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Module-3 4th Sem MathsSpectrum1

there is few notes of engineering mathematics -4.

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Module-3 4th Sem MathsSpectrum1

there is few notes of engineering mathematics -4.

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268 Note 1. Some authors define statement as sentence which is either tre or false but not both statement Soe 8,7 Note 2. A statement cannot be true and false at the same time, This fact is known as the lay a excluded middle. .3. Logical Connectives and Compound Ty Statements [Any statement whose trth or otherwise doesnot explicitly depend on another statemen, i simple. For instance, Sid, 8 is an even number. ‘The set of real numbers is infinite are simple statements. ‘A compound statement is a combination of two or more simple statements. The pharases or words which connect two simple statements are called sentential connective, connectives, logical operators or simply connectives. Some of the connectives are “and”, “ops Pl 4 then”, “ifand only if”. Bt When simple statements are combined to make compound statements, then simple statemeny called components. Our problem is to determine the truth value of a compound statement from te va values of their components. Note, Simple statements are generally denoted by small letters p,q, 7,5, f,.. : 1.4, Truth Tables It is a table giving the truth values of a compound statement. It has a number of columns (ei lines), and rows (horizontal lines). The number of columns depends upon the number of simple staterss} and how involved are their relationships. The number of rows in a truth table depends only upon a] 1 number of simple statements. /n case ofn statements there are 2” rows. The truth tables are very helps finding out the validity of a report. ; 1.5. Basie Logical Operations There are three basic logical operations : 1. Conjunction 2. Disjunction 3. Negation which correspond respectively to “and”, “or” and “not”, Conjunction q Any two statements can be combined by the connective “and” to form compound tater lst “conjuction” of the original statements, For example, consider the two statements : He is practical. He is sensitive, ‘The conjuction is “He is practical and sensitive.” P ot AND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 269 The conjuction will be true when both the statements will be true and false even if one of the orents is false. insymbols, two statements are denoted by p, q and their conjuction by p A q. This is read is “p and g”. Rule. p A q is true when both p and q are true. Trath Table Examples let p:5+7=12 q:2 isa prime number. pAq:5+7=12and 2 is prime number. Now pis true and q is true = pAqistmue. Let_p: Every even number is divisible by 2 q: 12 isan odd number. PN q: Every even number is divisible by 2 and 12 is an odd number. Now p is true and q is false. PA qis false, Digunction Any two statements can be combined by the connective “or” to form a compound statement called the “isjunction” of the original statements. For example, consider the two statements : p: There is something wrong with the teacher 4: There is something wrong with the student. Then p V q: There is something wrong with the teacher or with the student, This ‘or’ is inclusive or, that is, there may be something wroi ‘ih both. The disjunction will be false when both the components are false. Insymbols, the disjunction of two statements p and q is denoted by p V q. This is read as“ p or q”- with the teacher or with the student or Rule: pV q is false when both p and q are false. Consider another two statements : P:shall watch the game on television 4: shall go to college PV q: 1 shall watch the game on television or go to college. This is exclusive ‘or’, both p and q cannot happen together, Exclusive OR or X-OR has the symbol Y . SPECTRUM Discrete gis roe when either p org true, but not both. Trath Table for V Rule Truth Table for 7 q PYq a|ala}ats aa] >]a af ala] >] <1 1. Let p:5<12 g:8+3=12 pV qiS q and ~ q > ~ pare logically equivalent P P pg P q i? ee reer, 7 | T F Flot TIF F To ir F F rFfi[r[t FT F T |- T - F T ¥ F T T T pq ~a7~PR Pr =~q>~p. 1.7. Prove that, @ ~Cp)=P (ili) ~(pvg) = ~ pa~dq) Proof. w ee «,{De-Morgan’s Le (@ Truth Table ‘A comparison of the first and third column shows that they are identical. ~@P)=P. (i) Truth Table P 7 T T {ot F F L F F ‘A comparison of the last two columns in the truth table shows that they are identical. g | sic ND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS XS 273 ~(PANQD=~PV~q (iii) Truth Table P q PB T T F F i. F F T T F F F T T F T F F Me F F T T F T T A comparison ofthe last wo columns in the ruth table shows that they are identical ~(PVD=~PA~q Wrovethat (p Ag) Ar=pAa(qgAn Associative Lay) Proof. Truth Table > | 4 r PAG gar |(pAgar pawn] T T T Ae T T T T F T F F F F ud T _| cs F T F F F F by F F F F tT [7 Flt | F F mi T (LF F F F F F r F T ro F F F ¥ F F LF F F F F F pj oF | Acomparison of the last two columns show that they are identical. Hence(p Ag) Ar=pA(qAn). 19. Conditional Statement Any statement of the form “if p then q”, where p, q are statements, is called a conditional statement. Hee pis sufficient for q but not essential. There can be q even without p. Let_p: you work hard you will pass. Now it is possible that a student may pass who has not worked hard. Although p is not necessary for 4 gis necessary for p. It will not happen that one who works hard will not pass. ___ The conditional statement “if p then q” is denoted by p ~ q (to be read as p condi Boles g). nal q) or ( p The conditional p> q is also read as “ if p then q” p implies q, p only if g, p is sufficient for g, ¢ is, tressary for p, q ifp. Rule. p- q is true in all cases except when pis true and q is false. 24 1.10, Prove that : Opr4a=CPva i)~(p>Q=PA~q Proof. () Truth Table ‘A comparison of the last two columns in the truth table shows that they are identical. Prq=pVvVg (i Truth Table ~4 pra ‘A comparison of the last two columns in the truth table shows that they are identical, | o ~(pran=pA-q 1.11, Biconditional statement or equivalence ‘The statement “p ifan only ifq” is called a biconditional statement and is denoted by p +4. The biconditional is also read as (0 qif'and only itp Gd _pitmplies q and q implies p (ili) p is necessary and sufficient for q (iv) qis necessary and sufficient forp ©) pittg Ww) qittp Rule. pq (A) true if both p and q have the same truth value i-e., either both are true or both are false. oye | sgct AND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS as Ny (a folseifp and q have opposite truth values. ‘Truth Table 112. Prove that (p <> q)<*r=p = (qr) ro. Truth Table P q r pq | qer (eeger (ae T T T T T T T T F T F F F F F T T F T F F F F T 7; F T T | T T F T F F F T F F F = T T F T | F F F T T Lr F F T T F F The: comparison of the last two columns shows that they are identical. 2 (peger=pe(qen. 113, Precedence to Logical Operators We formed formulas are fully paranthesised, so there is no ambiguity in their interpretition. Often, tonever, it is more convenient to omit some of the paranthesis for the sake of readability. eg. we would Feterto write PQA Rrather than (P+ Q) sR). The syntax rules given below define what an expression means when some of the paranthesis are ‘cited, These conventions are analogous to those of elementary algebra, as well as most programming ‘unguages, where there is a precedure value that says. a+b X emeans a+ (b X ¢) rather than (a +6) X The syntax values for propositional logic are straightforward. 1, The most tightly binding operator is ~. e.g. ~P A Q means (~ P) A Q. Furthermore, ~ P means ~ P). SPECTRUM Discre re ny la ‘The second hi operations comes first. eg. PV QARmeansP V (QA R). than operator In expressons combining y ¥ I there are several A operations in a sequence, they are performed left to right, eg. PAQARAS means (P 4 QAR) AS) ; 3. The V operator has the next level of precedence and it associates to the left, 4. ‘The > operator has the next lover level of precedence. eg PAQ-*PV Qmeans (PA Q)* (PY Q). ‘The + operator associates to the right thus P+ QR +S means (P +(Q> (RS). 5. The « operator has the lowest level of precedence, and it associates tothe right, EXAMPLES 1. Let p:124+5=17 qiS+2=7 pog:l2+5=17i 54227 ‘Now p is true and q is true perqistnue. 2 Let p:5=4 9:6=5 pog:5=4 if 6=5 Now pis false and q is false po qisinue. 3. Let_p: Only one even integer is prime q: All odd integers are divisible by 5 p* q: Only one even integer is prime iff all odd integers are divisible by 5. ‘Now p is true and q is false. po qis false, 1.14, Laws of the Algebra of Propositions Here 0 stands for contradiction, 1 for tautology. Commutative Laws pVqeqVp PAGQ*@qNp Associative Laws (PVQVrepVvqvn (PAQ Arep ann ano PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS in a6 2 Distributive Laws agar Paav(enn PYGAN@ (pV QA(pVr) pore pAlep mi V~pe pr-pod pV~pel Bo em) ©, |! SMempotentiews 125 cece pee PN pep FO a prow PViel POPs PLDOL, Mabon laws: pe prev ger PV (pA gop DeMorgan’s Laws ~PAD? pV (~9) Involution Laws ~Cp)ep 1.15, Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive ~(pV Qe CP) A (9) Ifp > q isa direct statement, then () q>piscalled its converse (i) ~p > ~qis called its inverse and (iif) ~ q > ~ p is called its contrapositive. Note Since p>q=~q-+>~p and q>p=~p+~q Contrapositive = direct statement and converse = inverse. Note. Ifthe direct statement is true, then its converse and inverse may or may not be true. 116. Duality We know that dual relationship between ‘line’ and ‘point’ exists through the interchange of the words ‘meet’ and ‘join’, For example : “A line is the join of two points? “A point is the meet of two lines? Similarly there exists dual relationship in logic. We first interchange A and V. For example : ~(pNQ)=~pV~q ~(pV Q)=~pr~q 278 EQUIVALENCE Let bea set of propositions and, be propositions generated by S. p and ¢ are equivalent if pw, isa tautology. The equivalence of p and q is denoted by p + q. IMPLICATION Let S be a set of propositions and_p, q be propositions generated by S. p implies q if p ~ gis tautology. p~ qi written to indicate the implication, 1.17, Statement Patterns or Well-formed Formulas IE p,q, rows are statements, which can be treated as variables, then any statement involving thy statement and logical connectives A, V, -», +, ~is called a statement pattern or a well formed formula, Note. Brackets can be removed or introduced in statement patterns, but with care. @ PAGAN=PAgAr (i) ~(pV q)#-pVq ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Example 1. For cach of the following sentences, state whether it is a statement and indicate its truth vae ifitis a statement. () 3x5+4=19, (i) Moon is not a heavenly body. (iii) Today is Sunday. (iv) Why are you smoking ? (0) Do you like reading ? (vi) Logic is a very interesting subject. (vii) There are only 100 positive integers. (viii) The sum of three angles of triangle is two right angles. (&) May God bless you with success ! Sol. (This isa true statement. (ii) This isa false statement. (iii) This is a statement which is true on Sunday but false on other days. (iv) This is not a statement as the sentence is declarative. (@) This is not a statement. (vi) This is notaa statement as it is an open sentence. (vii) This isa false statement as the number of positive integers is infinite. (viii) This isa true statement. (é) This is not a statement. Example 2. You are given the following statements : p:5X7=35. 4 Moon is @ heavenly body. rr: Jammu is the most populated city in India. 5: Food is necessary for life. State the truth values of the followings : O PAQPARDASGAKGASrAS. (i) PVGQPY PV SGV rqVSrVS Ne and PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS. 279 eee ECE tere Pode are tre statements and rs false, SP OPA ap As. A sare tue and others are false, (i All statements are true as there is only one false statement. yaple3. Let be the statement “the south-west monsoon is very good this year” and q be the statement «ervers are rising”. Give the verbal translation for (Dp V~q — (i)~ (“PV ~a). (0 Te south-west monsoon is very good this year but the rivers are not rising, (ipltis not true that the south -west monsoon is not very good or the rivers are not rising. o ~CPV~a=~(~P)A~CaQ)mp rg the above verbal translation can also be written as : The south-west monsoon is very good this cand vers are rising, . . tunple4. Write the following statements in symbolic form and give their negations () Ifyou work hard, you will get the first division. (ii) If t rains, he (i If Mahatma Gandhi was a saint then Sardar Patel was as iron man. 1 ()Let the symbols for the statements be : p: you work hard q: first division not go to Kathua, the statements is p> q Its negation is ~(p > g)=~(~p V q)=~(~p) N~q=pA~q. Inwords : Even if you work hard, you will not get first division. (ip Let p : ttrains. q:He will go to Kathua. symbolic expression is p> ~q Isnegation is ~(p>~4 (p > ~a)=~Cpv~q) (~pP)A~Ca)=p Ag. Inwords : Even if it rains , he will go to Kathua. (di) Let the symbols for the statements be : p: Mahatma Gandhi was a saint q: Sardar Patel was an iron man the statement is p> q Its negation is ~(p > q)=~(~p V 9)=~(~p) AQ) =pA~q In words : Even if Mahatma Gandhi was a saint man, Sardar Patel was not an iron man. Lumple S, Write the following statements in symbolic form : “You can not ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16.” Example 6. Write the following statements in symbolic form “Every student in this class has studied calculus.” Sok. S(z) xis inthis class, C(x) =x studied calculus Vx{(S(x) + Clx)) x (S(x) A C(x)) means “Every student is in this class and has studied calculus.” Example 7. Write the following statements in symbolic form “Some student inthis class has studied programming.” Sol. S(x): xis in this lass, P(x) : x studied programming. 3 x(x) AP) Example 8. ()) Find the truth values of ~(~p V q) ifp is true and q is false. (ii) Ifpis true and q is fas, find the truth values of ~(p A ~q). Sol. () ~(~pV qg)=~(-p) N~g=pA~q Now p is tne and q is false pistrue and~q is true pA~gistre. truth values of ~(~p Vg) is T. () ~(pA~Q=~pV~~M=~PVG Now p is true and q is false ~ pis false and q is false. ~pV qis false. Example 9. Determine which of the following statements are true or false : () [6<8) A <6] +6~8 (i) [RSQ +QSR] + Q=R (iit) (AZ is rational ) V (2 is irrational] -> (1 = 0) Sol. (i) Let the symbols for the statements be pi6<8 q:8<6 given statement is (p A q) sr : .?P is false. 1 ae andr if. 1 (pagers iste. : (<8) A B @) 7 Now pis false, q is tue and ris false. prqisiue. (p79 > ris false 2 [REQ>QER] + Q=Ris false. (ii) Lethe symbols for the statements be : given statement is (p V q) +r Now pis false, q is false and + is false. pV qis false (pV q) > ris true. & [(¥2 is rational) v (2 is irrational] > (1=0) is tree. lumple 10, Write down the truth table of the following statement : [p-a@valyee-n . Truth Table pla] lave] -- | pra@vo| pene | pe Gv Alper) Tlt[t[ rt] F ir F F TlFi[ ri] tr T F F fel T|T|T F | i T T Fle[r[ rl] er T T T TItlF> rt] t T T T tl F[F[r|t F 7 F Fitje[ Tr] T F F Fle [ot T F F a SPECTRUM DISCRETE MaTuEy, Example 11, Prove that p*q=(p Aq) V(~p Sol. Truth Table ‘A comparison of the last two columns in the truth table shows that they are identical. P*q=(PAQ)V (~pA~q). Example 12. Prove that (p> r) >(q>5)=(pAqg)+(rV 5). Sol. Truth Table eP\aq|r|s |prrla>s|prg| rvs | (P=9vVG>5 |@ Ag) vs) PE et ee eee Le ee T T tlr[r[r[ rt] tr e [Tt T T F[t[r[rt[r[t F [Tt in rT Fle[t[tr[r[3r]r[t T T T T i T F = T T T T T 7 F v F T F T T T Flr[e[t[r pry r it T T Fle{r{t|7t|?rf[relfr T T T ia T z T F T T T T tle[r[e[r[r F T 7 meet F T T F T ie F T T jo rT F F T F i T F T T Tr. a T F F F ¥ T F F F (tle te lel [tte F T T dl T F F T F F F T 7 F F F T T F + T ‘A comparison of the last two columns in the truth table shows that they are identical. (p> (q>3)=(PAD*OVS) eC AND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS ganple 13-Provethat p+ (qAr)=(p-q) A(p> nr). wo ‘Truth Table CI q 7 [a@ar P>@Ar | pra | por (paren) T|T T T T T T T | GE F [oT F F F T F ele T rT, T T T F T F T T T T [7 F F F T F F F F F F F F [ F F T T Tt T F T T T A comparison of the fifth and eighth columns shows that they are identical. PAN =(P>QDA (pr). fumple 14. Prove by means ofa truth table that p+*q=(p—>q) A (gp). st Truth Table P 4 Pa a-p_ [@=aAG~-P| p= T T T T T T T F FT F F F T T F F F F F T T T + ‘The like truth values of the last two columns prove the validity of the statement. tuample 15. Prove that (p A q) > (p A g)is a tautology but (p V q) + (p A q) isnot So. Truth Table ela [eval pra | wag=@va | @va-@An T T T T T T T F T F 7 F F r T F T F t+ F F F : aan T From the above table, it is clear that (p A q) > (p V q) is a tautology while (p V q) + (p A q) is a iG SPECTRUM DISCRET E Man Sorc ee Example 16. Prove that {[(p> 9) ¥ p] Ag} > qisa tautology. ‘Sol. Truth Table p | a [pre | rave? [ip=avel ral era vel ag} =o Tit] T T. T T T F F + - T F(T] T T T T Heese Sree ree Perret tne ftir From the above table, it Example 17. Provethat if p+g and g+rthen p>. Sol. Here we are given that p + ¢. q+ rand we have to prove that p -> r. The result will be establsted4 we show that [p> atosn] = (p> isa tautology. Truth Table clear that [ip +a) Vp] Ag} = gisa tautology Fle] [aa] a= [ro] 0-980 [panne =vlnu tTitlti7T]717T T T TlF[7] Fr] 7 [rT] F T F[t]r{ rf t{ti T T Flril7{t{3tftT T T TitiFl T{ FI F F T TiFle[ F {tle F T FIT[FI T F [tT F T Fle{r{/7]7f{7] T T 2 ifp+qand q>rten por (p+ QA lg=n) > (p> Aisatesses Example 18. Write down ti) Conrepesitive of p> ~ it) Contrapositive of converse of p+ ~4 (iii) inverse of converse of p = 9 Sol. (/) Contrapos eof p>~gis ~CQr~p-4a>~P (iijConverse of p>~gis~q~p contrapositiveof ~q— pis “poo t-9) “pra (iti) Converse of p> gis q>p Inverseof —-g>pis~q—~p spot AND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 285 jumple 19. State the Converse and Contrapositive of the implication “If it snows tonight, then | will stay ge gle ps Itsnows tonight g: Twill stay at home. Given statement is p + g Converse of statement is q > p ig “If stay at home then it Snows tonight”. Contrapositive of statement is ~q > ~p ie “Ido not stay at home then It will not Snow tonight”. EXERCISE 1.1 Which of the following is a statement (or proposition) ? Justify your answer : a (ii) P+Sx+6=0. (i) 6 has three prime factors. en to me, Krishna ! (i) 17 isaprime number. (8) Two non-empty sets have always a non-empty intersecti (i) The real number x is less than 1. (i) Two individuals are always related. State the truth values of the following : a, 5 () There are only finite number of rational numbers. (i) V2 isa rational number. (ii) There is only one triangle apart from the triangles (congruent to it) with prescribed lengths forsides a,b, ewith a~p (i) Give the truth table for the statement (p A q) + (p V a). (il) Give the truth table for [+ m where I= (p> q) A (q+ p)and m=p*> 286 5. 6 1 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATIC, t : lines and m are perpendicular to each other point on m, ‘write down in symbols the statement r= A is a point on the line m which is perpendicular to/ ‘What is the negation of this statement ? (i) If p:tstudy 4:1 fail, What is the symbolism for the statement rT study oF fail, What is the negation of this statement ? (ii) *Ram is smart and healthy’ “Ram is neither smart nor healthy’ Are these statements negations of each other ? (iv) Are the following statements negation of each other ? ‘ris not a rational number’ ‘x is not an irrational number.” (%) Write down the statement. ‘Two congruent triangles are precisely those which corresponding sides equal’ as an equivalence and write its negation also. (Write down the negation of the statement : *All the sides of an equiangular triangle are of te same length’. (fp stands for the statement, ‘I do not like chocolates’ and q for the statement. “I like ice-creax, then what does ~p A q stand for ? (i If's stands for the statement, ‘I will not go to school’ and ¢ for the statement, “I will watchs ‘movie’, then what does ~s V stand for ? (iit) If p stands for the statement, “I like tennis’ and q stands for the statement, ‘I like foottal’ then what does ~ p A ~q stand for ? Prove that () pAgrqnp @) pvq=aVeP Gi) PV@VN=(pV avr (oe) ~(pV~g)=~PAg 0) ~(pa~q)=~pVq Write down the truth table for @ (pra>p Gi) p>(pP ra) Gi) (pPNqQ>(PV 9) . @) pAG@>p) ) ~(pPAQV~ep) Ww) (P>gaV~~en (il) ~(p>qye(pr~g) ili) pV ~q (i) PVGAN@(PVQA(pY¥r) p PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 287 prove the following distributive laws vr Aqgv 4 @ PAAYO-PAOV(pA @ PV@nn=(pvgarcvn (i (VDAT=PANV GAN @) (AQDVr=(pVNAQ@VY 0 Show that CPA~9>(D-> a)isatautology (i) Show that (p A 4) > (pv gyis a tautology, (ii) Show that (p A q) > ( ~PV q)isa tautology, () (P49) > (P* a)isatautology, () (PAG) P isa tautology, (i) (P99) 4 (~P V ~q) isa contradiction, (vi) Show that (pV a) Vr epv(gy risa tautology. (i) Show that_p > (p V 4) isa tautology, (@) Show that (p V q) (~p A~4) is a contradiction, 10, Construct truth table of ~(p A q)>~ py ~ 4 Isit Contradiction or Tautology. t(D Write down the truth table for A m where =~ q > ~r,m=~p-» ~4. (i) Write down the truth table for 1 m where = (PV q),m=~pr~g. 12, Construct the Truth table for the proposition >a) >@>p) 13. Write down the truth table for the following statement Patterns ; © (p> 9*Cq>~p) (P>9>[q>n>(7>9) 4. Prove that ; P>(~qV = (pAg>r. 1S. Simplify 0 ~Cp>~q) (@) ~Cpeg (ii) ~~pv~q) Find the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following statement : “IE 4x-2=10, then x=3”. State Converse and Contrapositive of the implication “if today is Thursday, then I have a rest today”, ANSWERS (i) Statement (iif) Nota statement (iv) Statement (vi) Nota Statement (vif) Statement. LOF we Gi) T @F OT ODF Oi) T Git) T “Nota statement ©) Statement SPECTRUM DISCRETE Mariny | Tay s = 1 = < > 8 8 L L < ¢ e e > t a 5 G ic o r > e 8 < ; ; . > 5 ; > 8 g = = = 0 @r (a No | is not perpendicular to mor A isnot a point on nm isp V qi ‘Ido not study and I do not fai’. (i) Yes pea: pror0sITIONAL CALCULUS 289 “quo giangles are not congruent and have corresponding sides equal or two triangles are congruent sve @ sO O) 10 qairof corresponding sides equal.” all the sides of an equiangular triangle are of the same length”. like chocolates and ice-cream. (i) Either I will go to school or 1 will watch a movie. like neither tennis nor football. Truth Tables Truth Table Truth Tables (pAg—~(PY 299 SPECTRUM DISCRETE Mx; TH ™ Truth Table ~~ ; © i) (cay (vitiy | (@=av~(p=a) 291 Truth Table Vr |pV@An|(PVaA@YD An? evn PVG (eyny =(@PAQ= ~PV~4 =Pv-q ~(PAD qnrlpvalp Given saiement is a Tamology as result is always tue. oO PB eva) q |pva PB w (p> 9~@>P) 292 ‘SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEN MATIC 3. P q prog x47 ~P | (p> ae(~9>~p) T T T T T T F F F fT; F T ae F T F F: fr. T T @ |e yal st pra qtr | G7 0-9) (p>q-la>n+0-9)] tilt[t]t| Tt T T tT [t[F F T T E F[t|F | F 7 T|FIF F T Ee T F[t[t[t|T ir T F[tiF[tl[ F T iT FU) FUT] T T T T FL FIFE T T T T 15. () ~pAq Wi) poq (il)prq 16. (9) Converse: If x=3, then 4x-2=10 (i) Inverse: If 4.x-2% 10, then x #3 Gii) Contrapositive : If x # 3, then 4x-2 # 10 17, Converse : If Thave a rest today, then Today is Thursday. Contrapositive : If 1 do not have a rest today, then today not Thursday. 1.18, Arguments Def. of argument : An argument is a statement which asserts that given set of propositions is Pas Press Pa taken together gives another proposition P. ‘These are expressed as. 1, Da, Psy Pos Pr Pov Vali HP is true if P is true whenever all the premise Dis Pos Pivov-ns Pa a true, otherwise the argument is false. A true argument is called valid argument, anda false argument is called a fallacy. . Pal P. The sign “/-" is spoken at turnstile. The propositions . Pa are called “premises” or “assumptions” and P is called the “conclusion”. argument : An argument 1, P2y P3,:-+- Note. [fis important to realise thatthe truth or the conclusion is irrelevant as far as the validity of argumett is concemed. A true conclusion is neither necessary nor sufficient for the validity of argument. ‘The validity can also be judged by the relationship py A p2 A ps ‘A a> P provided itis a tautology 293 ample 1. Testthe validity of : If he works hard then he will be successful. IPhe is successful then he will ferppy. Therefore, hard work leads to happiness. * aj Letthe symbols for the statements be : phe works hard. he is successful rhe is happy. The argument is : (p> DAG? NI)>pr Truth Table p|q r | pra | ar | (ee 9A) | por | Wr DAGQ= AIA (Po r[t{t| tT 7; T T T T[F[tl F T F T T Flt|t|T T T T T F F = T fe Yo T T lr ky F T F F F rT bg F ul ¥ T F F T fetes F F T T rF[F[re| Tt T T T T | From the table, itis clear that ((p > q) A (qr) > (p =n) is tautology. given argument is valid Note, Another method for testing the v: of argument. Inthe last three examples, there were only two or there statements and consequently 4 to 8 rows in the nh able. But if there are four or more statements then the truth table will have 16 or more rows and the «| shance of the making a mistake will be more. To over come this difficulty ie., to reduce the size of the uble we have another method, infact above method stated in another way, which follows as : “Assume that the conclusion is false. Now if py A p:A valid, otherwise the argument is invalid. ; A pm isa fallacy, then the argument is : Example 2. Test the validity of : es “If my brother stands first in the class, I will give him a watch. Either he stood first or 1 was out of sation. I did not give my brother a watch this time. Therefore I was out of station.” Sol. Let the symbols for the statements be : p:my brother stands first in the class. qi L give him a watch. 1: was out of station. x 294 ‘SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATE | ‘The argument is p + 4p Vr,~q/-r. ‘Assume that ris false. ‘Now there will be only four rows as there are only two variables p, q Truth Table (P>DAPYNACD ie F F F Since (p + q) A (p Vr) A (~q) isa fallacy. the argument is valid. Example 3. Prove the validity of following arguments : If man is a bachelor, he is unhappy. Ifa man is unhappy, he dies young. ‘Therefore, bachelors die young. Sol. Let p:manis a bachelor gman is unhappy r:man dies young. ‘The given statementis [(p >) A (q>")]>(p>7) ‘Truth Table 1 tt P q ro leraiatr [er arg) por Io tT] tr{[r{rtf[r T T T Tere ee F F T Tief]ti[{rf[tr F a T tTilejrf[rf[tr F F T F[t[tf[t[t T T T F[t[r)rl[t{[r F T T BHP eee ret ta a; Pr fT. Fae ee reo T iT Since given statement is a tautology, so argument is valid. Example 4. Check the val ; If work, | cannot study. Either I work or pass mathematics. of argument : I passed mathematics. Therefore, I study. : ‘ yen statement iS the pr DN OVOAON~4 Truth Table 1 0 ; pvr |(p+-9A@VAA}] Ia <0 T r T . T F T 7 T T F 7 T F aa T 7 i. T T F F F T tet T T F rFlrF[ Flt F F T ‘The given statement is not a tautology. so argument is not valid. EXEKCISE 1.2 LL Test the validity of : If it rains then crop will be good. I not rain, therefore the crop will not be good. 1. Test the validity of : Unless we control population, all advances resulting from planning will be nullified. But this must ‘ot be allowed to happen. Therefore we must somehow control population. Are the following arguments valid ? If valid, construct a formal proof ; if not valid, explain why. (©) Ifwages increase, then there will be inflation. The cost of living will not increase if there is no inflation. Wages will increase. Therefore, the cost of living will increase. Ifthe races are fixed or the casinos are crooked, then the tourist trade will decline. If the tourist trade decreases, then the police will be happy. The police force is never happy. Therefore, the races are not fixed. | ANSWERS ~ Not valid (a) Not val (6) Valid — 296 ETE MATHEMATIC 1.19. Proposition Generated by a Set Let $ be any set of propositions. A proposition generated by S is any valid combination of propositions in $ with conjunction, disjunction and negation, Note. The conditional and biconditional operators are not included as they can be obtained from conjunction, disjunction and negation, Equivalence Let$ beset of propositions and p,q be propositions generated by S. p and q are equivalent if p +g is a tautology. The equivalence of p and q is denoted by p © 4. Impli ion Let $ be a set of propositions and p, q be propositions generated by S. p implies gif p-+q isy tautology. p > q is written to indicate the implication. 1.20. Laws of Logic Here 0 stands for contradiction, | for tautology. ‘Commutative Laws pvqeqve pAqgeqnp ‘Associative Laws (pYQVrepvqvr (PAQDATEPAGAN Distributive Laws PAGYN@(PADV(PAN _PYGANS(PYMA(PYA Tdentity Laws 1 PAd@ p pv lee, Negation Laws ns PA~ped PPh Tdempotent Laws PYpep PA pep ‘Null Laws proved pviel Absorbtion Laws PAGV AEP PY(PA Dep DeMorgan’s Laws =P gop) ACO) ~PADECP)V CA) Involution Laws. ~CA—eP pnorOstTHONAL CALCULUS 7 0) cs plication and Equivalence oom Detachment — anes “a Contrapositive (Pr DA~I2—-P oe Disjunctive Addition p2(PV@ Conjunctive Simplification (prmepand (PAD?4 Disjunctive Simplification (pv @a~p 24 and (PY DA~9 =P Chain Rule (pPrDAGrN=Prr CONDITIONAL EQUIVALENCES. (p27 DeCq>~P) &CPVD Biconditional Equivalences (pode (V7 OA > P) ©CPADYEPA~9) 122. Chain Rule Prove that (p+ q) N(q>r) > (p>r) rot, Truth Table pla|rlpralarr | (era AG | per (p-9 A777 Tilt{ Tt] T T T T T|F T F a F T T Fl[T|t| 7 T T T T FLFE]T| 7 T T T T TI|T[ FI T F F F z TIFF F T F F T F[t tT | F F T 7 | Flefel T [oz tt] Since (pq) A (q- r) > (p > Pisa tautology (p> aqrn>(p>n | 298 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEM Ney 1.23. Detachment Law Prove that (p> q) Ap> q Proof. Truth Table P = (Pr DAPrd T T T rT T T F F F T F T T F T F F T F T Since (p> q) A p= qis a tautology (p> DAP q 1.24, Mathematical System A mathematical system consists of 1. A set or universe, U. ons : sentences that explain the meaning of concepts that relate to the universe. Any tem ing the universe itself is said to be undefined. All definitions are given in terms of these. undefined concepts of objects. 3. Axions : assertions about the properties of the universe and rules for creating and justifying mor assertions. These rules always include the system of logic that we have developed to this point. 4. Theorems — the additional assertions mentioned above. Example 1. In Euclidean geometry the universe consists of points and the definitions is a definition of parallel lines and among the axiom: lines never meet. s (two undefined terms). Among the axiom that two distinct parted Example 2. In Propositional calculus, the universe consists of propositions. The axioms are the truth tables for the logical operators and the key definitions are those of implication and equivalence. ‘Theorem : A true proposition derived from axioms of mathematical system is called a theorem. All theorems can be expressed in terms of a finite number of propositions Pu Px called the premises and the proposition C, called the conclusion. These theorems take the form p, A p;A PrAveA Py > C. Proof : A proof of a theorem is a finite sequence of logically valid steps that demonstrate that the premiss ‘ofa theorem imply the conclusion. ‘There are two important types of proofs namely direct and indirect. Direct Proof : It is a proof in which the truth of the premises of a theorem are shown to directly imply ti truth of the theorem's conclusion. Rules for Direct Proof 1, It must terminate in a finite number of steps. 2. Each step must be either a premise or a proposition that is implied from previous steps using a valid equivalence or implication. 3. The last step must be the conclusion of the theorem. ic AND PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS 299 Poof ‘Negate the conclusion of the theorem and add this negation to the premises. If this set of propositions piesa contradiction, then the proof is complete. js or Indirect Proof 1, The first step is the negated conclusions. 2. The last step must be a contradiction ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES} sample 1. Prove that the following are equivalences : (@) PVG @aVpP Gi) p>qe~q>p_ (ii) (PADVCPAQDSEG ot Truth Table P q PYG aVP (pV > (GV p) T T T T T T F T T T F T T T T F F F F T Since (p V q) > (q V p) is a tautology pV qand q V pare equivalent = (PY Qe@V p). Ww Truth Table Pig se 8 p>a ae? @->9>C4q>-p) tl tl[F F iT T T tl FF T F F T F[Tt|T F T T T Flr [Tt T T T T Since (p > q) > (~ q + ~p) isa tautology (p> q)and (~q + ~ p) are equivalent (p> eCa>~p) ) Truth Table P @q | ~PAg| @ADVCPAD | PADVCPAQ=>q T a|-a]a]s ala}a]s]s ala}a]=]4 a] o|-a| a] > a|a|= als]afa T T i. SPECTRU} 1 300 RUM Discri (ph gs (~p Aq) gisatantology oe (pagV ep Agand gare equivalent 5 (PADVCPADED Example 2. Give direct proof of ~PVGsV Ps Sol. Step Justification a Premise @ Premise @) ~P Disjunctive simplification (1), (2). @ sVp Premise © s Disjunctive simplification (3), (4). # Note. Conditional Conclusion ‘The conclusion of a theorem is often a conditional proposition. The condition of the conch included as a premise in the proof of the theorem. Then we are to prove the consequence of the eis elas Example 3. Give indirect proof of “io sion can Prng7spVqg2sVvr Sol. Step Proposition Justi Q -~6Vn) ‘Negated conclusion @ =sn=r De Morgan’s Law, (1) @) s Conjunctive simplification, (2) @ qs Premise © ~9q Contrapositive (3), (4) © -r Conjunctive simplification, (2) o por Premise ®) ~p Contrapositive, (6), (7) 9) (p)A(~q) Conductive, (5), (8) (10) ~(pv a) De Morgan’s Law, (9) ay Pvq Premise (12) 0 (10), (11) # : EXERCISE 1. 1. Show that (@ pA qlogically implies p+ q (i) p+ ~q does not logically implies p + e sD PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS, 4 yes be on 301 Give direct proof of the theorem p-r.q—>s.pVq > 5Vr. Give direct proof of p+ (q>s),~rVp, gor-s. Give indirect proofof a b.~(bV c)= ~a ee = Give direct and indirect proof of p-q.q—>r,~(pAr.pV ror Give direct and indirect proof of (PADNO>S). GDA (Su), ~ (LAU), par e~pP _—— [pS Proposition over a Universe Let U be a non-empty set. A proposition over U is a sentence that contains a variable that can take on |p alue in U and which has a definite truth value as a result of any such substitution. Examples : Consider (9 1¥-6x=0 = x(7x-6)=0 -02 2 x07 Ifwe take Q as universe, then truth set (i.e, sol n set) of 7 7 -6x=Ois {o.2}. Ifwe take Z as universe, then truth set of 7.x*—6 x =O is {0}. Ifwe take N as universe, then truth set of 7x°-6x=0 iso. (iy 2-5 Ifwe take Q as universe, then truth set of =*= iso. 2 =5 isa contradiction over the rationals. (i) (+3) (@-3) 47-9 Itwe take Q as universe, then truth set is Q as (x + 3) (x— 3) =x° —9 is true for all rational numbers (x +3) (e— 3) = x79 is a tautology over the rationals. Truth Set If p (1) is a proposition over U, then the truth set of p(n) is Tron = (a & Us p (a) is true} Euample Consider the set {1, 2, 3. 4} Us power set is {9, (13. {2}. (3), 4}, (23, (1.33, 4}, (2, 3}, (2,4), (3,4), (12,3), (1,204), 11.3.4), 2.3.4}, 2,3, 4} Let proposition be {1,2} NA=@ “truth set of proposition taken over the power se of {1, 2,3, 4} is {3}, 4}, G4}. Tautology and contradiction : A proposition over U is a tautology if its truth set is U. It is a Contradiction if its truth set is empty. oy SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMAT«¢g 22 AANA rrrEO rr STIG Equivalence : Two propositions are equi equivalent if T,=T,- lent if pq a tautology. In other words p and q ay Example : x+7= 12 and x=5 are equivalent propositions over the integers. Implication : If p and q are propositions over U, then p implies q if pq is a tautology. In ty words p> qwhen T, ST, Example : Over the natural numbers, n<3 > n

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