Chapter 5

Filtration
SHAHRUL ISMAIL, Assoc. Professor Ts Dr
Bioprocess & Energy Nexus Group (BioNexG)
Faculty of Ocean Engineering Tech & Informatics, UMT.
Outline :
üRapid sand filter, filtration material
üHeadloss and backwashing
üUndrain system and support
üSlow sand filters
üMembrane process
5.1 Introduction
• Water filtration is a mechanical
or physical process of separating
suspended and colloidal particles
from fluids by passing it through a
porous media. Medium used is
generally a granular material
(Sand Or Anthracite) through
which water is passed.

• Filtration also removes from

water: color, taste, odor, iron,
manganese and some
microorganisms such as bacteria.
In the conventional water
treatment process, filtration
usually follows coagulation,
flocculation, and Sedimentation.
This process done in a unit called
filter.
 What is filtration What the filtration objectives

Filtration is a solid- The main objective of

liquid separation filtration is to produce
where the liquid passes high-quality drinking
through a porous water (surface water)
medium to remove or high-quality effluent
fine suspended solids. (wastewater)
5.2 Application
Ò Water Treatment
− To filter chemically coagulated water
− Settled water
Ò Wastewater Treatment

− Untreated secondary effluent

− Chemically treated secondary effluent
− Chemically treated raw wastewater
5.3 Classification of filters
Single-medium filters (used in water)
− Have one type of medium
−Medium usually sand or crushed anthracite coal
Dual-medium filters (used in water and wastewater)
− Have two types of media
− Usually crushed anthracite and sand
Multi-media filters (used in water and wastewater)
− Have three types of media
− Usually crushed anthracite, sand, and garnet
 Single-Medium Filters
Types
− Gravity filters (most common)
− Vacuum filters
Medium
− Sand (water treatment) (see next figure)
− Anthracite (tertiary treatment)
− Sand bed is 610 to 760 mm in depth
− Under-laying anthracite is 380 to 610 mm in depth
Sand filter Typical diagram
Filtration Cycle
• Water level is 0.91 to 1.2 m above sand
• Water passes downward through the media
• Water passes into the under-drain system
• Flow of filtered water flow is controlled by the rate of flow
controller (RFC)
• Influent and effluent valves are open
• Wash-water and waste wash-water valves are closed
5.4 Mechanisms of Particle Removal

• Surface Removal
− Particles larger than the pore size of the medium
• − Cake layer is formed
• Depth Removal (most important in water treatment)
5.4 Mechanisms of Particle Removal

• Adhesion
• Particles collide with sand surface and adhere to it
• Flocculation
• Some particles may be brought together (flocculate) and become
bigger
• Sedimentation
• Flocculated flocks settle on sand particles
• Straining
• Due to decrease in pore size of the medium
5.5 Head Loss
Head loss
Head loss
• Head loss of clean filter is 0.15 to 0.46 m.

• As filtration progresses, head loss increases.

• When head loss reaches 1.8 to 2.4 m, the filter is cleaned

(backwashed)
• The derivation started from the Darcy-Weisbach equation for pressurized flow in
a closed conduit (because flow through a filter is pressurized flow);
æ L öæ v ö
2
hL = f ç ÷çç ÷÷
• Where,
•
è D øè 2 g ø
• hL = headloss
• L = length of travel (bed depth)
• f = friction factor
• D = pipe diameter
• v = velocity
• Laminar flow conditions are assumed
EXAMPLE: Calculate headloss for 1 m bed of sand filter with uniform size of
diameter of 0.5 mm, grain sphericity of 0.75 and porosity of 0.40. The filtration
rate is 100 L/m2.min with water temperature of 20oC. µ=0.001002
Solution:
𝑓 1−∝ 𝐿 𝑉𝑠2
h =
∅
# ∝3
( #𝑑 ( [ 𝑔 ]
Vs = (100L/m2.min)(1 m3/1000L)(1 min/ 60s)
= 1.67 x 10-3 m/s

∅𝑑𝑉𝑠 𝜌
Nr =
𝜇
0.75(0.0005 )(0.00167 )(998.2)
=
0.001002
= 0.624

1−∝
f = 150[ ] + 1.75
𝑁𝑅
1−0.4
= 150[ ] + 1.75
0.624
= 146

146 1−0.4 1 0.00167 2

h = # (# ([ ]
0.75 0.4 3 0.0005 9.81
= 1.038 m
5.6 Filtration Rate

• Standard filtration rate is 1.36 l/s-m2 of filter bed.

Presently, rates between 1.36 to 3.40 l/s-m2 are used.

• Filters are run at

• − Constant filtration rate (most common)
• − Declining filtration rate
• – Longer running period
• – Better quality of effluent
• – Limited to medium to large plants
Filter Dimensions
• Single filter
• − Length to width ratio is 1 : 1.5 to 1 : 2

• Double filter in one concrete basin

• − Almost square with length to width ratio of 1 : 1
• UNDERDRAIN SYSTEM AND SUPPPORT
•
• The functions of the under-drain are:
§ To support the filter media.
§ Collect the filtered water.
§ Distribute the backwash water and air for
scouring
• The media in a filter are supported by graded gravel layers that
prevent the media from reaching and clogging the water collection
under-drains.
• Under-drain systems serve both collection of the filtered water
and uniform distribution of the backwash water.
5.7 Backwash

• Filter run depends on quality of feed water.

• Filter run may range between less than a day to several days.
• Objective of backwash is to remove accumulated particles on the
surface and within the filter medium.
• Backwash is performed using wash water or air scouring.
Backwash
• During backwash, the sand bed expands.

• Bed expansion is between 20 to 50%.

• Backwash flow is between 10.2 to 13.6 l/s-m2.

• Backwash continues till the waste wash-water is relatively clear.

Backwashing process typical diagram
how it’s happen….
Pictures during process….

1 2

3
4
Operational Problems
• Mudballs
− feed contains muddy floc or filter is not adequately backwashed
Can be controlled by surface wash
• Bed shrinkage
• − Sand particles are covered with slime coating
Can cause cracks of the bed surface and sides
• Air binding
• − Release of dissolved gases in water
• −May cause loss of sand during backwashing
Can be controlled by avoiding negative pressure
5.8 Filters Media
Multimedia Filters
• Becoming popular in water treatment.
• The main type of filters in tertiary and advanced
treatments
• Advantages over single-medium filters:
− Longer filtration runs
− Higher filtration rates
− Ability to filter water with higher turbidity or SS
• Advantages are due to:
− Media particle size
− Different specific gravities of the media
− The media gradation
Dual-Media Filters
• Consists of a layer of anthracite (18 - 24 inch) above a
layer of sand (6 – 12 inch).
• Pore volume is higher than that in single filter.
• Specific gravity of coal is 1.2 to 1.6.
• Specific gravity of sand is 2.65.
• Filtration rate is between 2 – 10 gal/min-ft2
• Common filtration rates are 3-6 gal/min-ft2
Mixed-Media Filters
• Anthracite (1.2-1.6) followed by sand (2.65).
• followed by garnet (4.5) or ilmenite (4.5).
• During backwashing, there will be intermixing of the
media.
• There will be no distinct interface between the media
layers after backwashing.
• The filter approach the ideal filter (decrease in pore
volume as depth increase).
• Filtration rate is 2-12 gal/min-ft2 (3-6 gal/minft2
• are common).
5.9 Types of filters
• Slow sand filtration
− Single-medium
− Sand size 0.2 to 0.4 mm
− Filtration rates of 0.05 to 0.15 gal/min-ft2
− Cleaned manually (every 4 to 6 weeks)
− Needs large area and manual labors
− Has been replaced by rapid sand filter
SLOW SAND FILTERS
• Slow Sand Filters are limited to low-turbidity waters not
requiring chemical treatment.
• Filtration rates are in the range of 0.03 to 0.07 l/m2s.
• Filtering action is a combination of straining, adsorption
and biological extraction.
• The biological growth and impurities that accumulate on
the surface of the bed are removed periodically by
scrapping off the upper inch or two of sand.
• Eventually, the filter has to be rebuilt with clean sand.
• Use of slow sand filters has declined, because of:

§ High cost of construction

§ Large filter area needed
§ Unsuitability for processing waters with high-turbidity or polluted waters with requiring
chemical coagulation
• The filters rely on the formation of a dense microbial growth in the upper
layers of the filter.
• This layer is known as the ‘ (dirty layer).

• Bacteria, protozoa and other large microorganisms such as helminths and

suspended solids are effectively removed in this layer.

• Countries in the tropical climate are best suited for slow sand filters
because the warm temperature promotes the establishment of a very
active ‘dirty layer’.
• Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical
and physical-chemical processes. The resulting accumulation of
sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer on the sand
surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even
smaller than the spaces between the sand grains.

• As this layer (referred to as “dirty layer”) develops, it becomes

living quarters of vast numbers of micro-organisms which break
down organic material retained from the water, converting it
into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.

• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed

from the raw water as it passes through the filter skin and the
layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification mechanisms
extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the
surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower
levels as the water becomes purified and contains less organic
material.
• When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter
will work efficiently and produce high quality effluent which is
virtually free of disease carrying organisms and biodegradable
organic matter.
RAPID SAND FILTERS
• Rapid sand filter was designed to utilize the entire depth of a filter bed
more fully to attain a higher throughput of water for a given surface area.
• A higher loading rate produces more rapid headloss development.
• This and the deeper penetration of solids into the beds, limits the only
feasible means of rejuvenating the filter media to backwashing the filter.
• During backwash, water is forced through the filter in the upward direction
at a velocity sufficient to expand the media.
• Cleansing occurs by scour caused by the hydraulic shear forces on the
media and by abrasive scour resulting from particles rubbing against each
other.
The characteristics and other features of
slow and rapid sand filters.
Item Slow sand filters Rapid sand filters
Rate of filtration 1 to 4 to 8 m3/m2/d 100 to 475 m3/m2/d
Depth of bed 0.3m of gravel 0.5m of gravel
1.0m to 1.5m of sand 0.75m of sand
Size of sand Effective size: Effective size:
0.15 to 0.3 to 0.35 mm 0.45 mm and higher
Uniformity coefficient: Uniformity coefficient:
2 to 2.5 to 3 (unstratified) 1.5 and lower (stratified)
Length of run 20 to 30 to 120 d 12 to 24 to 72 hr
Penetration of Superficial (only the top layer Deep (whole bed is washed)
suspended matter is cleared)
Preparatory treatment of Generally aeration, but Flocculation and
water flocculation and sedimentation are essential
sedimentation can be
included
Method of cleaning 1. Scrapping off surface Scour by mechanical rakes,
layer of sand and air or water and removal of
washing removed sand dislodged material by upward
2. Washing surface sand in
backwash flow
place by travelling
washer
Costs:
1. Construction Higher Lower
2. Operation Lower Higher
3. Depreciation Lower Higher
Amount of wash water 0.2 to 0.6 % of water filtered 1.0 to 6.0 % of water filtered
Filtration in Wastewater Treatment
• Used in advanced treatment
− Secondary effluent
− Chemically treated secondary effluent
− Chemically treated primary or raw wastewater
− Usually dual- or mixed media filters
− Size of media is different from that used in water treatment
• − granules are larger to:
– To keep the desired flow rate
– To keep the desires storage volume for flocculated floc
Filtration in Wastewater Treatment
• Filter performance is affected by:
− Concentration of suspended solids
− Floc strength (the ability to withstand shear force)
– Biological flocs are stronger than chemical ones
• Untreated secondary effluent
− Surface removal (primary filter action)
− Excessive headloss terminates the run (not turbidity deterioration)
• Coagulated-flocculated secondary effluent
− Depth removal (main filter action)
− Turbidity deterioration terminates the run
− Low headloss (3 to 6 ft)
Filtration in Wastewater Treatment
• Filter aids are added to:
− Strengthen the chemical floc
– Allow higher filtration rates
– Longer filter runs
• Operational problems
• Buildup of microbial slime
− Can be prevented by surface wash or air scouring
• Encrustation of calcium carbonate
− Occurs when high pH coagulation is used
− Can be prevented by carbonation
Filtration of Secondary Effluents
• Previous studies showed that:
− Feed SS is 18.3 mg/l
− SS removal is 66.2%
− Filter run is 15.6 hours
− Filtration rate is 3.7 gal/min-ft2
− Dual- and mixed-media filters were used
−Mixed-media filters gave better results
Filtration of Chemically Coagulated Effluents
• Previous studies showed that:
− SS is 9.3 mg/l
− SS removal of 74.2%
− Filter run of 33.7 hours
− Filtration rate of 3 gal/min-ft2
−Mixed-media filters gave better results
Filtration of Chemically Treated Primary or
Raw Wastewater
• Previous studies showed that:
− SS is 122 to 133 mg/l
− SS removal of 73.0%
− Filter run of 24 to 31 hours
− Filtration rate of 3.3 gal/min-ft2
−Mixed-media filters gave better results
Upflow Filtration
• Flow is upward (from coarse to fine).
• Single-medium (sand).
• Air scouring is used during backwashing.
• Mainly used in industrial and municipal wastewater treatment.
• Filtration rate is 2 to 3 gal/min-ft2.
• Terminal headloss is 6 to 20 ft
• Design values are:
• − Bed depth is 60 inches (sand 2-3 mm) and 4 inches ( sand of 10-
15 mm)
− Average feed SS of 17 mg/l
− SS removal of 64.6%
− Filtration rate of 2 to 5 gal/min-ft2
− Filter run of 7 to 150 hours
Thank You..