning algorithms into the field of bamboo structure research, and solved
the key technical problems of automatic detection, positioning, counting and measurement of related morphological
parameters for different types of vascular bundles; Developed "Rapid Analysis of Section Structure of Functionally
Graded Material " software.
Education
09/2019 - present Ph. D. Candidate in Wood Science and Technology. Chinese Academy of Forestry, China.
09/2017 - 06/2019 Master of Science in Wood Science and Technology. International Center for Bamboo and
Rattan, China.
09/2003 - 06/2007 Bachelor of Management. Central South University of Forestry and Technology, China.

716
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Li, Jingyu
Expertise: Wood physics
Biography - Jingyu Li
Doctor candidate from Beijing Forestry University. Interested in wood-water study.

717
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Li, Ling
Expertise: Wood physics, wood pellets, biomass, bioenergy
Biography - Ling Li
Dr. Ling Li is an assistant professor of sustainable bioenergy systems at the School of Forest Resources of the
University of Maine.

718
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Li, Shujun
Expertise: Wood Protection, Wood Chemistry
Biography - Shujun Li
Shujun Li got her Ph.D. in 2001 at Northeast Forestry University, China, majored in Wood Science and Technology,
Since September 1, 2007, she has worked for more than 12 years as a full professor at College of Material Science
and Engineering, Northeast Forestry University. She visited Oregon State University twice, in the group of Prof. Jeff
Morrell.

719
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Liang, Daxin
Expertise: Cellulose; biomass composites; water treatment; adsorption
Biography - Daxin Liang
Dr. Daxin Liang is an Associate Professor in College of Materials Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry
University. Dr. Daxin Liang has published numerous SCI indexed papers on the subject of thermoelectrics, biomass
composites, and nanomaterials. He is a recognized expert in materials science, giving many invited papers at
international meetings around the world. His work published in Nano Letters (Flexible Nanocrystal-Coated Glass
Fibers for High-Performance Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting, Nano Letters, 2012, 12, 2140) attracted global
interest, and was reported by over 10 international media such as Science Daily and C&EN.

720
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Lipovac, Dean
Expertise: Mental health in the built environment
Biography - Dean Lipovac
Dean Lipovac completed a master’s degree in applied psychology at the Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences
and Information Technologies, University of Primorska (UP), in Koper, Slovenia and is currently a PhD student. He
is an assistant researcher at the InnoRenew CoE and Andrej Marušič Institute (UP). His main research interest is the
connection between the built environment and human mental health. His work is focused on researching how
different materials used in indoor design influence physiological, emotional, and cognitive indicators of well-being.

721
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Liu, Huanrong
Expertise: Bamboo based engineering material, especially in the manufacture process, testing,
utilities, and pruduct in structure and furniture
Biography - Huanrong Liu
Huanrong Liu, PhD. , Assistant researcher of International Center for bamboo and rattan. Her main research:
Bamboo engineering composites.
Bamboo is rich in China, She mainly work on bamboo-based composite, including the reasonable and scientific
designing, manufacturing, and performance-evaluating (static performance and impact and fatigue performance), in
order to explore sufficient utilization of bamboo engineering composites in area of building, bridge, boat, and so on.

722
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Liu, Wendi
Expertise: Natural fibers-reinforced composites; Polymer composites
Biography - wendi liu
Dr. Wendi Liu is a researcher at College of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry
University (FAFU), China. He obtained two Ph.D. degrees in Forestry Engineering from FAFU in 2016 and
Integrated Systems Science from Akita Prefectural University, Japan in 2019. He had a visiting experience in Civil
Engineering at Brunel University, UK from January 2015 to November 2017.
Dr. Liu has more than 7 years experience in the research of natural fibers reinforced polymer composites. He has
authored more than 20 papers in the leading wood science and composites science journals including Cellulose,
Holzforschung, Wood Science and Technology, Composites Science and Technology, Composites Part A, ACS
Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering, etc. His research interests include surface modification of natural fibers,
development of biobased thermosets from vegetable oils, as well as strengthening and toughening of poly(lactic
acid)-based blends and composites.

723
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Liu, Yamei
Expertise: Wood anatomy, Biomass materials
Biography - Yamei Liu
I come from School of Forestry&Landscape Architecture , Anhui Agricultural University, I teach undergraduates in
it, and I also do research on wood science and technology. My research fields are the qualities and uses of wood, and
biomass composite materials. I graduated with a PhD in 2010 and been a teacher up to now. I also worked as a
student counselor from 2015 to 2019. I have presided and participated in more than 10 scientific research projects,
such as National natural science foundation of China, The National Key Research and Development Plan of China,
and so on. Since 2007, I have had about ten papers published in different journals, including Ann. For. Sci.
Nowadays, I have finished two main projects, one is focus on the formation of reaction wood , the other is on the
wood quality properties in fast-growing plantations.

724
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Liu, Yuansong
Expertise: Wood science and technology
Biography - Yuansong Liu
Liu yuansong, male, born in ganzhou city, jiangxi province, China,1993-12-08, is currently studying in the school of
materials science and technology, Beijing forestry university. The bachelor's degree was completed in Inner
Mongolia agricultural university, and master's degree was completed in nanjing forestry university. The research
interests include wood composites and biological modification of wood, and he has published relevant papers in
related journals, such as Composite structures, Dyes and pigments, European Journal of Wood and Wood Products.

725
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Llana, Daniel
Expertise: Non-destructive testing for grading new timber and evaluation of existing structures,
Reuse and recycling of recovered wood, Standardization
Biography - Daniel F. Llana
Dr. Daniel F. Llana
2007. Bachelor of Engineering (Agronomy) by Universidad de León, Spain.
2010. M.Sc.Eng. (Rural Construction) by Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain.
2016. Ph.D. by Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain. Topic: Non-destructive techniques applied to structural
grading of timber in new and rehabilitation works.
2016-2017. Post-doc at the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain. Topic: Assessment of existing timber
structures by NDT techniques.
2017-2020. Post-doc in the Timber Engineering Research Group of the National University of Ireland Galway,
Ireland. Main topics: Engineered Wood Products, Recycling of timber from demolition and Hardwood forest.
2020-present. Post-doc in the Timber Construction Research Group of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Spain. Topic: Reuse and recycle of timber from demolition in structural products and design for the deconstruction
in the future (InFutUReWood European project).
Main research areas:
Non-destructive testing applied to the grading of structural timber
Assessment of existing timber structures
Reuse and recycle of timber from demolition in mass timber products
Standardization

726
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Loh, Yueh Feng

Expertise: Wood Science and Technology, Oil palm trunk plywood, Biocomposite
Biography - Yueh Feng Loh
n/a

727
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ma, Xinxin
Expertise: Wood and bamboo science and technology
Biography - Xinxin Ma
Xinxin Ma obtained Ph.D at China Academy of Forestry and served as an associate professor at International center
for bamboo and rattan. She engaged in mechanical property of bamboo materials, including creep and fatigue
property of bamboo scrimber and other bamboo-based materials.

728
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Mandal, Sujata
Expertise: Development of sustainable Nanocomposites for pollution control, energy
harvesting/conversion/storage, and biomedical applications; Use of sustainable and low-cost
methods for water purification and wastewater management; Optimization of energy efficiency
in the area of water purification, wastewater management, and sustainable building
Biography - Sujata Mandal
Sujata Mandal is a doctoral candidate and a teaching fellow in the Mechanical and Energy Engineering department
at the University of North Texas. Sujata earned dual master's degrees in Physics (from Kumaun University in India)
and in Sustainable Energy Systems from State University of New York at Cortland. Sujata graduated from her
masters in sustainable energy systems with a strong GPA of 3.6, and she maintains an outstanding GPA of 3.96 in
the program. Prior to joining the University of North Texas, she served as full time visiting faculty of physics in
SUNY Onondaga and an adjunct in the department of chemistry at SUNY Cortland. She received the second prize in
the 3MT thesis competition and received a graduate student research award from the University of North Texas.
Also, while in India, Sujata served as Head of High School Activities between 2011 and 2014 for the Sehwag
International School and served as Department Chair for Science and Mathematics for the Vidya Sanskar
International School and Ashok Hall, India 2006-2010. She was also appointed as Management Representative for
ISO 9001 -Quality Management Policy and ISO -14401-Environment Management Policy. Sujata attended the
International Water Conference at the University of Oklahoma (US) and presented her research work in Sep 2019.

729
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Marrot, Laetitia
Expertise: Composites, textile, lignocellulosic materials, bio-carbon
Biography - Laetitia Marrot
Dr. Laetitia Marrot is a researcher in the Renewable Materials Composites Group at the InnoRenew CoE. She
earned her PhD in Materials Science in 2014 from the University of South Brittany, France and then worked as a
postdoctoral researcher at the University of Grenoble Alpes, France in the Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Science.
Her research has focused on sustainable composites reinforced by natural fibers, mechanical and physico-chemical
properties of natural fibers, adhesion between natural fibers and polymer matrices at several scales of observation,
and optimization of mechanical properties of complex cellulosic products.
At the InnoRenew CoE, she is working on the development of new applications for hemp and wood by products in
the Slovenian industry.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Mascia, Nilson
Expertise: Wood mechanics, Wood structures, Strength of materials
Biography - Nilson Mascia

• Post Doctorates
CNR (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche)
- Ivalsa (Istituto per Valorizzazione del Legno e delle Specie Arboree)
- Florence-Italy,2015-2016
Forest Products Laboratory-Madison-Wi-USA ,2015
State University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, 1998
• Full Professor State University of Campinas, 2011
• Associate Professor in Strength of Materials
State University of Campinas, 1997
• Doctoral Degree in Structural Engineering
State University of São Paulo, 1991
• Master Degree in Structural Engineering
State University of São Paulo, 1985
• Civil Engineer
State University of São Paulo, 1981

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Mensah, Prosper
Expertise: Determine durability, mechanical and physical properties of wood-based and non-
wood-based composite; non-timber forest products (NTFP); industrial utilization of biomass;
sawmilling of wood species, furniture manufacture and testing and utilization of small diameter
trees; Teaching and Training; Facilities management, remodeling of buildings, fixing and
maintenance
Biography - Prosper Mensah
Prosper Mensah is a Principal Technologist in the Wood Industry and Utilization Division of CSIR- Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana. The Institute is mandated among others to 1. Conduct high quality user-focused
forestry research that generates scientific knowledge and appropriate technologies. 2. Disseminate forestry related
information for the improvement of the social, economic and environmental well-being of the Ghanaian people. 3.
To enhance the sustainable development, conservation and efficient utilisation of Ghana's forest resources. 4. To
foster stronger linkages through collaborative research across disciplines among its scientists, stakeholders and
external Institutions.
My filed of interests are to determination of durability, mechanical and physical strength properties of wood, wood-
based and non-wood-based composite products for efficient utilization. Conduct research into non-timber forest
products (NTFP) such as Theobroma cacao stem and Bambusa as alternative to wood to reduce the overexploitation
of timber in Ghana. Research into the industrial utilization of available biomass (Musa
paradisiaca pseudostem, Theobroma cacao pod, sawdust and other Agro forest residues) for the production of
particleboards to build ecological and green houses and also for affordable furniture and housing in Ghana,
sawmilling of wood species, furniture manufacture and testing, teaching and training and facilities management,
remodeling of buildings, fix and maintenance
My Professional Background
2017 – 2020: PhD, Wood Science and Technology, University of Education, Winneba-Kumasi Campus
2006 – 2009: M.Phil. Wood Science and Technology, University of Education, Winneba-Kumasi Campus
2003-2007: B. Ed Technology Education (First Class). University of Education, Kumasi Campus.
1996-2000: Professional Teacher Certificate ‘A’, Post-Secondary (with 2 distinctions) College of Education,
Komenda
Research Project

1. Characterization of particleboards manufactured from four agro-forest residues – comparative between cassava
starch and urea formaldehyde.
2. Anatomical and Chemical mix influencing the characterization and utilization of Theobroma cacao stem wood

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3. Effect of moisture content and preservatives on discoloration of oil palm lumber.

I am current a part-time lecturer in the department of construction and wood in the University of Education
Winneba-Kumasi campus and also Lectures on the same University IDeL program at Ejisuman in Kumasi. I have
successfully supervise sixteen undergraduate student.
Prosper Mensah is active member in International Society of Wood Science and Technology – Wisconsin (2019 to
date), Ghana Science Association (2019 to date) and CSIR-FORIG Research Staff Association (2019 to date).

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Mitchual, Stephen
Expertise: Wood Biomass Energy and Wood Composite Materials
Biography - Stephen Mitchual
Stephen Jobson Mitchual is an Associate Professor in Wood Science and Technology at the University of Education,
Winneba, Ghana. He holds MSc and PhD degrees in Wood Science and Technology from the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology in Ghana. Currently, he is the Dean of the Faculty of Technical Education.
He teaches courses in Wood Science and Technology and other related disciplines at both undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. Over the years, he has extensively conducted research in the area of wood biomass-energy,
wood composite, sawmilling and sawmill safety and has published several scientific research articles in reputable
international journals. He co-authored the following scientific research papers: Physico-chemical characteristics and
market potential of sawdust charcoal briquettes; Effect of species, particle size and compacting pressure on relaxed
density and compressive strength of fuel briquettes; and Briquettes from combination of maize cobs and Ceiba
pentandra at room temperature and low compacting pressure without a binder which have been cited widely in
reputable international journals. Additionally, he has attended and presented his research works at various
international conferences. He is a member of the Society of Wood Science and Technology in the United State of
America.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Moya, Roger
Expertise: Wood species in tropical species, especially wood from plantation; purpose of
producing wood or raw material to produce renewable energy
Biography - Roger Moya
Roger Moya Roque received his B.S from the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, your M.S from Universidad de
Concepción-Chile and PhD from Universidade de São Paulo-Brazil. At Brazil he studied density and anatomy
variation on wood with x-ray densitometry and analysis image, respectively in the PhD research. He joined the
Forestry School of Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica and has served on committees for large number
organizations of Costa Rica. He has authored more than 100 scientific papers and 5 books.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Muilu-Mäkelä, Riina
Expertise: Plant molecular biology, Wood science
Biography - Riina Muilu-Mäkelä
Riina Muilu-Mäkelä has over 15 years of experience in plant and wood science. Originally, she is a molecular
biologist and graduated as a doctor from the University of Oulu in 2015. In her PhD work she investigated abiotic
stress responses of Scots pine seedlings on transcription and metabolite levels and more specifically focused on
polyamine metabolism. She has been involved in several international research projects and worked formerly in
University of Oulu and in Finnish Forest Institute. She got the permanent position in Natural Resources Institue
Finland at the beginning of 2017 and since then she has been a leader of two multidisciplinary projects where the
health and well-being effects of wood materials have been investigated. Riina has been talking about the health
effective properties of wood in different events and has given some interviews to magazines about this popular
subject. Her first state of the art study was written in 2014 about the health benefits of wood in indoor use.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Musah, Munkaila
Expertise: Forest biomaterials; Wood properties, quality and modifications; Mass timber (cross
laminated timber)
Biography - Munkaila Musah
Munkaila Musah is a PhD Candidate at the College of forest Resource and Environmental Science, Michigan
Technological University with research focus on the bonding properties, engineering performance and life cycle
analysis of cross laminated mix species from the Great Lakes region. The primary goal of His research highlights the
bonding performance of wood adhesive composite for load bearing capacities aimed at sustainable wood utilization
efficiency, marketing and application of wood in the construction industry.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Muszynski, Lech
Expertise: Wood-based composites, cross-laminated timber (CLT), mass-timber panel (MTP)
manufacturing; properties
Biography - Lech Muszynski
Dr. Lech Muszyński is a Professor in the Department of Wood Science and Engineering at the Oregon State
University. A native of Poland, he received his M.S. in Wood Technology and Ph.D. in Forestry and Wood
Technology from the Agricultural University of Poznań (now the University of Life Sciences in Poznań). In 1998-
2004 he worked in the Advanced Engineered Wood Composites Center at the University of Maine. His research
area includes mechanical performance of solid wood, advanced wood-based composites, with stress on interface
performance, bonding, durability, fire resistance, damage assessment, and hygro-mechanical behavior. Since 2010
one of the focus areas of his research has been the cross laminated timber (CLT) technology. Dr. Muszyński has
toured CLT manufacturing plants, construction sites, CLT-focused research centers, and CLT-related businesses
across the globe.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Myronycheva, Olena
Expertise: Biodegradation
Biography - Olena Myronycheva
PhD student Wood Science and Engineering

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Nakamurakare, Esteban Ceriani

Expertise: Entomology, Mycology, Forest Pest Management, Ambrosia Beetles, Pheromones
Biography - Esteban Ceriani Nakamurakare
My research interests focus on studying the interactions between tree-pathogens and host plant, i.e. tree-pathogens
being fungus/insects or combination of both. As an undergraduate student I followed the specialization in
entomology, this formation aided me as a PhD candidate providing both conceptual knowledge and laboratory skills
at the time of studying a multitrophic interaction between beetle-plant-fungi (PhD thesis on the most important
forest pest of Populus in Argentina, being an “ambrosia interaction”). During my academic career, I also learned and
applied multiple microbial methodologies of isolation, culturing and fungal identifications techniques. Additionally,
I gained invaluable field experience as I was responsible for more than ten collection-trips amongst different
commercial plantations of Populus spp. in Argentina. Nowadays, as a CONICET-Researcher (early stage) I have
solid skills in bioinformatics, computed tomography analyses and molecular biology.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Negro, Francesco
Expertise: Wood technology; development of innovative wood-based products; grading of
structural timber; sustainability of wood-based products
Biography - Francesco Negro
Francesco Negro is Research fellow in Wood Technology at DISAFA, University of Torino, Italy. He mainly deals
with the development of innovative wood-based products, Regulations in the wood sector and sustainability of wood
and derived products.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Németh, Gábor
Expertise: Finite Element Analysis and the study of the dynamic behaviour of wood material
Biography - Gábor Németh
Gábor Németh is a full-time simulation engineer at Magna International Inc. and a PhD candidate at the University
of Sopron, Hungary, under the supervision of Dr. Endre Magoss and Dr. Sándor Borza.
Given his background in automotive engineering, his main area of research is the dynamic behaviour of wood
material, more precisely the damping effect of different species under free or forced vibration. Since this topic is
considered a fairly neglected subtopic of wood physics, he chose it as a convenient topic for his PhD research as
well. Given the fact that he works with numerical calculations on a daily basis, his research often incorporates FEM
simulations in order to validate his physical measurements and to help with the interpretation of the obtained data.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Neyses, Benedikt
Expertise: Wood modification, Wood densification-(Ionic liquids)
Biography - Benedikt Neyses

• Born and raised in Germany.

• B.Eng. in Mechanical Engineering at FH Aachen University, Germany.
• Moved to Skellefteå, Sweden in 2013.
• M.Sc. in Wood Technology at Luleå University of Technology.
• PhD at Luleå University of Technology, Graduation in October 2019.
• Currently Assistant professor in the Wood Science and Engineering Division at Luleå University of
Technology.
• Climbing and being in nature are my main hobbies.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Niemelä, Aarne
Expertise: Mass Timber and Sustainable Architecture
Biography - Aarne Niemelä
Aarne is architect MSc and assistant researcher at the InnoRenew CoE. He obtained a master’s degree in
architecture and urban planning at Aalto University, after studies at its predecessor, Helsinki University of
Technology, and Technische Universität Berlin. At InnoRenew, his main activity during the last two years has been
the architectural design of the new Research center, which is currently under construction at Izola, Slovenia.
He was born in Turku, Finland and has over 15 years of experience on architectural planning in the fields of
residential, educational, cultural and commercial buildings as well as broader urban development concepts. Together
with Eva Prelovsek Niemelä and various colleagues, he has been awarded in several architectural competitions (e.g.
Europan). Defining the borders between private, semi-private and public spaces is one of his key points of interest in
architecture, along with the shifts between small and large scales. Currently, he is involved with the opportunities of
renewable materials and their potential to bring benign influence on the whole of built environment and its users.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Niemelä, Eva Prelovsek

Expertise: Mass Timber and Sustainable Architecture
Biography - Eva Prelovšek Niemelä
Eva Prelovšek Niemelä is a researcher at the InnoRenew CoE, an architect and authorized designer architect for
buildings in Slovenia. Her main research interest is in using timber in architecture and interior design. Her current
work is based on the implementation of Slovenia's biggest wooden building – InnoRenew CoE institute’s building,
its monitoring during construction and after completion to predict ageing of wood in correlation to weather
conditions, micro-climatic circumstances and design of details.
She finished her education in the field of architecture at the Technical University in Vienna and at the Academy of
Fine arts in Vienna in 2002. In 2006 she finished her master studies at the Faculty of Architecture, University of
Ljubljana. Since 2005 she has been working in her architectural studio Atelje Prelovšek. She set up many
expositions in the National Gallery in Ljubljana and in other galleries in Slovenia and abroad. She conducted many
new buildings and renewals.
Between the years 2008 and 2017 she also regularly wrote articles in architectural magazines and, as a curator and
moderator, co-organized the Month of Design (Mesec oblikovanja) and the Architectural Conferences within the
City of Design in Ljubljana. In the years 2015-2017 she was the chief editor of the architectural magazine HIŠE.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Nop, Patrik
Expertise: Acoustics of wood
Biography - Patrik Nop
Non-available

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Nopens, Martin
Expertise: Wood-Water-Interactions, Timber Construction
Biography - Martin Nopens
Since April 2016 I am working as research associate in the Institute for wood science (Universität Hamburg) within
the workgroup of Prof. Dr. Andreas Krause. Between 2010 and 2016 I studied wood science and technology (B. Sc.
as well as M. Sc.) at the Institute for wood science. In my early days I did an Apprenticeship as cabinetmaker (2000-
2003), as well as an Advanced training master carpenter (2006-2007) and worked from 2003 to 2010 as cabinet
maker at different places.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Nüssel, Luca
Expertise: Triboelectric charging of wood dusts
Biography - Luca Nüssel
Luca Nüssel is a Master student at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna. He is attending
the master programme Wood Technology and Management while he holds a bachelor degree in wood and fiber
technology. Luca is currently working at the Institute of Wood Technology and Natural Materials on the topics of
sawdust reduction and triboelectrical charging of sawdust.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Oporto. Gloria
Expertise: Biomaterials and composites from lignocellulosic sources
Biography - Gloria Oporto
Dr. Gloria S. Oporto is a faculty member in the School of Natural Resources at West Virginia University (WVU).
She completed her B.Sc. in Chemical Engineering at the University of Concepción, Chile, and continued working at
the University of Concepcion as a Research Engineer in areas that included wood chemistry, wood-based
composites, and energy from woody biomass. She received her Doctor of Philosophy degree in Forest Resources
and her certificate in Advanced Engineered Wood Composites from the University of Maine in December, 2009. Dr.
Oporto has been working at WVU since June, 2010 and she was promoted to Associate Professor in 2016 in the
Wood Science and Technology Program. Her main interests are focused in nanomaterials and its application in
advanced composites, and biomaterials from lignocellulosic sources.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Oudjehane, Azzeddine
Expertise: Construction project management, Green building, Sustainability and resilience in
Construction, Mass timber design and construction
Biography - Azzeddine Oudjehane
Dr. Azzeddine Oudjehane has over 30 years of experience leading multi-disciplinary projects in R&D, business
innovation and market development working with various stakeholders from academia, government and industry.
Azzeddine holds graduate degrees in both Applied Science and Business Administration.

In 2012, Azzeddine joined the first undergraduate BSc in Construction Project Management in Canada at SAIT.
Azzeddine strives through teaching excellence to train the next generation of construction project managers in
Alberta and Canada, while developing scholarly applied research that meets the needs of the Alberta industries.

With over 100 publications and presentations at international conferences, Dr. Oudjehane serves in various journal
review committees and has chaired sessions at conferences. In the past year, he gave several presentations and
keynotes on the role of innovation for sustainable construction practices. Azzeddine currently serves as the Vice
Chair of the Leadership Board for the AB Chapter of CaGBC. He is also the treasurer and secretary of the Board of
Directors for Value Analysis Canada. Azzeddine is currently leading several applied research projects demonstrating
the feasibility and value of sustainable and innovation practices in construction.These include sustainable mass
timber design and construction as well as innovation integrating artificial intelligence and unmanned systems in
construction project management.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Özparpucu, Merve
Expertise: Wood materials science
Biography - Merve Özparpucu
Merve Özparpucu is a material scientist who obtained her Ph.D. degree in ETH Zurich in Wood Materials Science
Group in 2018. During her Ph.D., she analyzed genetically modified wood micro-mechanically, chemically and
structurally for understanding the mechanical function of the lignin in the wood cell walls. After her Ph.D., she
became a postdoc researcher at the Technical University of Munich, Chair of wood science. Her current focus lies
on investigating the interactions between the chemical components of wood and wood adhesives which plays a
crucial role in the development of new advanced wood-based materials and composites.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Pan, Mingzhu
Expertise: Wood functional composites
Biography - Mingzhu Pan
Chunxiang Ding, Mingzhu Pan*, He Chen, Shuai Zhang, Changtong Mei*
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Panwar, Rajat
Expertise: Bioeconomy, corporate sustainability and corporate responsibility
Biography - Rajat Panwar
To be added.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Pecnik, Jaka Gasper

Expertise: Wood mechanics, wood adhesive interface, bio-based composite
Biography - Jaka Gašper Pečnik
Jaka Gašper Pečnik, is assistant researcher at Innorenew Coe and Institute Andrej Marušič at the University of
Primorska. He is in charge of mechanical laboratory testing, focusing on static and dynamical properties of the solid
wood, wood-based composites, adhesive bonds and fracture of wood. He is a second year PhD student at the Faculty
of Management of the University of Primorska.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Peszlen, Ilona
Expertise: Wood Science
Biography - ILONA PESZLEN
Ilona Peszlen is an Associate Professor at the Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina University.
Previously, she was a faculty member at the Department of Forestry, Iowa State University and at the Institute of
Wood Sciences, University of West Hungary. She teaches wood property related courses. Her research emphasis is
on juvenile and reaction wood, effects of environment on wood properties, genetic improvement of wood quality,
and on properties and utilization of plantation wood.
Ilona received her B.S. in Wood Technology (1978), her M.S. in Wood Engineering (1979) from the University of
Sopron, and her M.S. in Higher Education (1984) from the University of Gödöllő, Hungary. She was the recipient
of a Fulbright Scholarship and completed her Ph.D. in Wood Science & Forest Products (1993) at the Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. She did post-doctoral research at the North
Carolina State University, Raleigh and at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Pinchevska, Olena
Expertise: Wood drying, wood-based materials
Biography - Olena Pinchevska
Head of the Department of Technology and Design of Wood Products in National University of Life and
environmental Sciences of Ukraine. Scientific interests- wood drying ans science of wood.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Pipiska, Tomas
Expertise: Wood-based composites, plywood, OSB, particleboard
Biography - Tomas Pipiska
The author is focused on the wood composites and bonding of the hardwood species

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Poohphajai, Faksawat
Expertise: Wood Modification, Biomaterials for wood coating
Biography - Faksawat Poohphajai
Faksawat Poohphajai is an assistant researcher in the Wood Modification group at the InnoRenew CoE, Slovenia
and PhD student at Aalto University, Finland. She graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Forestry (Forest
Products) from Kasetsart University, Thailand, in 1996 and worked as a forest officer for the Royal Forest
Department, Thailand, for 15 years. In 2018, she completed a Master of Science in Wood Technology from Luleå
University of Technology, Sweden. Her PhD research topic is "Evaluation of Biofilm for wood protection". The
overall objective of the study is to evaluate the interaction of biofilm that is built up by Aureobasidium
pullulans with wood materials and its mode of actions in protecting the wood substrate against environmental
conditions.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Qiu, Renhui
Expertise: Wood plastic composites; Biocomposites; Biobased resins; Green building materials
Biography - Renhui Qiu
Prof. Renhui Qiu received his Ph. D. degree from the Northeast Forestry University, China. He is currently a
professor and the dean of College of Material Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China. Prof.
Qiu is leading a research group on natural fibers-reinforced polymer composites, natural fibers-reinforced
asphalt/cement concrete materials, pervious concrete, and biobased polymer and composites, in which more than 10
granted projects have been conducted and finished. Prof. Qiu has more than 70 peer-reviewed articles published in
ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, Cellulose, Holzforschung, Wood Science and Technology, Composite
Science and Technology, etc.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Quesada, Henry
Expertise: Industrial Engineering
Biography - Henry Quesada
Dr. Quesada has been a faculty member of the Department of Sustainable Biomaterials since 2008. He works in the
areas of marketing, process improvement and supply chain management applied to wood products.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Reichel, Vicky
Expertise: Hybrid lightweight construction and integrated manufacturing - cutting processes for
multi material components
Biography - Vicky Reichel

• Holding a M. Sc. in Automotive Engineering

• Ph. D. Student since 2017 at Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology at the department
"manufacturing of hybrid components" working at Open Hybrid LabFactory
• Research Focus: Cutting techniques for hybrid components

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ruponen, Jussi
Expertise: Fire safety, Wood products technology, Wood material technology
Biography - Jussi Ruponen
Director, Customer Applications (Dec 2019 – Present)
Product Manager (Feb 2019 – Dec 2019)
Palonot Oy operates a business of a fire-retardation solution provider and a fire-retardant supplier.
I am responsible for global B2B customer management and acquisition. My responsibilities include broad
technological customer support, with demanding application development. Additionally, my expertise is employed
within various R&D projects.
Graduate student researcher and part-time lecturer at Aalto University (Sep 2009 - Present)

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sandak, Anna
Expertise: Wood modification
Biography - Anna Sandak
Anna is the research group leader in Wood Modification at the InnoRenew CoE.
Since 2016 she is an assistant professor and research associate at the Faculty of Mathematics, Natural
Science and Information Technology at the University of Primorska. She was previously employed at
Trees and Timber Institute of Italian National Research Council, where she coordinated the Laboratory of
Surface Characterization.
She has PhD in Wood Science and M.Sc. in Biology. Anna is a member of Italian Society for Near
Infrared Spectroscopy, International Committee for Near Infrared Spectroscopy, International Research
Group on Wood Protection, International Society for Plant Spectroscopy and Network of Early-Career
Sustainable Scientist & Engineers and in 2012 she was nominated as IUFRO Officeholder, deputy of
division 5.03.05 – Biological resistance of wood. She also actively contributes to several COST actions,
including FP1006, FP1101, FP1303, FP1407, FP1405, TU1403, CA 15216 and CA16226.
Her research activities include multi-aspect characterization of lignocellulosic materials, non-destructive
testing, evaluation of degradation level of wood and wood-based products and application of different
spectroscopic techniques for the characterization of bio-based materials. Anna is analyzing the multi-scale
relationship and performance of modified and functionalized bio-based materials and implementing them
as new architectural elements. Her passion is to search for biomimetic solutions for the design of new
materials and to promote knowledge-based use of bio-inspired materials in modern sustainable buildings

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Sandak, Jakub
Expertise: Wood science and technology
Biography - Jakub Sandak
Jakub, “Kuba”, has a Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Sciences from Tottori University (Japan), a
master of Science in Natural Resources Process Engineering from Shimane University (Japan), an
engineer of Wood Science and Technology from University of Life Sciences in Poznan (Poland). He is a
third-generation carpenter, currently a researcher at InnoRenew Centre of Excellence, assistant professor
and research associate at the Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Science and Information Technology at the
University of Primorska.

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Saražin, Jaša
Expertise: Bio-based wood adhesives, bonding wood with metal and curing characterisation of
adhesives
Biography - Jaša Saražin
Jaša Saražin is a doctoral student at University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, scientific area Wood
and Biocomposites. His research work is focused on bio-based wood adhesives, bonding wood with metal
and curing characterisation of adhesives.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Savov, Viktor
Expertise: Technology of Wood-Based Panels; Technology of Fibreboards
Biography - Viktor Savov
Associate Professor at University of Forestry - Sofia, Bulgaria
Department of Mechanical Wood Technology
Subject taught - Technology of Materials from Wood Fibres

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Scharf, Alexander
Expertise: Thermo-mechanical wood densification and hardness testing
Biography - Alexander Scharf
Alexander Scharf is a PhD student in Wood Science and Technology at Luleå University of Technology.
Research topic: Surface densification of wood.

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Schau, Erwin M.
Expertise: Research, with a focus on the life cycle assessment (LCA) methods for bio-based
product system
Biography - Erwin M. Schau
Dr. Erwin M. Schau is a researcher at the InnoRenew CoE where his activities are to conduct science and
research, including life cycle assessment (LCA).
He holds a PhD degree from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Faculty of
Social Sciences and Technology Management and a Master’s degree from the Department of Industrial
Economy and Technology Management within the Industrial Ecology program at NTNU.
Since 1996 he has been involved in research on the environmental impact of biobased systems and has
more than 15 years of experience from different research companies, international institutions, and
universities in life cycle sustainability assessment of feed, food, and fibre products like food products,
paper and wood products (e.g. bamboo bicycles), but also on automotive products and transport systems.
His main focus has been on energy use and climate change, applying and developing the LCA of products
for the biobased industry. From 2013 to 2018 Dr. Erwin M. Schau performed research and development
for the European Commission’s Joint Research Center (Italy) on the European Union recommended life
cycle assessment method – the Environmental Footprint (EF), where he led the pilot projects developing
Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCR) for the fields of intermediate paper and olive
oil. The life cycles in these projects start with the raw material and seedlings production and finish with
the end of life, like waste handling (e.g. incineration) or recycling.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Schmid, Thomas
Expertise: Wood adhesives, Wood-based panels, Wood plastic composites
Biography - Thomas Schmid
Thomas Schmid is 25 years old. After studying wood technology at Rosenheim Technical University of
Applied Sciences hes currently employed at the universitys laboratory for wood adhesives and wood
based panels. His research is based on the topic of woodfiber enhanced plastic materials and wood-plastic
composites.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Schmidt, Evan
Expertise: Mass Timber research and construction
Biography - Evan Schmidt
With a diverse background in Design and Wood Science, Evan manages outreach and education activities
at TallWood Design Institute. Evan received his M.S. in Wood Science at Oregon State University, where
his research focused on hygrothermal performance of cross laminated timber during construction and in
service. Prior to attending OSU he studied architecture and worked as an independent contractor
providing landscape design service and drafting and permitting services for residential construction.

770
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Schuh, Mathias
Expertise: Engineered wood, adhesives, wood composites
Biography - Mathias Schuh
Since 12/2018: Research Associate and PHD-Student at the Chair of Wood Science, Wood Research
Munich, Technical University of Munich
2018: Master’s thesis at the Institut für Holztechnologie Dresden (IHD), Department of Materials
2016 - 2018: Master program Wood Science and Technology, Technische Universität Dresden
2012 - 2017: Bachelor program Forest Sciences, Technische Universität Dresden

771
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Schwarzkopf, Matthew
Expertise: Utilization of agricultural/industrial residues for value added wood-based products
Biography - Matthew Schwarzkopf
Dr. Matthew Schwarzkopf is a Researcher at the InnoRenew Centre of Excellence and an Assistant
Professor at the University of Primorska. He earned his Ph.D. in 2014 from Oregon State University,
USA with a dual major in Wood Science and Materials Science.
His research interests include micro-mechanical testing of the wood-adhesive/polymer interphase, optical
measurement techniques, wood-plastic composites, low-grade woody biomass utilization, and
measurement of micro-scale local surface properties of wood.
He is currently involved in a variety of international projects including a Horizon 2020 project,
ProEnrich, promoting the utilization of agricultural residuals.
Matthew holds a MS in Wood Science from Oregon State University (Oregon, USA 2009) and a BS in
Forestry from Iowa State University (Iowa, USA 2007).

772
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sebera, Vaclav
Expertise: Wood and composite mechanics, finite element analysis, tree biomechanics, material
science, wood technology
Biography - Vaclav Sebera
Dr. Václav Sebera is a researcher at the InnoRenew CoE. He is focusing on mechanics of wood and
wood-based composites at various levels of observation. Within this field, he employs optical techniques
based on Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and numerical approaches utilizing Finite Element Method
(FEM). He further focuses on tree biomechanics investigating stability of trees and works on the
development of inspection techniques. In 2009 he received a Fulbright scholarship for a research project
at Oregon State University (USA). Four years later he earned his Ph.D. at Mendel University in Brno
(Czech Republic) where he was employed as Research assistant since then. He also works as a external
lecturer at the University of Applied Sciences in Rosenheim (Germany).

773
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Seidu, Haruna
Expertise: Mechanical Properties of Wood, Furniture Testing, Wood Utilization, Information
Technology
Biography - Haruna Seidu
Haruna Seidu is a Principal Technologist at the CSIR-Forestry Research Institute of Ghana. He was
employed to the institute in 2013 as a technical officer in charge of mechanical property determination of
wood. He was upgraded to the position of a Principal Technologist in 2018 after acquiring a masters
degree in Information Technology from the Open University of Malaysia. In 2016, He was sponsored to
Bern Institute of Applied Science to by the UNDP to be trained in ISO 17025 protocols. He has attended
several conferences organised by UNIDO locally. Currently, He is in charge of testing of wood, wood
based panels and Furniture using European Standards at the Wood and Furniture Testing Centre located
in the Institute. He am currently engaged in everal research activities including the determination of
Eucalyptus properties to augment the dwindling teak.He is also involve in the standardization of wood
product by the Ghana Standard Authorithy.
Between 2002 and 2012, he was a Senior High school at the Asare Bediako Senior High School in the
Ashanti Region near Obuasi where he taught integrated science and Information Technology. This was
after he completed Tamale Technical University, where he pursued and graduated with HND
Agricultural Engineering in completed in 2001. To boost my Teaching carrier, he persued professional
teaching program at the University of Education Winneba and graduated in 2010.

774
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sernek, Milan
Expertise: Wood adhesives, adhesive bond performance, bonding of modified wood and
properties of wood-based composites
Biography - Milan Sernek
Milan Šernek earned a doctoral degree at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA.
Currently, he is full professor and head of the Department of Wood Science and Technology,
Biotechnical faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. He teaches courses about adhesives and wood
bonding, wood-based composites and designing of technological processes. His research work is focused
on the wood adhesives, adhesive bond performance, bonding of modified wood and properties of wood-
based composites.

775
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sethy, Anil Kumar

Expertise: Wood Science and Technology
Biography - Anil Kumar Sethy
Academic:

• PhD (Wood Science): The University of Melbourne, Australia - 2011

• MSc (Wood Science and Technology): Forest Research Institute-Deemed University, Dehradun,
India- 2001

Research Career:

• Researcher- Czech University of Life Science, Prague, Czech Republic- (May 2019 - continuing
- By availing study leave from IWST, Bangalore, India)
• Scientist- Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore, India ( since April 2003)

Research interest: Wood composite, Wood modification and Wood quality assessment.

Publication:

• 20 papers in peer reviewed scientific journals

• 16 papers/posters in national and international conferences

Scholarships obtained:

• MIRS and MIFRS from the University of Melbourne to pursue PhD.

• SF Pond Trust travelling scholarship to present a paper in the 41st IRG-2010, held in France.
• Go8 Australia-Germany Joint Research co-operation scheme funding for exchange visit to the
University of Gottingen, Germany.

776
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Shang, Lili
Expertise: Basic properties and functional modification of bamboo and wood materials, Rattan -
based new carbon materials
Biography - Lili Shang
Ms. Lili SHANG was graduated in 2017 with postdoctor majoring in wood science and technology at
Chinese Academy of Forestry Sciences. She has been working in International Center for Bamboo and
Rattan (ICBR) as a research scientist since 2017. Now, she mainly studies in the properties and
modification of rattan.

777
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sichamba, Kennedy
Expertise: Utilisation of Wood and Non wood plant materials for paper making and Bio-energy
production
Biography - Kennedy Sichamba
Mr. Kennedy Sichamba obtained his Master of Science degree in Wood Science and Engineering from
Oregon State University, USA, in 2012, and is currently a lecturer at Copperbelt University in Zambia.
His masters degree research focused on utilizing western juniper harvesting residues (foliage and twigs)
for oil extraction and biofuels production. His current work involves teaching Pulp and Paper Technology
to undergraduates, as well as supervising their research projects in the field. He is so very passionate
about utilizing non-wood plant materials for pulp and paper, bioenergy production, and other chemical
products.

778
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sobotkova, Alena
Expertise: Furniture, furntiure design and technology, material engineering
Biography - Alena Sobotkova
PhD student of furniture design and Technology at Mendel University in Brno. Currently in the third year
working on my thesis with the topic of Sustainability in furniture design. I have previous experience of
teaching at Louisiane State University for one year as part of PhD study at MENDELU. I did also three
month internship at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. I have working experience in the field of
furniture, interior and graphic design.

779
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Solt, Pia
Expertise: Wood adhesives
Biography - Pia Solt
EDUCATION:
Apr. 15 - Jun. 19: Doctor of wood technology and renewable materials
University of Natural Resouces and Life Science, Vienna (BOKU)

• PhD Thesis: Alternative Adhesive Systems for Wood Panel Application - Bio-based and
Formaldehyde-free Adhesives
• Summa cum laude

Sep. 12 - Sep. 14: Master of Wood technology and economy

University of applied sciences, Salzburg

• Master Thesis: Development and investigation of a high density panel based on chemical tanned
leather shavings (Wet Blue) and wood fibres
• Passed with distinction

Sep. 09 - Jul. 12: Bachelor of Wood technology and timber construction

University of applied sciences, Salzburg

• Bachelor Thesis: Valorisation of pulp and paper waste water: Lignin polymer

_______________________________________
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIANCE:
Jul. 19 - now: Senior scientist
Wood K plus - Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH ,Tulln, AT
Feb. 15 - Jun. 19: Junior Researcher & PhD student
Wood K plus - Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH ,Tulln, AT
Oct. 15 - now: Lector "Technologie des Holzes"

780
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

University of Natural Resources and Life Science, Vienna, AT

Dec. 12 - Feb. 15: Junior Researcher

University of applied sciences, Salzburg, AT

781
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Solt-Rindler, Axel
Expertise: Novel wood/non-wood combinations (inorganic and organic materials); all-new bio-
based functionalized materials; ignition and burning behavior of bio-based materials;
development of multi-layered panel materials; nanoindentation, dynamic mechanical testing,
quasi-static mechanical testing ; thermal conductivity and thermal degradation of wood-based
materials; light and scatter electron microscopy
Biography - Axel Solt-Rindler
Education
Feb.2015 – Jun.2019 Universität der Bodenkultur Wien
Doctoral studies of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (with distinction)

• PhD Topic: The Significance of bond region micromechanics on the moisture related dimensional
stability of thin wooden multi-layered panels

(Prof. Dr. Johannes Konnerth)

Sep.2009 – Sep.2014 Fachhochschule Salzburg
Master in Forest Products Technology & Management (with distinction)

• Master Topic: Development and investigation of a high density panel based on synthetic tanned
leather shavings (wet white) and wood fibres (Prof. Dr. Marius C. Barbu)

Bachelor in Forest Products Technology (with merit)

• Bachelor Topic 1: Investigation of the property change and strength of fibreboards produced of
natural and synthetic resins under different temperature conditions (Dr. Thomas Schnabel)
• Bachelor Topic 2: Investigation of the properties of bark in relation to its use as a blow-in
insulation (Dr. Stefan Hinterreiter)

Business
Jun.2019 – now Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH Tulln, Austria
Senior Researcher

782
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Feb.2015 – Jun.2019 Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH Tulln, Austria

Research Associate
Apr.2013 – Jan.2015 Fachhochschule Salzburg Kuchl, Austria
Junior Researcher

783
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Starman, Vesna
Expertise: Educational science, breaking gender stereotypes in relation to career choice and
gender, how to involve all age groups in wood science
Biography - Vesna Starman
Vesna is an assistant researcher at the InnoRenew CoE.
As a Master of Science in the area of social pedagogical science, she is most likely to face challenges that
include behavioural and emotional problems. She also writes articles on these subjects and conducts
lectures for the professional and general public.
She teaches pedagogy at the preschool education programme at the high school SŠ Izola.
At the InnoRenew CoE she focuses primarily on breaking gender stereotypes in relation to career choice
and gender, and she is researching how to involve all age groups in wood science.

784
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Straze, Ales
Expertise: Wood physics, wood mechanics, wood drying, hydrothermal treatment of wood,
NDT characterization of bio-based materials, acoustics of wood and lignocellulosic composites
Biography - Ales Straze
Born
July 16th, 1971, Celje, Slovenia
Studium / Education
1997 Graduation, Wood Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
2000 Master of Science, Wood Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
2010 Ph. D. Wood Science, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
Work positions
1997 - Junior researcher at Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
2000 - Assistant researcher at Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
2011 - Assistant Professor of Wood Science, University of Ljubljana
2016 - Associate Professor of Wood Science, University of Ljubljana
Expertise
Wood physics, wood mechanics, wood drying, hydrothermal treatment of wood, NDT characterization of
bio-based materials, acoustics of wood and lignocellulosic composites
Work, research, lecturing abroad
2007 STSM at Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg
2011 STSM at Bern University of Applied Sciences, Biel, Switzerland
2012 STSM at CNR-IVALSA – Italian Trees and Timber Institute, Trento, Italy
2015 Invited lecturer at Kazakh National Agrarian University, Faculty of Forestry, Almaty, Kazakhstan
2015, 2016 Invited lecturer at Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic
2017 Invited lecturer at FHS Salzburg-Kuchl, Austria
2018 Invited lecturer at Kazakh National Agrarian University, Faculty of Forestry, Almaty, Kazakhstan
2019 invited lecturer at University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, Zagreb, Croatia
Projects (selection; member of the research team)
V4-1419 Rational use of hardwoods with a focus on beech wood, 1.7.2014―30.6.2017
P4-0015 Wood and lignocellulosic composites, 1.1.1999―31.12.2019
L4-7163 Rational use of wood in the context of sustainable forest management,1.9.2005―31.8.2008
L4-7367 Optimisation of algorithm of drying process in respect of optimal physical and chemical
properties of wood, 1.9.2005 - 31.08.2008
APPLAUSE, Allient Plant Species (1.9.2017 – 1.9.2020)

785
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Suchomelova, Pavlina
Expertise: Numerical simulations of wood behavior, Physical and mechanical properties of
wood, Moisture transport and thermal transfer in wood, Wood mechanics
Biography - Pavlina Suchomelova
Author is Ph.D. student and young researcher at the Dep. of Wood Science and Technology of Mendel
University in Brno. She is focused on the numerical simulations of wood and wood-based materials
physical and mechanical behavior.

786
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Sun, Hao
Expertise: Wood Science and Technology
Biography - Hao Sun
Hao Sun, Ph.D candidate, major in wood science and engineering. He graduated from Northeast
Forestry University majoring wood science and technology in 2018 with a bachelor's degree in
engineering.
Research area: Improvement the mechanical properties and dimensional stability of rubber wood
through thermal modification and impregnation of latex; Preparation and characterization of wood-based
composites

787
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Tellnes, Lars G.F.

Expertise: Life cycle assessment (LCA), environmental Product declarations (EPD), industrial
ecology, wood products and buildings
Biography - Lars G. F. Tellnes
Lars Tellnes is a reasearcher within sustianable innovations focusing on Wood Products and Construction
industry. He has a master in industrial ecology and has previously worked at the Norwegian Institute of
Wood Technology. For the last Three years, he has been Affiliated at Ostfold Research which soon will
change name to Norwegian Institute of Sustainability Research. Besides Research, he is also teaching life
cycle assessment at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences. Tellnes is a specialist withing life cycle
assessment and environmental Product declarations of Wood Products and have been working With a
large number of industrial Companies. Internationally he has spread his experiences With several
Networks such as International Research Group on Wood Protection, COST actions and sustainable built
environment Conference series.

788
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Tran, Anita
Expertise: Wood adhesion, adhesive bonding, cold temperature cure/hardening, nanoindentation
Biography - Anita Tran
Anita Tran is working as doctoral candidate at the Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable
Materials at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) Vienna. Coming from a
broad interdisciplinary background, her main fields of interests are renewable resources in real life
applications and material testing. Therefore, she is currently working on low temperature curing of
wood adhesives aiming for more energy efficiency in industrial processes. This involves diverse testing
methods such as nanoindentation and rheology to generate fundamental knowledge on cold bonding
mechanisms.
She holds a bachelor degree in International Business Communication and a master double degree in
Renewable Resources from Technical University of Munich and BOKU. During her master thesis at
BOKU she focused on producing porous wood materials to substitute conventional foams for which she
received the Science Rotary Award Tulln.

789
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Tsai, Yi-Hsuan
Expertise: Biology of materials, analysis of the traditional materials of the guqin, the Chinese
seven-string zither
Biography - Yi-Hsuan Tsai
Yi-Hsuan Tsai is a graduate student in the School of Forestry and Resource Conservation, National
Taiwan University. He majors in biology materials, and his research topic is the analysis of the traditional
materials of the guqin, the Chinese seven-string zither.

790
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Tschannen, Christof
Experetise: Wood-Based Panels
Biography - Christof Tschannen
Apprenticeship as a cabinet maker in Switzerland followed by a Bachelor and Master degree in wood
technology from Bern University of Applied Sciences. Bachelors degree in 2016, Masters degree in 2019.
Experience in research and development in the field of wood composites. Research assistants post from
summer 2016 to 2019 in the institute for materials and wood technology at Bern University of Applied
Sciences. Submitted topic as Master Thesis. Current position as Junior Scientist at BUAS since 2019.

791
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ueda, Rintato
Expertise: Timber Engineering, Wood Preservation
Biography - Rintato Ueda
A PhD student, belonging to Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University.

792
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Ugulino, Bruna
Expertise: Wood Products Manufacturing
Biography - bruna Ugulino
Bruna Ugulino works as Researcher at the Primary Wood Products Manufacturing, Smart Manufacturing
Department of FPInovations, at QUebec City.

793
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Vay, Oliver
Expertise: Physical characterization of wood and natural materials, engineering of materials
like wooden floorings and thermal insulations
Biography - Oliver Vay
Oliver Vay works as a Senior Researcher in the Team Smart Wood Natural Materials of Competence
Centre for Wood Composites and Wood Chemistry, Austria. He received his diploma degree from
University of Hamburg and his PhD degree from University of Natural Resources and Applied Life
Sciences, Vienna.
His research areas include physical characterization of wood and natural materials, engineering of
materials and thermal insulations. He also worked as a research worker focused on developing wooden
floorings.

794
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Vojáčková, Barbora
Expertise: Tree biomechanics, arboriculture, numerical simulation
Biography - Barbora Vojáčková
2015 - 2019 (not finished) PhD Forest Phytology, PhD Thesis: Branch Mechanical Response to Static
Loading.
Research: Involvement in the national projects (2020 - now) Tree Dynamics: Understanding of
Mechanical Response to Loading; (2014 - 2017) Non-invasive Technology system for the tree stability
measurement and safety evaluation and European project (2016 - 2019) Veteran Tree Management Skills
Certification.
Work: 2008 - now Working in arboriculture with specialisation to tree risk assessment; 2011 -
now Working on Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood
Technology, Mendel University in Brno.
Previous study: College of Landscape Architecture, BSc Arboriculture, MSc Forest Engineering.

795
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wahyude, Imam
Expertise: WOOD STRUCTURE AND IDENTIFICATION; WOOD QUALITY
Biography - Imam Wahyudi
1986: Graduated from IPB University, Indonesia. Majoring in Forest Products Technology (S1)
1990: Graduated from from IPB University, Indonesia. Majoring in Wood Science and Technology (S2)
2000: Graduated from from Nagoya University, Japan. Majoring in Wood and Bio-material Physics (S3)
1987 to present: Lecturer at Faculty of Forestry IPB University, Indonesia
2007 to present: Head of Wood Quality Laboratory, Faculty of Forestry IPB University, Indonesia

796
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Walsh, St John
Expertise: Architecture
Biography - St John Walsh
St John established Alder Architects in 2018 having gained over 10 years experience working with award
winning architecture practices in Ireland and the UK on a range of projects from small scale domestic
commissions to large public and commercial buildings.
While working with Donaghy & Dimond Architects in Dublin, he was project architect on both Inchicore
National School & the Gate Lodge extension in Rathfarnham, respectively awarded RIAI Awards for
Best Educational Building & Domestic Extension in 2015. With AY Architects, he was project architect
on Eleanor Palmer Science Lab, built for Eleanor Palmer Primary School in Camden, which has been
awarded a RIBA London Award for 2019. He has also worked with Scott Tallon Walker & BDP
architects on award-winning large scale commercial & residential projects.
Having studied in Dublin and Copenhagen, St. John graduated from UCD in 2010 with a first class
honours degree and continues to be involved in academia. Currently in the role of design studio tutor at
the UCD School of Architecture, he has previously acted as a visiting critic at UCL’s Bartlett School of
Architecture and studio mentor at the Royal College of Art London.

797
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wang, Dong
Expertise: Electrospun functional nanocomposites
Biography - Dong Wang
My name is Dong Wang and I am a PhD student at Northeast Forestry University (School of
Material Science and Engineering ) of China under the supervision of Prof. Guangping Han.
Research Area: High-Performance Supercapacitors Based on Lignin-based Nanofibers by
Electrospinning; Preparation and Properties of Electrospun Cellulose Nanocrystal reinforced Composite
Nanofibers.

798
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wang, Jingxin
Expertise: Bioenergy and biomaterials; TEA and LCA; Manufacturing and processing
Biography - Jingxin Wang
Dr. Jingxin Wang is Professor and Associate Director for Research, and the Director of Renewable
Materials and Bioenergy Research Center in the Division of Forestry and Natural Resources at West
Virginia University, USA. He received his degrees in Forest/Mechanical Engineering from Northeast
Forestry University, China. He received a M.S. in Computer Science from West Virginia University, and
a Ph.D. in Forest Resource Management from the University of Georgia, USA. He has taught forest and
biomass harvesting and analysis, computing applications in forest and natural resources for both
undergraduate and graduate students for more than 20 years. His research interests include biomass
energy and bioproducts, forest carbon sequestration and optimization, computer simulation and system
modeling, and forest ecosystem management and climate change. Dr. Wang has authored or coauthored
170 refereed papers, and 12 books or book chapters. Currently, he is a leading PI for several USDA and
USDOE biomass energy and bioproducts projects. He has served as an editorial board member and
associate editor for four international journals and adjunct professor for four Chinese
universities/institutions. He is an active member in six international professional societies. Dr. Wang
received the prestigious 2016 Benedum Distinguished Scholar Award at West Virginia University.

799
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wang, Qifan
Expertise: VOCs and odor emission from wood-based panel
Biography - Qifan Wang
Qifan Wang, Ph.D. candidates, College of Material Science and Engineering, Northeast Forestry
University, Harbin, China. Main research direction: Volatile Organic Compounds

800
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wang, Xun
Expertise: Phase Change Materials
Biography - Xun Wang
Xun Wang is a Ph.D. candidate at University of North Texas, the United States. His research focuses on
identifying thermal performance of phase change material composite involved in building applications.
The identification may improve the thermal insulation of building and reduce the energy consumption.

801
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Wanschuua, Regina
Expertise: Wood extractives
Biography - Regina Wanschura
Degree in Forest Science as Dipl-Ing. 2007
2007-2009 StoraEnso Wood-Supply in Munich (Unterschleißheim)
Since 2010 Co-worker at the TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Chair of Wood Science,
Munich, Germany

802
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Willems, Wim
Expertise: Wood physics, wood modification
Biography - Wim Willems
Wim Willems (1964), obained a BSc degree in Process Control engineering in 1985 and his MSc degree
in Applied Physics in 1990 at Eindhoven Technical University in the Netherlands. After 4 years of
industrial research and development, he got involved in his family-owned company in the wood industry,
gaining expertise in hardwood drying. In 2003, he invented a new type of thermal wood modification
technology using pressurized unsaturated steam, which led to the foundation of a new company,
FirmoLin, in 2008, in which he is still working, responsible for the research and development activities.
He earned his PhD degree summa cum laude on thermal wood modification in the Wood Biology and
Wood Products group of Göttingen in Germany in 2015.
He currently shares time between his supporting activities in process equipment engineering and quality
control of thermally modified timber for FirmoLin on the one hand and as an independent researcher on
the other hand, working on the subject of wood modification, with emphasis on the aspects of wood-
moisture interaction and wood durability.

803
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Winter, Armin
Expertise: Natural Materials Science, Cellulose Science
Biography - Armin Winter
na

804
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Yang, Shumin
Expertise: Wood anatomy and characteristics, Non-destructive testing
Biography - shumin yang
Dr. Shumin YANG was graduated in 2003 with PhD majoring in wood science and technology at Tottori
University, Japan. She has been working in International Center for Bamboo and Rattan (ICBR) as a
research scientist since 2010 and was promoted to associate professor in 2012. Now, she mainly launches
studies in the following areas: A. Anatomical characteristics of cell wall of plants, B. Non-destructive
Technology for wood and bamboo based on X-ray imaging. She has chaired or participated in over 10
national and provincial level projects and has published two books (including co-authored works) and
over 40 publications papers. Currently, she is a member of Bamboo and rattan resources and utilization
Branch under Chinese Society of Forestry (CSF), also a member of biomass materials Branch under CSF.

805
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Yeh, Chin-Hao
Expertise: Biomaterial Structural Design
Biography - Chin-Hao Yeh
I am Chin-Hao Yeh, and I come from Taiwan. I study at National Chung Hsing University, and my major
is forestry, I am now in Biomaterial Structural Design Lab, and my thesis is about nature fiber
composites.

806
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Yeo, Hwanmyeong
Expertise: Wood Physics, Wood Drying, Heat and Mass Transfer
Biography - Hwanmyeong YEO
Professor, Environmental Materials Science Major, Department of Forest Sciences, Seoul National
University

807
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Yildirim, Mert
Expertise: Nanotechnology, composite materials and biomaterials
Biography - Mert Yildirim
Mert YILDIRIM is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Forest Industrial Engineering at Istanbul
University-Cerrahpasa. He received his M.Sc. (2019) degree in Forest Industrial Engineering and MBA
(2019) degree in Master of Business Administration at Istanbul University. During his graduate studies,
he won various prizes in national competitions and worked on their TUBITAK projects. His research
interests include nanotechnology, composites and biomaterials.

808
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Zeng, Bin
Expertise: Wood science and technology
Biography - Bin Zeng
My name is bin Zeng, 24 years old , I am studying for a master's degree at Northeast Forestry University.
my research area focus on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emission of wood-based panels and solid
wood.
During the postgraduate period, I am actively involved in various scientific research projects, such as
Participated in "The National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFD0600706-2)"
《Study on VOCs Release Law, Limitation and Odor Detection Technology of Decorated Wood-based
Home Materials》---Responsible for experiment, data statistics and analysis; Participated in "Project of
National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 31971582)".《Study on the Expression of Wood
Odor Characteristic Map and the Formation Mechanism of Odor》---Mainly assisted in the improvement
and debugging of domestic volatile organic compounds (VOC) sampling equipment, collected and
analyzed VOC from different materials; Participated in "Independent Innovation Fund for Doctoral
Students".
I study hard with excellent results and outstanding achievements in scientific research, Apply my
professional knowledge to practice and publish 3 papers:
Analysis of odorants in wood of Cinnamomum burmanni（Nees et T.Nees）Blume with different
moisture content. Scientia Silvae Sinicae. (First author / Chinese Core Journal) (In Chinese)
Effects of temperature on volatile organic compounds and odor emissions of PVC-overlaid MDF. Wood
Research . (Third Author /SCI)
Study on VOCs and Odor Release of Painted Veneered Particleboard. Scientia Silvae Sinicae. (Third
author / Chinese Core Journal) (In Chinese).
In order to study the research results of other scholars in related fields, understand the future research
trends, and improve their research capabilities and insights, I hope to have the opportunity to participate
in this major conference.

809
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Zhang, Xiubiao
Expertise: Wood and bamboo science and technology
Biography - Xiubiao Zhang
Xiubiao Zhang, PhD., Assistant researcher of International Center for bamboo and rattan. Research fields:
Bamboo-based / wood-based engineering composites, including the scientific designing, manufacturing
and performance-evaluating.

810
Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Žigon, Jure
Expertise: Wood Science and Technology, focus on surface treatment technologies
Biography - Jure Žigon
ŽIGON, Jure, PETRIČ, Marko, DAHLE, Sebastian. Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma
pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials in air at atmospheric pressure for their improved wettability : a
literature review. Holzforschung : International Journal of the Biology, Chemistry, Physics and
Technology of Wood, ISSN 0018-3830. 2018, vol. 72, iss. 11: 979-991
ŽIGON, Jure, PETRIČ, Marko, DAHLE, Sebastian. Wettability of wood surfaces with waterborne acrylic
lacquer stains adjusted by DBD plasma in air at atmospheric pressure : predavanje na 11th International
Symposium on Contact Angle, Wettability and Adhesion, 13 - 15 June 2018, New Jersey, USA.
ŽIGON, Jure, PETRIČ, Marko, DAHLE, Sebastian. Artificially aged spruce and beech wood surfaces
reactivated using FE-DBD atmospheric plasma. Holzforschung : International Journal of the Biology,
Chemistry, Physics and Technology of Wood, ISSN 0018-3830. Tiskana izdaja, 2019, vol. 73, iss. 12:
1069-1081.

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Proceedings of the 2020 Society of Wood Science and Technology International Convention

Zlámal, Jan
Expertise: Non-destructive testing of wood, wood science, non-destructive evaluation of wood
in forest
Biography - Jan Zlámal
Jan Zlámal is Ph, D. student at the Department of wood science and Technogy of Mendel University in
Brno. He joined the Mendel University in 2014 where Graduated from Wood Technology and Timber
Management study program with master degree.
During his university studies, he focused on the topic of moon-wood and the influence of the logging
period on the timber quality. Furthermore he worked on topic of prediction of spruce timber properties
based on non-destructive in-situ testing. His Ph, D. studies began in 2019 and are primarily focused on
the possibilities of estimating the properties of wood by non-destructive and semi-destructive testing
methods.

812
2020 Co-Organizer and Host of Online Convention
InnoRenew CoE and University of Primorska

2020 List of Participating Sponsors

Silver Sponsor

Copper Sponsor
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