Q1) Types of CMM

1. Cantilever Type CMM:

 Description: In a cantilever type CMM, the measuring arm or beam
extends horizontally from a fixed vertical support. The work piece is
usually placed on a stationary table beneath the cantilever arm.
 Advantages:
 Open access to the measurement area.
 Flexibility in measuring various types of parts.
 Suitable for large work pieces.
 Easy loading and unloading of work pieces.
 Applications: Cantilever CMMs are versatile and can be used in
manufacturing, quality control, and inspection processes.
2. Column Type CMM:
 Description: In a column type CMM, the measuring arm or beam is
mounted vertically on a fixed column. The work piece is typically placed
on a table that can move along multiple axes to position the part for
measurement.
 Advantages:
 Stability and rigidity in the vertical direction.
 Compact design, suitable for limited space.
 Good for precise measurements.
 Applications: Column type CMMs are often used for high-precision
measurements and are suitable for industries where accuracy is critical,
such as aerospace and precision engineering.

3)Bridge Type CMM:

 Description:
 In a bridge type CMM, the measuring probe is mounted on a
bridge-like structure with three orthogonal axes (X, Y, and Z). The
bridge moves along the length of the machine, allowing the
probe to reach different points on the work piece.
 Advantages:
 Stable and rigid structure.
 Suitable for medium to large-sized work pieces.
 High accuracy and repeatability.
 Applications:
 Commonly used in manufacturing and quality control for
measuring a wide range of parts.
4)Gantry Type CMM:
 Description:
 Gantry type CMMs have a horizontal arm (gantry) that spans the
measurement area. The gantry moves along the X-axis, and the
measuring probe is positioned on a carriage that moves along
the gantry's length.
 Advantages:
 Suitable for large and heavy work pieces.
 Open access to the measuring area.
 High flexibility in terms of part size and shape.
 Applications:
 Used for measuring large and complex objects, often in
industries such as aerospace and automotive manufacturing.

A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) consists of several key components

1. Machine Structure:
 Bridge or Gantry: In bridge-type or gantry-type CMMs, this is the
framework that supports the measuring probe and allows it to move
along the X, Y, and Z axes.
2. Measuring Probe:
 Touch Probe: The touch probe is a sensor that physically touches the
surface of the object being measured. It records the position and sends
the data to the CMM controller.
 Scanning Probe: Some CMMs use scanning probes that continuously
measure points along a surface, providing more detailed information
about the object's geometry.
3. Controller:
  The controller is the brain of the CMM. It processes the data from the
measuring probe, interprets the measurements, and controls the
movement of the machine along the X, Y, and Z axes.
4. Drive System:
 The drive system consists of motors and other mechanisms that move
the measuring probe along the X, Y, and Z axes. This ensures precise
positioning during measurements.
5. Feedback System:
 Encoders or other feedback devices provide information about
the position of the measuring probe and help ensure accuracy in
measurements.
6. Computer System:
 CMMs are typically equipped with a computer system that runs
the software for controlling the machine, analyzing
measurements, and generating reports.
7. Software:
 Measurement software allows operators to program
measurement routines, control the CMM, and analyze
measurement data. It may include features for geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T), surface analysis, and
more.

Q) Types of cmm probes

CMM (Coordinate Measuring Machine) probes come in various types, and
they can generally be categorized into two main groups: contact probes and
non-contact probes.

1. Contact Probes:

 Description: Contact probes physically touch the surface of the object

being measured to obtain data points. These probes typically have a
stylus that makes direct contact with the workpiece.
 Types:
 Touch Trigger Probes: These probes register a measurement
when the stylus physically touches the workpiece, triggering a
switch mechanism.
 Scanning Probes: Scanning probes continuously measure points
along a surface as the stylus moves, allowing for the collection of
detailed data.
2. Non-Contact Probes:
 Description: Non-contact probes do not make physical contact with
the workpiece. Instead, they use various technologies to capture
measurements from a distance.
 Types:
 Optical Probes: These probes use optical technology, such as
lasers or structured light, to capture measurements without
touching the surface. They are suitable for delicate or sensitive
materials.
 Laser Scanners: Laser scanners project laser beams onto the
workpiece and use sensors to detect the reflected light. The data
collected can be used to create a 3D representation of the object.
 Vision Systems: Vision systems use cameras to capture images
of the workpiece. These images can be analyzed to measure
features and dimensions.

Q) types of fits in metrology

In metrology, fits refer to the degree of tightness or looseness between two
mating parts. There are three main types of fits: clearance fit, interference fit,
and transition fit.

1. Clearance Fit:
 In a clearance fit, the dimensions of the shaft (the male part) are
intentionally made smaller than the dimensions of the hole (the female
part).
 This results in a gap or clearance between the mating parts, allowing
for easy assembly and disassembly.
  Clearance fits are often used when free movement or easy assembly is
desired, and there is no need for a tight connection.
2. Interference Fit:
 In an interference fit, the dimensions of the shaft are intentionally made
larger than the dimensions of the hole.
 This creates an interference or press fit, where the parts are forced
together, creating a tight and secure connection.
 Interference fits are commonly used in applications where a rigid and
strong joint is required, such as in press-fitted bearings.
3. Transition Fit:
 A transition fit falls between the clearance fit and the interference fit. It
means that there is both clearance and interference between the
mating parts.
 Depending on the specific dimensions of the parts, a transition fit may
act as a clearance fit in some cases and an interference fit in others.
 Transition fits are used when a balance between clearance and
interference is needed, providing a compromise between ease of
assembly and a secure connection.

Q) what is effect of work tolerance on the manufacturing cost

Work tolerance, or manufacturing tolerance, refers to the allowable variation
in dimensions or other specifications of a manufactured part. The impact of
work tolerance on manufacturing cost can be significant and is influenced by
several factors. Here are some ways in which work tolerance affects
manufacturing costs:

1. Precision and Accuracy:

 Tighter tolerances often require more precise and accurate
manufacturing processes. Achieving high precision may involve using
more advanced machinery, tools, and techniques.
 Higher precision generally leads to increased manufacturing costs due
to the need for specialized equipment and skilled labor.
2. Material Costs:
  Tighter tolerances may necessitate the use of higher quality materials
to meet specifications. High-quality materials are often more
expensive.
 Scrap rates may increase if tighter tolerances are difficult to achieve,
leading to more material waste and higher costs.
3. Production Speed:
 Achieving tight tolerances may slow down the production process.
Processes may need to be carried out more slowly to ensure accuracy,
which can reduce overall production efficiency.
 Increased production time can lead to higher labor costs and, in some
cases, increased machine wear and maintenance costs.
4. Tooling and Equipment Costs:
 Meeting tight tolerances may require specialized tooling and
equipment, which can be more expensive to purchase and maintain.
 The need for frequent calibration and maintenance to ensure precision
can contribute to higher operational costs.
5. Quality Control and Inspection:
 Tight tolerances often necessitate more extensive quality control
measures and inspections to ensure that the final product meets
specifications.
 The cost of inspection equipment, personnel, and the time required for
quality control can add to the overall manufacturing cost.
6. Assembly and Compatibility:
 If parts have tight tolerances, assembly may become more intricate,
requiring additional time and labor to ensure proper fit and
functionality.
 Compatibility issues may arise if tolerances are not consistently
maintained throughout the manufacturing process, leading to rework
and additional costs.
7. Economic Considerations:
 Balancing tolerances with economic considerations is crucial. Extremely
tight tolerances may not always provide a significant functional
advantage, and a careful analysis of the cost implications should be
considered.
 explain following methods of quantifying surface roughness
Surface roughness is a crucial aspect of metrology, and it is quantified using
various parameters. The three parameters you mentioned—Rz value, RMS
value, and Ra value—are commonly used to quantify surface roughness. Each
of these parameters describes different aspects of the surface texture. Let's
explore each one:

1. Rz Value (Maximum Height - Peak to Valley):

 Rz is the maximum height of the profile within a sampling length. It
represents the vertical distance between the highest peak and the
deepest valley within the evaluation length.
 It is calculated by measuring the average of the five highest peaks and
the average of the five deepest valleys in the specified length and then
determining the difference between these averages.
 Rz is useful for assessing the overall height variations on a surface.
2. RMS Value (Root Mean Square):
 RMS is a measure of the average height deviation of the surface from
its mean line. It provides a more comprehensive understanding of the
overall roughness of the surface.
 RMS is calculated by taking the square root of the mean of the squared
values of the surface height deviations over the evaluation length.
 It is particularly useful for capturing the finer details of the surface
texture and is less sensitive to extreme peaks and valleys.
3. Ra Value (Arithmetic Average Roughness):
 Ra is one of the most common parameters for quantifying surface
roughness. It represents the arithmetic average of the absolute values
of the height deviations from the mean line within a sampling length.
 Ra is calculated by summing the absolute values of the height
deviations and then dividing by the evaluation length.
 It provides a good overall indication of the average roughness of the
surface and is widely used in industries where surface finish is critical.

In summary:
 Rz measures the maximum height variation in the surface profile.
 RMS provides a comprehensive measure of overall surface roughness,
considering all height variations.
 Ra represents the arithmetic average of height deviations and is a common
parameter for assessing average surface roughness.

Q) describe standard test signals in control engineering

1. Step Signal:
 Description: A step signal is a sudden change from one constant value
to another.
 Purpose: Used to evaluate the transient response of a control system
and assess parameters like rise time, settling time, and overshoot.
2. Ramp Signal:
 Description: A ramp signal is a linearly increasing (or decreasing)
signal with time.
 Purpose: Helpful in studying the steady-state response of a control
system. It is particularly useful for assessing velocity and position
control systems.
3. Sinusoidal Signal:
 Description: A sinusoidal signal is a waveform characterized by a sine
or cosine function.
 Purpose: Used to analyze the frequency response of a control system.
It helps in identifying resonance, natural frequencies, and damping
ratios.
4. Impulse Signal:
 Description: An impulse signal is a short-duration, high-amplitude
signal.
 Purpose: Useful for evaluating the system's response to sudden, short-
duration disturbances. It is often used to calculate the system's transfer
function.
5. Square Wave Signal:
 Description: A square wave signal alternates between two levels in a
square fashion.
  Purpose: Used to assess a system's ability to handle periodic or
repetitive inputs. It is commonly employed in the analysis of digital
control systems.
6. White Noise Signal:
 Description: White noise is a random signal with equal intensity at
different frequencies.
 Purpose: Applied to analyze a system's response to random
disturbances. It helps assess the system's robustness and performance
in the presence of uncertainties.

Q) Open loop and closed loop systems

In control engineering, open-loop and closed-loop systems are two

fundamental concepts that describe different architectures of control
systems. These terms refer to the way a control system processes feedback
in order to regulate the output.

1. Open-Loop System:
 Definition: In an open-loop system, the control action is independent
of the output. It means that the system does not use feedback from
the output to adjust the input. Instead, the input is predetermined
based on the desired output or setpoint.
 Characteristics:
 No feedback loop is present.
 Output changes are not considered during the control process.
 The system's performance is solely determined by the accuracy
of the input command.
 Example: A toaster is a simple open-loop system. Once you set the
toasting time, the toaster operates for that duration without sensing
the actual state (color) of the toast.
2. Closed-Loop System (Feedback Control System):
 Definition: In a closed-loop system, the control action is dependent
on the difference between the actual output and the desired output
 (error signal). Feedback from the output is used to adjust the input and
maintain the desired output.
 Characteristics:
 Includes a feedback loop that continuously monitors the output
and adjusts the input based on the error signal.
 The system is more responsive to changes and disturbances.
 Can improve accuracy, stability, and disturbance rejection
compared to open-loop systems.
 Example: A thermostat controlling the temperature of a room is a
closed-loop system. The thermostat measures the current temperature,
compares it to the setpoint, and adjusts the heating or cooling to
maintain the desired temperature.

Comparison:

 Open-Loop System:
 Simple and easy to implement.
 Less complex in terms of hardware and control logic.
 Typically used when the system dynamics are well-known and stable.
 Closed-Loop System:
 More complex but provides better control and performance.
 Capable of handling uncertainties and disturbances.
 Commonly used in applications where precise control and stability are
critical.

In summary, open-loop systems operate without feedback, while closed-loop

systems use feedback to adjust the system based on the difference between
the actual and desired outputs. Closed-loop systems are often preferred in
applications where accuracy, stability, and disturbance rejection are
important.