See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/236867671

Influence of Mechanical Properties of Sheep Nappa Leathers on Seam

Efficiency

Article in Journal- Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists · January 2011

CITATIONS READS

8 1,065

4 authors:

Kavati Phebe Palanisamy Thanikaivelan

Central Leather Research Institute Central Leather Research Institute
15 PUBLICATIONS 135 CITATIONS 155 PUBLICATIONS 4,472 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Krishnaraj Kaliappa Bangaru Chandrasekaran

Central Leather Research Institute Central Leather Research Institute
27 PUBLICATIONS 234 CITATIONS 89 PUBLICATIONS 1,209 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Kavati Phebe on 31 July 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Influence of Mechanical Properties of Sheep Nappa
Leathers on Seam Efficiency
Centre for Leather Apparel & Accessories Development, Central Leather Research Institute
K. PHEBE, P. THANIKAIVELAN, K. KRISHNARAJ and B. CHANDRASEKARAN*

(Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India

Summary
Sewability is one of the essential parameters influencing the garment making process as well as the
quality of the final product. In this work, sewability of sheep nappa leathers was measured in terms of
seam efficiency and was correlated with related mechanical properties. Seam efficiency was found to
be between 44 and 99% for the sheep nappa leathers employed in this study. Among the various
mechanical properties studied, elongation at break seems to influence the seam efficiency significantly
as evidenced from the correlation coefficient value of 0.99. While tensile strength and seam strength
also had fairly good relation with seam efficiency with correlation coefficient values greater than or
equal to 0.90. Formability, breaking strength and stitch tear strength (double hole) exhibited a
correlation coefficient of ≥0.80 with seam efficiency, indicating a high dependency. While most of these
parameters had direct relation with seam efficiency, initial tensile modulus had an inverse relation.
Flexural rigidity did not show any significant relation with seam efficiency. The results obtained in this
study would form a basis for designing and fabricating of leather garments.

INTRODUCTION seam efficiency. The shape and size of the garment

relative to the shape of the body, known as fit will be
Leather has become a specialized high fashion
strongly influenced by physical and mechanical
fabric that requires talented specialists to turn into a
properties of the fabric due to stresses induced during
quality garment. Relative to all manmade textiles,
use under static and dynamic situations.4 Since the
leather is very strong and has a high resistance to tears
fabric undergoes deformation due to the application of
and punctures. The comfort provided by leather
stress in the garment making process, fabric
garments is due to leather’s ability to combine
mechanical properties play an important role in the
breathing and insulating properties.1
study of sewability.3
Three-dimensional interweaving of collagen fibre
Although sewability studies have been carried out
bundles is responsible for its characteristic mechanical
on textile fabrics,3-5 there is no published work available
properties2 which are important characteristics of
related to sewability of leather apparel. The present
sheep nappa leathers and influence their end use and
work aims at determining the interrelationship between
comfort. Construction of garments from leather
the seam efficiency and mechanical properties such
involves techniques that are similar to those used for
as flexural rigidity, tensile modulus, formability,
garments made from woven fabrics. However, leather
breaking strength, percent elongation at break, seam
differs from textiles primarily because of the nature of
strength and double hole stitch tear strength of sheep
the interwoven three dimensional collagen networks.
nappa leathers meant for garment applications.
There are numerous pores both in the fibrous network

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
and between collagen molecules, which may vest
leathers with good air/vapour permeability.
The study of sewability in clothing manufacture has
Materials
considerable influence in today’s advanced garment
making process. Fundamentally, in garment
manufacturing, a flat fabric or leather is converted into Commercially available sheep nappa garment
a three-dimensional structure (garment) matching the leathers of 0.6 ± 0.05mm substance were procured
shape of the human body. Therefore, sewability is and five leathers designated as S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5
defined as the ability and ease with which fabric were chosen with an average size of 4 ± 0.5 sq.ft.
components can be effectively seamed together to Specimens were cut along and across the backbone
produce a well fitting garment. Better sewability means from each leather and from the butt region for all the
greater ease of formation of shell structures and styles physical testing.6 Eight specimens were taken from
with the absence of fabric distortion and seam each leather, for analyzing seam strength, double hole
damage. The appearance and durability of seams stitch tear strength and flexural rigidity, adjacent to
forms an important component of the quality of the each other in both parallel and perpendicular directions
finished product.3 The strength and durability of seam to the backbone. Test specimens used for flexural
can be measured in terms of material properties and rigidity measurements were further utilized for

*Author for correspondence:

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

1
measuring thickness and weight and subjected to fabric Formability
tensile strength, elongation at break, initial tensile Formability (F) is defined as ratio of flexural rigidity
modulus and formability analysis. Stitching was carried and initial tensile modulus10 and calculated as shown
out for sewability testing using Coats’ core spun thread
G
in equation (3).
F=
(ticket no. 50) on a Pfaff flat bed sewing machine. A
ITM
number 110 needle was used throughout the study. x 10-3 (3)

TEST METHODS G = Flexural rigidity in mNmm

where:

Flexural rigidity ITM = Initial Tensile Modulus in N/mm

F = Formability in mm2
Flexural rigidity was determined according to Indian
standard IS 64907 test method by measuring the Seam strength
bending length. The procedure for measuring the Assessment of seam strength is basically an
bending length is given in Appendix 1. Taking estimation of the load required to tear or break the
consideration of the size of the leather, samples 25 x seam of the garment. Seam strength was determined
120mm were cut in parallel and perpendicular according to ISO 1769711 test method. Rectangular test
directions to the backbone of the leather compared to specimens of dimensions 100 x 50mm were cut from
the original sample size of 25 x 200mm. It has been the leather and a plain lock stitch seam was made
reported earlier that the deviation in the length of the using Coats’ core spun thread (ticket no. 50) with a
samples of up to 100mm does not influence the flexural stitch density of 3 stitches/cm. The seam was made
rigidity in sheep nappa leather.8 For each sample, the midway between the two ends of specimen as shown
length of the draped part of sample (L) was measured in Figure 1.
(as shown in Appendix 1) with each side up, first at one Cuts were made in each specimen perpendicular to
end and then at the other. The mean value of (L) was the seam from points 3mm from seam to the edge of
obtained. L/2 is known as bending length from which the material such that the central portion had a width of
flexural rigidity (G) was calculated.
L
25mm and two edges had a width of 12.5mm. The

G=Wx
3

(1) tensile testing machine (Instron) was adjusted in such
2
 a way that the jaws were 30mm apart and cross head

W = weight per unit area of leather in mN/mm2

where: speed was 100mm/min. The central portion of the test

G = Flexural rigidity in mN/mm

specimen was clamped midway between the jaws such
that the seam is 15mm from each jaw and is parallel to

Fabric tensile strength and elongation at break

clamping edges. The side strips were not clamped. The
maximum load generated when the sample was pulled
Fabric tensile strength was measured according to apart was recorded and thus seam strength was
Indian standard IS5914.9 using dumb bell shape calculated.
specimens. The test was carried out using a Universal Breaking strength
testing machine, model 4501. The gauge length was
50mm and cross-speed speed was 100mm/min. The This test is mainly intended to determine the force
machine was allowed to run until the test piece broke required to break a test specimen. The test was carried
and the highest load and extension were recorded and out as per SATRA TM2912 using an Instron tester. The
the force – elongation curve registered. Tensile strength testing machine was adjusted in such a way that the
and elongation at break were calculated as per the jaws were 100mm apart and the cross head speed was
above standard. 50mm/min. The specimens with dimensions 120 x

Initial tensile modulus

25mm were stretched by the machine to failure and the

The change in force ∆F was measured from the

breaking strength was recorded. This procedure was
repeated for specimens cut in both directions (parallel
force-elongation curve for a displacement of 0 to 2 mm and perpendicular).
(∆D) and initial tensile modulus was calculated as Stitch tear strength (double hole)
shown in equation (2). Initial tensile modulus is defined
as ratio of force to elongation increment taking place in Double hole stitch tear strength was determined
the initial linear shape of force elongation curve related according to Indian standard IS5914.9 Test pieces of
dimensions 50 x 25mm were cut both along and across
∆F GL
to the sample width.10

ITM = x
the backbone direction of the leather. Two holes were

∆D b (2) made in the test pieces and a metal wire made into a
‘U’ shaped loop was passed through two holes so that

∆F
where: both ends project from flesh side of the test piece. The

∆D
= Force in N ends of the wire were clamped in one of the grips of

GL
= Elongation in mm the Instron and the free end of the test piece in the

b
= Gauge length in mm other grip. The cross head speed was maintained at

ITM
= Width of specimen in mm 250mm/min. The load required to initiate the tear in the
= Initial tensile modulus in N/mm test piece was recorded.

2
 a b

Figure 1. Schematic showing the sample (a) with seam and (b) during seam strength analysis.

Seam efficiency volume of vacant space generated by the piercing of

Durability of a seam can be measured in terms of the needle is reduced and the strength of thread can
seam efficiency, which is the ratio of seam strength to supplement the strength of the leather.
fabric breaking strength of the fabrics sewn.13 Seam From Table I, it is seen that average seam strength
efficiency is calculated as shown in equation (4). in the parallel direction is more than that in the

Seam strength
perpendicular direction. Seam efficiency was plotted

Fabric breaking strength

against seam strength for individual leathers after
Seam efficiency (%) = x 100 calculating the mean of parallel and perpendicular
(4)
direction values as shown in Figure 2. A correlation
Where seam strength and fabric breaking strength coefficient of 0.90 suggests a close linear relationship
are measured in N. between seam efficiency and seam strength. In other
words, an increase in seam strength results in the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION increase of seam efficiency for samples cut in both the
directions of sheep nappa leathers.
Seam efficiency
Seam efficiency versus stitch tear strength
The durability of a seam depends largely on its (double hole)
strength and its relationship to the elasticity of the
The mean values of stitch tear strength (double hole)
material. It is the retention of strength in a seamed
of sheep nappa leathers in the parallel and
fabric after sewing with respect to the original fabric
perpendicular directions are given in Table I along with
strength. The seam efficiency values of selected sheep
standard deviation. It is seen that there is a directional
nappa leathers are shown in Table I along with standard
dependence to the stitch tear strength of sheep nappa
deviation. Mean values of seam efficiency of individual
leathers. The stitch tear strength is greater in parallel to
leathers range from 44 to 97% in the parallel direction
the backbone direction than in perpendicular direction.
and 63 to 99% in the perpendicular direction. The
This could be due to the collagen fibres being more
average values of seam efficiency in the perpendicular
densely populated in the parallel to the backbone
direction are higher than those in the parallel direction.
direction compared to the perpendicular direction.15
These values are either comparable or even superior to
Since the double hole stitch tear test is an of important
the values reported for textile fabrics.13 The
quality control measure for garments, it was plotted
recommended values of seam efficiency for textile
against seam efficiency as shown in Figure 3 after
apparel are above 80%.5
calculating the mean of parallel and perpendicular
direction values. The correlation coefficient of 0.80
Seam efficiency versus seam strength
indicates a fairly good correlation between seam
Measurement of seam strength is a part of quality efficiency and double hole stitch tear strength.
control procedure, which is essential for garments.14
During stitching, when the needle pierces the leather, Seam efficiency versus breaking strength
depending upon the needle size, fibres are ruptured, The mean values of breaking strength of individual
cut or displaced thereby decreasing strength and leathers along with standard deviations are given in
compactness of leather structure. However, as the Table II. It is observed that the breaking strength values
holes are reinforced with the thread used, the total of sheep nappa leathers are higher than seam strength

3
values. The average breaking strength in the parallel and sewing. Flexural rigidity values are given in Table
direction is higher compared to that in the perpendicular I for sheep nappa leathers measured in both parallel
direction. This trend is similar to that observed for the and perpendicular direction to the backbone. The mean
relationship between stitch tear strength (double hole) values range from 54 to 95mN/mm in the parallel
and seam efficiency. Mean seam efficiency was plotted direction and from 63 to 79mN/mm in the perpendicular
against mean breaking strength as calculated for both direction. The flexural rigidity of sheep nappa leather is
the backbone directions and shown in Figure 4. It is high compared to that of woven fabrics.17 Flexural
seen that seam efficiency increases as the fabric rigidity values of individual leathers were plotted against
breaking strength increases (in both the directions) akin seam efficiency after calculating the means of parallel
to the seam strength. It is observed that the relation and perpendicular direction values. The points are
between seam efficiency and fabric breaking strength widely scattered and correlation between the two
is good with the correlation coefficient of 0.83. parameters is not significant with a correlation

Seam efficiency versus tensile strength

coefficient of -0.05 (Figure not shown).

Seam efficiency versus initial tensile modulus

The mean values of tensile strength of sheep nappa
leathers are given in Table II. The average values are At very small strains, the tensile stress – strain
greater in the parallel direction than in the perpendicular relationship often approaches linearity and therefore
direction, which may be due to the fact that the total might be used for obtaining the initial tensile modulus.18
load is carried largely by fibres whose directions are Since there is a strong correlation between seam
nearly parallel to the direction of load. A plot of mean efficiency and percentage elongation, an attempt has
seam efficiency versus mean tensile strength of been made to discover any possible relationship
individual leathers (calculated from both parallel and between mean initial tensile modulus and mean seam
perpendicular direction values) as shown in Figure 5 efficiency. The initial tensile modulus of sheep nappa
yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.92 which indicates leathers was measured for specimens cut in the parallel
that there is an excellent correlation between the above and perpendicular direction and the mean values are
two parameters. given in Table I. The mean values of initial tensile
modulus range from 3.4 to 5.8N/mm along the parallel
Seam efficiency versus percentage elongation at direction and from 2.9 to 4.4N/mm in the perpendicular
break direction. A plot of initial tensile modulus versus seam
As suggested by Mitton, fibres in leather behave as efficiency of individual leathers – after calculating the
individual strands in a wire screen or mesh.16 This mean of parallel and perpendicular direction values –
permits the mesh or skin to elongate in a single yielded a correlation coefficient of -0.6 showing an
direction. It may therefore be assumed that the fewer inverse relation between the two parameters (Figure
not shown).
Seam efficiency versus formability
the number of fibres initially oriented in a definite
direction, the more the mesh may distort or stretch
when pulled in that direction and the magnitude of
stretch is inversely proportional to the number of fibres Formability is defined as the ability of leather
clothing to be transformed from two- dimensions into a
oriented in any one direction. In the present study, it is
simple or complex three-dimensional form.19 It is
therefore clear that the average percentage elongation related to the maximum compression sustainable by a
at break in the perpendicular direction is higher than leather/fabric before the onset of buckling whereas
that in the parallel direction for sheep nappa leathers sewability is the ease of formation of shell structures
as seen in Table II. The mean values of percentage with the absence of fabric distortion and damage.4
elongation at break of individual sheep nappa leathers Bending rigidity as well as initial tensile modulus
vary between 30 and 60%. Leathers examined in the influence the fabric formability.10 The calculated values
present study were more extensible than woven textile of formability of sheep nappa leathers are given in
fabrics.15 The plot of seam efficiency versus percentage Table I along with standard deviation. The values
elongation at break of individual leathers after range between 0.015 to 0.023mm2 in parallel and
calculating the mean of parallel and perpendicular perpendicular directions.
direction values is shown in Figure 6. The correlation Recommendations for woven fabrics suggest that
between these two parameters is highly significant formability should exceed 0.25mm2 in order to avoid
(R=0.99). This parameter can thus be used to predict seam puckering.17 Inadequate formability increases
the seam efficiency. It is apparent from this plot that the likelihood of seam puckering.20 However, in the
higher percentage elongation at break in sheep nappa case of leathers, although the formability values are
leathers will result in better seam efficiency. lower than for woven fabrics, the deformations may not

Seam efficiency versus flexural rigidity

be apparent due to the visco-elastic nature of leather.
Formability values have been plotted against seam
efficiency of individual leathers after calculating the
The bending rigidity of leather is related to the rigidity means of parallel and perpendicular direction values
of collagen fibres in leather. Leathers with high stiffness as shown in Figure 7. The correlation coefficient of
show strong resistance when bent by external forces 0.87 shows a very good linear correlation between the
encountered during handling of leather in spreading two parameters.

4
 TABLE I
Seam efficiency and related mechanical properties of sheep nappa garment leathers

Leathers Seam Seam Double hole

efficiency (%) strength (N) stitch tear strength (N)

Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular

S1 96.8 ± 14.0 98.9 ± 19.0 180.4 ± 19.1 194.8 ± 9.7 49.2 ± 10.8 54.6 ± 6.4

S2 44.0 ± 9.0 62.8 ± 7.0 49.6 ± 5.9 41.1 ± 3.4 22.5 ± 7.8 11.8 ± 1.8

S3 71.3 ± 15.0 88.9 ± 24.0 89.2 ± 17.2 62.7 ± 12.3 33.8 ± 8.6 13.3 ± 4.9

S4 75.7 ± 21.0 95.8 ± 29.0 163.4 ± 29.2 136.3 ± 19.3 56.3 ± 10.6 55.6 ± 12.9

S5 81.9 ± 22.0 91.5 ± 22.0 133.1 ± 19.8 136.4 ± 16.7 32.8 ± 3.7 37.1 ± 7.6

Mean 73.9 ± 19.3 87.6 ± 14.4 123.0 ± 23.8 114.3 ± 22.0 40.3 ± 11.7 34.4 ± 11.3

Leathers Flexural rigidity Initial tensile modulus Formability

(mNmm) (N/mm) (mm2)

Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular

S1 68.2 ± 13.11 78.6 ± 15.6 3.9 ± 0.6 4.4 ± 1.5 0.019 ± 0.007 0.019 ± 0.005

S2 85.9 ± 5.8 64.7 ± 8.2 5.8 ± 0.5 4.4 ± 0.8 0.015 ± 0.005 0.015 ± 0.003

S3 53.6 ± 8.7 62.7 ± 9.6 3.4 ± 0.6 2.9 ± 0.7 0.015 ± 0.003 0.022 ± 0.005

S4 94.6 ± 18.2 74.2 ± 9.8 5.3 ± 1.6 3.3 ± 0.5 0.018 ± 0.004 0.023 ± 0.005

S5 64.2 ± 13.2 65.6 ± 14.3 3.5 ± 0.7 3.2 ± 0.6 0.018 ± 0.004 0.020 ± 0.008

Mean 73.3 ± 12.6 69.2 ± 6.9 4.4 ± 1.1 3.6 ± 0.7 0.016 ± 0.002 0.019 ± 0.003

Values are given as the average of eight samples along with standard deviation

TABLE II
Tensile properties of sheep nappa garment leathers
Leathers Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%) Breaking strength (N)

Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular

S1 13.7 ± 2.5 14.2 ± 2.5 59.6 ± 9.5 49.5 ± 8.2 186.3 ± 23.6 197.0 ± 26.5

S2 6.8 ± 1.3 4.2 ± 0.2 30.2 ± 4.9 32.3 ± 6.0 112.7 ± 17.0 65.5 ± 9.8

S3 10.5 ± 5.5 5.5 ± 2.2 45.9 ± 7.4 43.3 ± 11.3 125.1 ± 20.6 70.5 ± 10.6

S4 11.7 ± 3.2 12.8 ± 3.2 46.2 ± 7.0 55.7 ± 6.7 215.9 ± 27.1 142.3 ± 23.7

S5 12.3 ± 2.6 8.4 ± 1.2 47.4 ± 3.2 51.8 ± 8.3 162.7 ± 26.7 149.1 ± 31.3

Mean 11.0 ± 2.6 9.1 ± 4.4 45.8 ± 10.5 46.5 ± 9.1 160.5 ± 22.7 124.9 ± 26.0

Values are given as the average of eight samples along with standard deviation

5
 100 100

Seam efficiency (%)

Seam efficiency (%)

90 90

80
80

70
70

60
Y=0.26x+49.6 60
50 R=0.90 Y=4.5x+34.9
50 R=0.92
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 2. Relation between seam efficiency and seam

Seam strength (N)

Figure 5. Relation between seam efficiency and tensile

Tensile strength (MPa)
strength of sheep nappa leathers from the mean values of
parallel and perpendicular directions. strength of sheep nappa leathers - mean values for both
parallel and perpendicular directions.

100
100
Seam efficiency (%)

90

Seam efficiency (%)

90
80
80
70
70
60
Y=0.76x+52.7 60
50 R=0.80 Y=1.8x-2.75
50 R=0.99
10 20 30 40 50 60
30 35 40 45 50 55
Double hole stitch tear strength (N)

Figure 6. Relation between seam efficiency and elongation

Figure 3. Relation between seam efficiency and double % Elongation at break
hole stitch tear strength of sheep nappa leathers from the
mean values of parallel and perpendicular direction. at break of sheep nappa leathers - mean values for both
parallel and perpendicular directions.

100
100
Seam efficiency (%)

90
90
Seam efficiency (%)

80
80
70
70
60
Y=0.29x+38.7 60
50 R=0.83 Y=6843x-44.9
50 R=0.87
80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.021
Breaking strength (N) 2

Figure 7. Relation between seam efficiency and formability

Formability (mm )
Figure 4. Relation between seam efficiency and breaking
strength of sheep nappa leathers (mean values of parallel
and perpendicular directions) values of parallel and of sheep nappa leathers (means of parallel and
perpendicular direction. perpendicular values).

CONCLUSIONS of sheep nappa garment leathers was also studied. On

the basis of the experiments carried out, it was
In this study, seam efficiency was evaluated for observed that the influences of seam strength, fabric
sheep nappa leathers and was found to be between 44 tensile strength, % elongation at break, breaking
to 97% in the parallel to backbone direction and 63 to strength, formability and double hole stitch tear strength
99% in the perpendicular direction. The relation on seam efficiency are significant and have a positive
between the seam efficiency and mechanical properties linear relationship (R ≥0.80). On the other hand, the

6
initial tensile modulus has an inverse relation with seam APPENDIX 1
efficiency. The influence of flexural rigidity on seam
Procedure for measuring bending length as per
efficiency was not prominent. The percentage
Indian standard IS 64907
elongation at break, of all the mechanical properties
studied, can be considered as the best parameter to
use to evaluate seam efficiency. A very high correlation Place the tester (shown in the picture below) on a
coefficient of 0.99 substantiates our findings. Further it table so that horizontal platform and inclined reference
can be concluded that the percentage elongation at line are at eye level of the operator.

Apparatus for measuring the bending length

break shall range from 30 to 60% for sheep nappa
leathers in order to give good seam efficiency, in which
higher values are more favourable for better seam
efficiency. Place a specimen on the platform with the scale on
The findings from this study provide a basis for top of it lengthwise and the zero of the scale coinciding
designing and fabrication of leather garments of high with leading edge of the specimen. Holding the scale in
value and quality and help the garment manufacturers the horizontal plane, push the specimen and the scale
to remain competitive in the global market. slowly and steadily until the leading edge projects

(Received June 2010, revised September 2010)

beyond the edge of the platform. An increasing length
of the specimen will overhang and start bending under
its own weight. Observe in such a position that the two
References inclined lines of the tester coincide. Stop the test when
1. Sudha, T. B., Thanikaivelan, P., Phebe, K., et al., J. Appl. the tip of the specimen reaches the level of the inclined
Polym. Sci., 2009, 114, 1761. plane. Note the length of the overhanging portion (L).
2. Thanikaivelan, P., Shelly, D. C. and Ramkumar, S. S., J. Appl.
Polym. Sci., 2006, 114, 1202.
L/2 is the bending length from which flexural rigidity is

3. Behera, B. K. and Sharma, S., Ind. J. Fibre & Text. Res., 1998,
calculated.

23, 233.
4. Shishoo, R. L., Text. Asia, 1989, 2, 66.
5. Crow, R. M. and Dewar, M. M., Text. Res. J., 1986, 56, 467.
6. IUP 2, J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 2000, 84, 303.
7. IS6490, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, (1971).

J. Amer. Leather Chem. Assoc., 2008, 103, 215.

8. Krishnaraj, K., Thanikaivelan, P. and Chandrasekaran, B.,

10. Frydrych, I., Dziworska, G. and Cieslinska, A., Int. J. Clothing

9. IS5914, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, (1970).

Sci. Technol., 2000, 12, 171.

11. ISO17697, International Organization for Standardization,
Geneva, (2003).

13. Gurarda, A., Text. Res. J., 2008, 78, 21.

12. SATRA TM29, Shoe and Allied Trades Association, UK, (1992)

15. Kanagy, J. R., J. Amer. Leather Chem. Assoc., 1955, 50, 112.
14. www.fibre2fashion.com Accessed May 2010.

16. Mitton, R. G., J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 1948, 32, 310.
17. Lange, S., Niven, B. E. and Laing, R. M., J. Soc. Leather
Technol. Chem., 2000, 84, 1.
18. Malac, J., Polymer Test., 2006, 25, 650.
19. Urbanija, V. and Gersak, J., J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem.,
2004, 88, 181.
20. SIROFAST, Instruction manual, 4.2 ed., CSIRO Division of
Wool Technology, (1994). Apparatus for measuring the bending length

7
View publication stats