PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

I. ORGANIZATION – simply put, is the logical progression and completeness of ideas in a text.
Text structures –the framework of a text’s beginning, middle, and end.
• The beginning – also called the lead or the hook, orients the reader to the purpose of the writing
by introducing characters or setting (for narrative) or the topic, thesis, or argument (for expository
writing).
• The organization of the middle of a piece of writing depends on the genre. Researchers have
identified five basic organizational structures: sequence, description, cause and effect, compare
and contrast, and problem and solution.
• The type of ending an author chooses depends on his or her purpose. When the purpose is to
entertain, endings may be happy or tragic, or a surprise ending may provide twist. Endings can be
circular, looping back to the beginning so readers end where they began, or they can leave the
reader hanging, wishing for more.
Transition Words
1. Spatial order- words used in descriptive writing to signal spatial relationships, such as above, below,
beside, nearby, beyond, inside, and outside.
2. Time order- words used in writing narratives, and instructions to signal chronological sequence, such as,
before, after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as, during, earlier, later, and meanwhile.
3. Numerical order- words used in expository writing to signal order of importance, such as first, second,
also, finally, in addition, equally important.
4. Cause/effect order- words used in expository writing to signal causal relationships, such as, because, since,
for, so, as a result, consequently, thus and hence.
5. Comparison/contrast order- words used expository writing to signal similarities and differences, such as,
(for similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as though, like, and similarly; and (for differences) but,
yet, only, although, whereas, in contrast, conversely, however, on the other hand, rather, instead, in spite
of, and nevertheless.
6. General/specific order- words used in descriptive reports and arguments to signal more specific
elaboration on ideas, such as, for example, such as, like, namely, for instance, that is, in fact, in other
words, and indeed.

II. MECHANICS – is the term we use to describe the technical aspects of writing, such as spelling,
punctuation, capitalization, etc.
Cohesion – refers to connectivity in a text.
Coherence – refers to how easy it is to understand the writing.
PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING
1. Description is the expression of sensory experiences in vivid, specific, and concrete language – painting
a picture with words. Effectively written descriptions frame a subject in such a way that the reader can
imagine what the writer is describing
Answer the question: WHAT IS HE/SHE/IT LIKE?
2 Kinds of Description
a. Objective description – are technical and factual in nature. This allows readers to clearly and objectively
identify whatever is being describe because the writer must report his experience as accurately and
thoroughly as he or she can.
 b. Subjective description – are more expressive because they evoke more emotions and ideas about an
image. Reinforces the ideas and feelings that the writer wants to convey.

III. NARRATION, in its simplest definition, is storytelling. It is a sequence of events, not necessarily
arranged in chronological order, told by a narrator, happening in a particular place at a particular time.
Narration is creating a world based on the writer’s imagination and also revisiting a world based on the
author’s memory.
Types of Narrative Devices
1. Anecdote – a brief narrative that is written from the writer’s memory. A personal story that is related to
the topic of your essay.
Anecdote starters:
• I remember…
• One time…
Example:
When I was young, I walked five miles in the snow to get to school.

2. Flashback – is an event that happened in the past or quickly looking at something that had already
happened (Flashing back). It is not necessarily the focus of a story; rather, more of an addition to explain
or to elaborate on a point made by the writer.
3. Flash Forward – a flashforward, on the other hand, is an event that has yet to happen in the main
timeframe of the story. It is “flashing forward” or quickly looking at something that will happen in the
future. It adds meaning in the story.
4. Time Stretch – a time stretch is a single event in the story that the author focuses on writing about.
5. Time Summary – as opposed to a time stretch in which a single event is prolonged, a time summary is
characterized by jamming together multiple events and/or shortening a relatively long period of time.
Time Summary Expressions Examples: In a single day, Overnight, After the winter season, After
around a week or so, A few years after.
6. Dialogue – a word or a series of words enclosed in a pair of quotation marks ( “ ’’ ), which signal the
character’s spoken language within the text.
Example:

IV. Defining is understanding the essence of a word, an idea, a concept, or an expression. The main purpose
of defining is to give information to the reader as to what the author intends to explain. As such, defining
tends to not argue and to not persuade, it simply informs.
TWO CONCEPTS OF DEFINITION
• Denotation – is the primarily, explicit, or literal definition of a word.
Example:
ROSE – “[a] prickly bush or shrub that typically bears red, pink, yellow, or white fragrant flowers,
native to north temperate regions and widely grown as an ornamental (Rose 2018).”
• Connotation – on the other hand, is the secondary meaning of a word. It is not necessarily included in the
dictionary; rather, it is how people understand a word based on their personal experiences.
Example:
 ROSE – a bouquet of roses is usually what a person gives to her/his beloved.
Techniques in Definition Essay
• Analysis – the process of breaking down a concept into its constituent parts.
Example: The guitar is a musical instrument that produces sound primarily through strumming its strings.
Its sound is modified or manipulated through the interaction of the strings with the other parts of the guitar,
which are the headstock or simply the head, the tuners, the nut, the neck, the sound, the hole, the body,
and the bridge.
• Collocation – is made up of the prefix “co-” (“together”) and “location”. Words or expressions are almost
immediately associated with the concept you are trying to define. Two or more words that often go
together and sound right to the native speaker of that language. Some words fit together, some words
don’t.
Example:
Fast food --- Quick food
Heavy rain --- Strong rain
Big traffic --- heavy traffic
• Comparison – is associating the word or expression you are trying to define with something else not
necessarily synonymous with it.
Example:
This car is much faster than the other one.
He’s a little taller than his sister.
She’s a lot more intelligent than him.
• Contrast – discerning how at least two similar concepts are different from each other.
Example:
Chicken meat is white, whereas cow meat is red.
The weather was snowy, yet it was not cold.
He is very handsome, but he is very rude person.
• Etymology – is the history of a word. It explains the evolution of a word or how it has come to be.
Example:
“Appassionato is the past participle of a Latin word that means ‘to impassion’…
The word philosophy is derived from Greek words PHILOS and SOPHIA. Philos means love and Sophia
means wisdom.
• Exemplification – is defining something by giving examples.
Example:
Books are considered to be credible and reputable resource materials to consult when you are trying to
find the definition of a word. Some examples are dictionaries, encyclopedias, journal articles, textbooks,
and thesauri.
• Function – another way of understanding what a word or concept means is to know what its purpose is.
It answers the question: What is it used for?
Example:
Whether it may be an ancient sundial, a classy pocket watch, a Rolex or Swatch wrist watch, an antique
grandfather’s clock, or the mighty Big Ben of London, a clock, foremost, is a piece of technology whose
primary purpose is to measure time.
• Negation – is a technique that you can use to define a word or concept by explaining what it is not.
 Example: “Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not
dishonour others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does
not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth.’’ (1
Corinthians 13:4-6)
• Synonyms – are a single word or phrase that share almost the same meaning with the concept you are
trying to define.
Example:
Beautiful and Attractive
Accurate and Correct
Funny and Humorous
• Slang – a clipped version of short language. Characterized by informality and is usually used by a specific
group of people. It can also considered as street talk or colloquial language.
Example:
I’mma (I’m + going + to) I’mma talk to him.
Outta (Out of) She got outta the taxi.
Kinda (Kind of) It was kinda nice to see her again.

V. CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION

Classification – entails categorization which enables one to group together items according to their
similarities.
Division – works hand-in-hand with analysis, wherein one breaks down a concept into its constituent
parts. This process necessitates separating items.
Example:
You can classify food into Proteins, Carbs, and Vegetables
VI. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
An essay that uses comparison and contrast as its primary mode of paragraph development is an essay
that tackles the likeness or similarities or similarities and differences of at least 2 subjects or topics.
Elements of Figurative Language
a) Analogy – a common technique that writers use to demonstrate comparison and contrast. It exposes
unperceived and unsuspecting similarities/differences
Example:
Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is the weapon of a writer.

At first glance or first mention, the sword and the pen are two seemingly different and distinct
objects from each other. But when paired with people who use them, the sword with a warrior and
the pen with a writer, one can see a similarity that lies in the objects’ purpose: that of a weapon

b) Simile is done when there is a direct comparison between or among objects. Expressions with
similes are almost always done with the use of the words “like” and “as”.
Example:
She was a peasant girl like Joan of Arc.
Your eyes are as bright as the stars in the night sky.
c) Metaphor - As opposed to a simile, a metaphor is done when there is an indirect comparison
between or among objects.
 Example:
The first hammer-blow in the railway has fallen on me!
Time is gold.
d) Oxymoron happens when two seemingly opposite terms are juxtaposed next-to or near-each other
in a single expression.
Example:
Alone together
Dead in childbirth
Deafening silence
Fine mess
e) Personification - It is done when non-humans for example animals, inanimate objects, or
abstractions, are assigned human characteristics and/or actions. Personification literally means
“the process of making something human”.
Example:
The sun smiled down on us.
The story jumped off the page.
The light danced on the surface of the water.
VII. PERSUASION - As a mode of paragraph development, is almost always coupled with argumentation.
Argumentation makes use of logos, pathos and ethos.
ELEMENTS OF PERSUASION
1. LOGOS - It appeals to the audience’s logic; that is, when you argue, you use facts and well-supported
and well-developed claims to support an argument.
Example of Logos:
Air conditioning all classrooms in your school
(To support this argumentation, mention the fact that the Philippines generally has humid, tropical
weather).
2. PATHOS - Appealing to the audience’s emotions.
Example of Pathos:
Removing the death sentence from the law
3. ETHOS - Having ethos means that as a source of information, you are credible, reputable, and respectable.

WHAT IS A CLAIM?
A claim is the central argument or thesis statement of the text. It is what the writer tries to prove in the text by
providing details, explanations, and other types of evidence.
3 TYPES OF CLAIMS
1. Claim of Fact – a statement that can be proven or verified by observation or research. It asserts that
something is true or not true. It has the following characteristics:
a. Argues about a measurable topic.
b. Describe how things were in the past, how things are in the present time, and how they will be in
the future.
✓ Note that all these claims are statements of fact, but not everyone would agree with them.
✓ They are all controversial.
✓ The facts in these claims need to be proved as either absolutely or probably true in order to be
acceptable to an audience.
 ✓ Always remember these to identify that it is a Fact Claim:
• Did it happen?
• Does it exist?
• Is it true?
• Is it a fact?
Example:
“Within ten years, destruction of rain forests will cause hundreds of plant and animal species to become
extinct.”
“The longest known disease in the world is leprosy.”
“Increasing population threatens the environment.”
“The ozone layer is becoming depleted.”
2. Claim of Value – assert that something is good or bad, more or less desirable. A claim of value is also assertive,
but it asserts something different from a claim of fact. It has the following characteristics:
a. argues about something that is moral, aesthetic, or philosophical.
b. considers the merits or advantages of something and this is based on a relative judgment.
c. can be used to argue the value or importance of varied topics like lifestyles, films, student or civic organization.
- Always remember these to identify that it is a Value Claim:
▪ Is it good or bad?
▪ How bad?
▪ How good?
▪ Of what worth is it?
▪ Is it moral or immoral?
▪ What do those people value?
▪ What values or criteria should I use to determine its goodness or badness?
Example:
The GSW is the best team in NBA.
Requiring community service in high school will produce more community-aware graduates.
Capital punishment is unjust.
Dogs make the best pets.
Mercy killing is immoral.
3. Claim of Policy – asserts that one course of action is superior to another. It has the following characteristics:
a. Asserts what reader should do, and what course of action a reader should take.
b. Argues about an actionable topic, which means the topic is convertible to action.
c. Convinces the reader about the merits of one course of action as opposed to other courses of action.
- A claim of policy often describes a problem and then suggests ways to solve it.
- Always remember these to identify that it is a Policy Claim:
▪ What should we do about it?
▪ How should we act?
▪ What should our future policy be?
▪ How can we solve this problem?
▪ What concrete course of action should we pursue to solve the problem?
Example:
We should stop spending so much on prisons and start spending more on education.
Children in low-income families should receive medical insurance from the government.
 Every person in the United States should have access to health care.
Film-makers and recording groups should make objectionable language and subject matter known to
prospective consumers.
Characteristics of a Good Claim:
• A claim should be argumentative and debatable.
• A claim should be specific and focused.
• A claim should be interesting and engaging.
• A claim should be logical.