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The effect of cutting fluids applied in metal cutting process

Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B Journal of Engineering Manufacture · June 2015
DOI: 10.1177/0954405415590993

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Review Article

Proc IMechE Part B:

J Engineering Manufacture
2016, Vol. 230(1) 19–37
The effect of cutting fluids applied in Ó IMechE 2015
Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/0954405415590993
pib.sagepub.com

Pei Yan1,2, Yiming Rong1 and Gang Wang1

Abstract
Due to the development of new engineering materials and high-speed cutting, cutting fluid plays an important role in
machining. Commonly, the use of cutting fluid can decrease cutting temperature, reduce the friction between tool and
workpiece, extend tool life, and improve machining efficiency and surface quality. These effects of cutting fluid were
mainly obtained from its basic functions including cooling, lubrication, corrosion protection, and cleaning. According to
the review of the researches in cutting fluids applied in metal cutting process, the available researches mainly focused on
the application strategies and penetration capability, processing performance, new types of environmentally friendly cut-
ting fluids, and preliminary machined surface quality. This article also suggests that the effect of cutting fluid on machined
surface quality and performance will become an important research direction. There is a matching problem between the
cutting fluids and the workpiece materials. Further research on effect of cutting fluids on machined surface should
include physical and chemical mechanism of the cutting fluid, action mechanism on fresh machined surface during machin-
ing process, action mechanism in the period of long-term service, stability of the composition and physical and chemical
properties, and evaluation method of the effective use of cutting fluid.

Keywords
Cutting fluid, metal cutting, surface integrity, service performance, action mechanism

Date received: 29 August 2014; accepted: 19 May 2015

Introduction interface, the cutting speed could be increased by

30%240%.2 Since then, cutting fluid technology devel-
Background oped rapidly, especially after lubricating oil refined
Metal cutting is the main processing method in mechan- from crude oil and invention of various lubricant addi-
ical engineering. During the cutting process especially tives with excellent properties. In 1920s, cutting oil con-
high-speed machining, plastic deformation of the mate- taining S and Cl was patented and widely used in heavy
rial near cutting edge is very large, with high tempera- cutting, broaching, and gear and thread cutting.
ture and complex mechanical and thermal stresses. The performance requirements of cutting fluids
Because of excellent cooling and lubricating properties, depend on cutting conditions.3 Cutting speed increased
cutting fluid (or metalworking fluid) plays an important due to the development of tool materials, leading to
role in machining. increase in the cutting temperature. The cooling perfor-
The use of cutting fluid could be traced back to mance of oil-based cutting fluids was unable to meet
ancient times. People found that watering could the requirements, so people began to re-emphasis on
improve the efficiency and quality when polishing water-based cutting fluids. In 1915, oil-in-water
stone, bronze, or iron. Since the 16th century, animal
and vegetable oils were used as oil-based lubricants. 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P.R.
After a long-time development, due to emergence of a China
variety of machine tools in the Industrial Revolution, 2
School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing,
cutting fluid gained large-scale applications. The first P.R. China
research in cutting fluids was done by W.H. Northcott1
Corresponding author:
in his book ‘‘A treaties on lathes and turning’’ in 1868.
Pei Yan, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology,
In 1906, F.W. Taylor pointed out that by applying aqu- Beijing 100081, P.R. China.
eous sodium carbonate solution on the tool–workpiece Email: [email protected]

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20 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

emulsion was developed and became the preferred cool-

ant for heavy cutting in 1920s. The first synthetic cut-
ting fluid without oil was developed in the United
States, and the synthetic cutting fluids were widely used
due to the rise in oil prices in 1970s. Due to the devel-
opment of advanced manufacturing technology and
strengthening of awareness of environmental protec-
tion, higher requirements were proposed for cutting
fluid technology, and new environmentally friendly cut-
ting fluid is continuously being under research and
development. Since then, the classification, composi-
tion, recycling, and disposal of the cutting fluids were
studied widely.4,5
The main purpose of using cutting fluid is to
decrease cutting temperature, reduce friction between Figure 1. The areas affected by the cutting fluid.
tool and workpiece, extend tool life, and improve
machining efficiency and surface quality. These effects Lubrication effect of the cutting fluid occurs mainly in
of cutting fluid were obtained from its chief functions these two regions, and it is believed that liquid films
of cooling and lubrication, and additional features of cannot be sustained along these interfaces in most cut-
corrosion protection and cleaning.6–9 In addition to ting operations especially in high-speed machining.13 In
these functions, the physical and chemical interactions typical cutting process, they are believed to approach
between the surface of the material and cutting fluid boundary lubrication. At the interface of tool–chip, the
during processing will directly affect the quality and lubricant absorbs onto the chip and restricts the adhe-
service performances of the machined surface, espe- sion of chip to the rake face. Besides, a chemical combi-
cially for the precision parts in extremely harsh envir- nation of film of lower shear strength reaction product
onments with long life and high stability requirements. of the cutting fluid with the fresh metal surface of gen-
In this article, a detailed literature review of cutting erated chip will also reduce friction force and tempera-
fluids applied in metal cutting was carried out (grinding ture. A combination of extreme pressure and lubricity
and grinding fluid were not referred, due to their special additives plays a significant role in reducing friction.14
nature). With special regard to quality and performance Lubrication of the cutting fluid is a comprehensive
of machined surface, necessary researches on effect of physical and chemical property, and it is relevant to the
cutting fluid were proposed, and preliminary experi- structure and property of the boundary lubrication
mental results were investigated. films formed on the frictional surface. Lubrication
effect can reduce the friction and thereby change the
cutting force and temperature.15 It will also reduce the
Basic function of cutting fluid wear of the tool and inhibit the growth of built up edge
According to the principle of metal cutting, there are (BUE) and improve the quality of the machined
three deformation zones during material removal pro- surface.16,17
cess:10 shear deformation zone, contact zone of tool– Pure metals are unstable, especially for the fresh
chip, and contact zone of tool–workpiece. They are machined metal surface, and corrosion is a natural
also the areas where the heat generates. Cutting fluid trend to change into stable compound, caused by
directly affects on these three areas, as shown in chemical or electrochemical effect. Generally, oil-based
Figure 1. A, B, and C are the main paths where the cut- cutting fluids have good corrosion resistance, which
ting fluid affects the cutting area.11 will form a physical barrier on surface to prevent the
Cooling is the most important effect, especially for chemical reaction. But if the cutting fluid contains
water-based cutting fluid used in high-speed machining. organic acids, acidic oxide, or sulfide, chemical corro-
Cutting fluid will transfer heat away from the cutting sion will be caused for some reactive metals. These
areas and decrease the temperature of tool and work- fluids are commonly alkaline to prevent metal from
piece, particularly at the cutting edge and tool tip. The corrosion damage, as well as semi-synthetic fluids.
cooling effect is achieved through a variety of heat Water-based cutting fluid is an electrolyte solution and
exchange processes, such as conduction, convection, easily cause electrochemical corrosion. Adding suitable
evaporation (or vaporization), and very little radiation. anti-corrosion additives can improve the corrosion
Cooling effect can reduce chemical reaction, heat dam- resistance of the cutting fluid. These water-soluble anti-
age, and material adhesion of the tool and extend its rust agents are mainly grouped as anode-type, cathode-
life;12 it also inhibits thermal expansion of machining type, and hybrid-type rust preventive.9
system, which will reduce thermal deformation of work- During cutting process, chips of different shapes will
piece and improve its dimension precision. be formed with a variety of oil and other dust particles,
During machining process, there is an intense fric- and this mixing dirt will be adhered to the workpiece,
tion at the interface of tool–chip and tool–workpiece. cutting tool, and machine tool, which will affect the

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Yan et al. 21

Figure 2. Classical penetration model of cutting fluid on the rake face: (a) Williams–Tabor penetration model and (b) Godlevski
droplet evaporation model.

machining process and the machined surface quality. 3 ma, as shown in Figure 2(a). The factors controlling
The mechanism of cleaning effect of the cutting fluids the penetration of the lubricant were considered both
contains mechanical flushing and physical and chemical liquid and vapor forms. Penetration model of cutting
effects.9 Mechanical flushing is flushing directly on the lubricants into the rake face was constructed and veri-
cutting area of the tool and workpiece, washing away fied by experiments.
the chips and dirt deposited by gravity on the surface. In Godlevski et al.21 droplet evaporation model, a
The physical and chemical effects mainly benefit from single capillary had a cylindrical form with diameter r
the surface active agent, which reduces the surface ten- and length l, as shown in Figure 2(b). The capillary was
sion and causes wetting, penetration, emulsification, running along the full contact area of the tool–chip
and other effects. Generally, water-based cutting fluid interface with one end closed. In a single cylindrical
has a strong cleaning ability against hydrophilic dirt capillary, this model included three stages: liquid phase
and oil-based cutting fluid against oleophilic dirt. entry, microdroplet explosion, and filling the capillary
by gas phase. The model parameters for water and cas-
tor oil were calculated and the correlation between
Research status of cutting fluid
model and experimental results was also given.
Penetration model of cutting fluid
Penetration model on rake face. Cooling and lubrication Penetration model on flank face. Due to the development
effects of cutting fluid in cutting process depended on of precision and ultra precision machining, machined
its ability to penetrate into the interface of the cutting surface quality became more and more important.
zone and form a thin lower shear strength layer in the Penetration ability on the flank face directly affected
shortest time, by either chemical or physical adsorp- the quality of machined surface, and it attracted more
tion.18 Because of the enormous friction and high tem- and more attention.
perature in the interface of chip and tool, penetration In high-speed milling, conventional emulsion coolant
ability of cutting fluid on the rake face was very impor- was inefficient as it could not reach the cutting zone,
tant for tool life. Based on theory of capillary, there whereas minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) flow
were two classical penetration models on the rake face: could penetrate into the cutting zone, and the nozzle
Williams–Tabor penetration model19,20 and Godlevski position and feed direction were very important.22
droplet evaporation model.21 MQL could enhance the penetration by high pressure
Williams–Tabor penetration model19,20 pointed out and precise sprays. The air supply played an important
that molecules transported within a network of interfa- role in transporting the mist to the contact area of flank
cial capillaries played an essential role in controlling the face and machined surface.23 Based on the Navier–
function of cutting fluids. The contact area between Stokes and the Reynolds equation, the model of cutting
workpiece and tool rake face was a network of inter- fluid penetration into the flank contact zone was
communicating capillaries, and the transport of the cut- applied to an orthogonal cutting in steady state condi-
ting fluid along the capillaries was more important than tions,11 as shown in Figure 3. The penetration was esti-
its absolute reactivity. A typical capillary of this interfa- mated for sprays delivered in air, CO2, and N2 as well
cial was supposed to be of length l and cross section a as two conventional cutting fluids. This model proved

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22 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

that MQL spray could penetrate completely into the diffusion.24 The results expressed that the aerosol size
cutting zone. Temperature near the flank was also pre- and generation rate were functions of fluid properties,
dicted by finite element method (FEM), and the result process parameters, application conditions, and cutting
showed that MQL sprays suppressed the temperature time. It could be used to quantify the environmental
near the flank effectively. effect of cutting fluid used in machining.
Another analytical model was presented for the pre-
diction of aerosol size distribution and aerosol genera- Penetration model of cutting fluid applied at high
tion from the use of cutting fluids through examining pressure. High-pressure coolant technology could
the primary mechanisms of spin-off, splash, and strongly influence the wear of the tool due to better
penetration into cutting areas, providing better cooling
and lubrication effects. The position and flow rate of
the cutting fluid affected the tool life.25 When injected
both on tool–chip and tool–workpiece interfaces at
high pressure and flow rate, the tool life was the long-
est. The other tool lives with high pressure were even
shorter than dry cutting or conventional fluid applica-
tion. The wear mechanisms of the coated cemented car-
bide tool were influenced by cutting fluid applied at
high pressure and in different concentrations.26 The
main wear mechanism on both rake and flank faces
was adhesion. The tool wear and tool–chip contact
length reduced with the use of high-pressure coolant,
and it was more efficient than both conventional fluid
applications and dry cutting considering tool wear.
Cutting fluid applied as a high-velocity thin pulsed-
jet was investigated during hard turning of hardened
steel, compared with conventional coolant and dry cut-
ting.27 The overall performance of minimal cutting
fluid application was found to be superior to those of
the other two on the basis of main cutting force, tool–
Figure 3. Analogy between (a) geometry in Reynolds equation chip contact length, cutting ratio, cutting temperature,
and (b) geometry modeled.11
surface roughness, tool life, and chip forms. Figure 4

Figure 4. Comparison of chip samples at different cutting conditions: (a) feed rate and (b) cutting velocity.27

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Yan et al. 23

shows the comparison of chip forms at different cutting different cutting fluid application methods on wear of
conditions. coated carbide tools was completed.33 The results indi-
cated that the wear mode observed was dictated by
thermal considerations, rather than friction; in certain
Application strategies of cutting fluid conditions, forced attempts lubricating action were
With the strengthening of environmental awareness harmful to tool life. Figure 6 shows the flank wear land
and requirements of cut costs, a lot of research had at a certain stage of worn. It was obvious that both
been done to reduce the use of cutting fluids in the pro- MQL and MQL with Extreme-Pressure (EP) additives
duction. Dry cutting and semi-dry (or near-dry) cutting performed worse than flood. Flood application of cut-
had been favored by the industry.28 In semi-dry ting fluids showed the lowest tool wear.
machining like MQL machining,29 a very small amount Compared to dry machining and flood application,
of cutting fluid played an important role in tribological high-speed milling with high-velocity narrow pulsed-jet
and cutting performance.30,31 The application methods could reduce the cutting force and tool wear and raise
directly affected the cooling and lubrication effects of tool life and surface quality,7 as seen in Figure 7. The
cutting fluid,32 as shown in Figure 5. performance of pulsed-jet was better than that of dry
cutting and flood coolant in terms of surface quality
and tool wear resistance.
Application methods. The use of dry cutting and MQL Because of shortcomings of dry and MQL cutting,
offered the possibility for elimination of waste, reduc- little quantity lubrication (LQL) in machining was pro-
tion of costs, and improvement of operation environ- posed.34 Collected at workpiece surface in peripheral
ment.32 An experimental research on the effect of milling, vibration signals were analyzed in time
domain, frequency domain, and time–frequency
domain. The results demonstrated that vibration sig-
nals were significantly affected by cutting fluid, and
machining parameters should be considered in order to
reduce vibration and cutting fluid usage. Based on
ultrasonic atomization, a new compact cutting fluid
application system for micromachining was devel-
oped,35 and the effects of system parameters on perfor-
mance in terms of spray characteristics were studied.

Application parameters. Application of cutting fluid was

not random because the application parameters like
coolant pressure and nozzle position would directly
affect their performances. For example, nozzle position
Figure 5. Ways of lubrication and heat removal from cutting had an important effect on cutting performance of
process.31 MQL36 (such as cutting forces, surface roughness, and

Figure 6. Sizes of Vb and Vbmax flank wear at the end of machining at (a) 400 m/min and (b) 275 m/min, flat CVD tools.32

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24 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

Figure 7. (a) Flank wear and (b) surface roughness in the cutting process.7

temperature); when MQL was applied to the rake face, The effect on cutting performance. According to discus-
tool life was the same as dry cutting, but when applied sions of the effect of water-based and oil-based cutting
to tool flank face, it could increase tool life.37 fluids in cutting process of stainless steel, the oil-based
Commonly, the increase in coolant pressure would cutting fluids formed solid protective films in the con-
improve tool life and reduce the adhesion tendency of tact areas at low speed, making the adhesion weaker
workpiece materials.38 The application of high-pressure and preventing the formation of deposits.47 The cutting
coolant resulted in better tool life and surface finish. fluids affected the friction at low cutting speeds.13
Different coolant application pressures could cause a When turning copper using CCl4 as a lubricant, chip
significant variation in thickness of shear bands and thickness ratio and friction coefficient raised from rela-
serrated tooth structure of the chip.39 tively low at 1 m/min to approach dry values at 30–
Three special nozzles used for concentrating small 40 m/min. Machining parameters did not vary much
amount of oil mist into the cutting area were designed, with speed in dry conditions, as seen in Figure 8. At
and the performances in MQL were investigated, com- intermediate speeds, solid lubricant inclusions in some
pared with ordinary spraying.40,41 A finite volume work materials could build-up, and thermal softening
method was used to analyze the compressible turbu- eased flow at chip–tool contact area at high cutting
lence analysis of the flow of oil mist by computer fluid speeds.
dynamics analysis. The results showed that mass flow Based on the boundary lubrication theory, the fric-
rate of oil mist near the cutting edge increased drasti- tion coefficient in near-dry machining was analyzed,
cally, especially for a cover-type nozzle for oblique and Oxley’s machining theory was modified.48 It was
spraying; this specially designed nozzle was quite effec- believed that cutting forces in near-dry machining are
tive in increasing tool life in cutting experiments. lower than those of dry machining, and lubricating had
An atomization-based cutting fluid (ACF) spray sys- a stronger effect on cutting forces than cooling. The
tem was developed and evaluated for macro-scale turn- adsorption characteristics, tribological behavior, and
ing of titanium alloy.42 The effect of spray parameters cutting performance monitoring of MQL during ortho-
(including flow rate, distance, impingement angle, and gonal cutting were investigated,49 and the results
type and pressure of spray gas) on cutting forces, tool showed that the adsorption amount was closely related
life, and chip deformation was studied through experi- to lubrication effect, and oxygen supply played a signif-
ment, and the results indicated that the spray system icant role. The heat generation and transfer processes’
extended tool life effectively, compared to flood model under different cutting fluid application tech-
cooling. niques was also described, combining experimental–
theoretical approach.50
Considering the effect of different types of cutting
The performance of cutting fluids in machining fluids on tool life, tool wear mechanism, surface finish,
The performance evaluation18,43–46 of the cutting fluids and chip form, the application of cutting fluid resulted
in machining was mainly based on their effect on cut- in a longer tool life and a positive influence on chip
ting performance (tool life or tool wear, cutting forces, control.8 The influences of MQL on cutting tempera-
temperature, chip formation, etc.) and machined sur- ture, chip forms, and dimensional accuracy at different
face quality (surface finish, dimensional accuracy, sur- cutting parameters in turning steel as well as tool wear
face hardness, residual stress, etc.). were investigated,51–53 compared with dry and wet

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Yan et al. 25

Figure 8. Dependence of (t/ac) and rake face friction coefficient on cutting speed, and derived dependence of (f 2 a) on l, for ac
= 0.16 mm and a = 6° (tool material HSS).13

machining. The results indicated that MQL enabled steel using coated cemented carbide tool, dry cutting
substantial reduction in cutting temperature and tool had the best tool life and surface finish, compared with
wear rate; chip formation and chip–tool interaction mineral oil, semi-synthetic, and synthetic cutting fluids.
became favorable. In deep hole drilling, a discontinu- Comb cracking was the main failure mode of the tool,
ous MQL caused a significant reduction in tool life and the cooling action of the cutting fluid was harm-
compared to continuous one, and low viscous type of ful.59 The application of cutting fluid was not necessa-
cutting fluid with high cooling capability gave rise to a rily beneficial to tool life, and it would slightly increase
notably prolonged tool life.54 Besides, the use of MQL the crater wear and even shift the position of the crater
offered the possibility for elimination of waste, reduc- wear nearer the tool tip, with the worn crater became
tion of costs, cutting power increasing, and improve- deeper and narrower. The flank wear was even more
ment of operation environment.32 Considering surface significantly affected at high speed, which drastically
roughness and waviness, surface profile bearing ratio decreased tool life.60
and topography under different cutting conditions, As mentioned above, like cutting performance, not
cooling and lubrication conditions significantly affected all the use of cutting fluid could improve machined sur-
the machined surface properties.55 Dry machining or face quality.56 The effect of dry machining on surface
MQL with proper cutting parameters could produce integrity of Inconel 718 at semi-finishing conditions
better surface topography than conventional cooling, was investigated, compared with wet cutting.61 The
as shown in Figure 9. results demonstrated that in the machining affected
The main purpose of cutting fluid was to decrease zone, dry machining led to acceptable surface quality
cutting temperature, reduce friction, extend tool life, with residual stresses, surface roughness (as shown in
and improve machining efficiency or surface quality. Figure 10), and microhardness than in wet conditions,
But not all the use of cutting fluid could reduce the with no severe microstructure alteration.
wear of the tool or improve the surface quality.56 Some
researches showed the opposite results, and the experi- The additives in cutting fluid. In order to improve the per-
mental data indicated that dry cutting required less formance, different kinds of functional additives were
power and produced a smoother surface than wet cut- added to the cutting fluids. The free-cutting additives
ting.57 In these cutting conditions, it was more suitable (such as S, Ca, Cu, and Bi) directly affected the cutting
for dry cutting, or maybe the cutting fluid was not cor- performances and integrity of machined surface (hard-
rectly used. Based on models for cumulative tool wear, ness and strain-induced martensitic transformation of
the effect of cutting fluid on machining of aluminum- the austenitic stainless steels62). The mechanical and
based matrix composites was studied.58 The results physical–chemical mechanisms of additives were rather
showed that high-pressure coolant neither improved important and complex,63 such as extreme pressure
nor deteriorated the tool life because of lack of lubricat- sulfur-containing additives. The polysulfide additive
ing films; the tool wear was even greater when machin- was found to exhibit the best efficiency in decreasing
ing with a new diamond tool. In face milling AISI 8640 specific cutting energy and tool wear because of the

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26 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

Figure 9. Surface topography depending on cooling and lubrication conditions at vc = 237 m/min, f = 0.08 mm/rev, and ap = 1 mm
(D: dry cutting; E: conventional emulsion cooling).55

formation of tribofilm between the steel and the protec- properties of the oil-in-water emulsions. The contact
tive platinum layer, as shown in Figure 11. angles could be used to characterize the relationship
The additive concentration also influenced cutting between wetting and lubricating properties. The ability
force, surface roughness, and chip formation.64 When to wet the surface played a key role in tribological
milling of 42CrMo4 with uncoated HSS tools, the dif- behavior, and the lubrication effect mainly depended
ferences between cutting forces were small; an optimum on type and concentration of the emulsifier.65 Besides,
concentration of the sulfur carrier was 5%, with the the water also directly affected the properties of the cut-
lowest cutting force and surface roughness. Due to pas- ting fluids; for example, hard water had obvious impact
sivity of phosphorus, the phosphorus carrier did not on dilution of cutting fluid by a concentrate which con-
lead to the generation of reaction layers and only tained cationic and nonionic surfactant mixture.66
adsorption took place. The chip formation was also
studied under dry machining, MQL, and flooding The effect on surface generation. In contact areas of tool–
lubrication with mineral oil, as shown in Figure 12. It chip and tool material, machining processes were influ-
seemed that shear angle increased with increasing enced by mechanical, thermal, and chemical actions.
lubrication. The properties of the machined surface were influenced
Concentration of emulsifiers (anionic, nonionic, and by tribo-physical and tribo-chemical interactions
cationic surfactants) affected extreme pressure between tool, workpiece, cutting fluid, and other

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Yan et al. 27

Figure 10. Surface quality at various cutting conditions:61 (a) V = 80 m/min, dry conditions; (b) V = 60 m/min, dry conditions; (c) V =
40 m/min, dry conditions; (d) V = 80 m/min, wet conditions; (e) V = 60 m/min, wet conditions; and (f) V = 40 m/min, wet conditions.

Figure 11. (a) TEM image of cross section of a chip and (b) EDS analyses of tribofilm.63

surrounding environment medium. Meanwhile, the different layers,69 as schematically illustrated in Figure
freshly cut surface also decided the friction state.67 The 14. The outermost was a contamination layer (dirt, oils,
chemical mechanisms of cutting fluid included chemical greases, residues of machining process, etc.); the next
interactions between various participating surfaces and were thin adsorption layer and reaction layer; inner-
the chemical state of the machined surface.68 most was a thick boundary layer formed by machining
Adsorption or reaction layers were generated on the process with deformed grain structure.
surface after machining, which could not be removed The chemical effect of cutting fluid on machined sur-
by a normal cleaning process. Chemical surface altera- face would change the element contents of the surface
tions would influence subsequent production or service or subsurface,64 as shown in Figure 15. There was a
performance. Figure 13 shows the generation and measurable sulfur peak at a depth of 1.5 nm with 5%
effects of reaction layers on the surface in machining.64 sulfur carrier in the basic oil. The sulfur additive reacted
Typical machined surfaces were covered with several with the freshly generated, chemically active metal

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28 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

contents of the surface and subsurface would result in

the differences of performance of the machined surface.
Due to the difficulty of experiments and detecting,
some new methods were used for evaluation of the cut-
ting fluid. Molecular dynamics simulation was used in
investigating the effect of cutting fluid on surface gener-
ation and tribological contact conditions during mate-
rial removal processes.70 Figure 16 shows the snapshots
of the material removal process with/without cutting
fluid. The arrows in Figure 16(a) showed the fluid
atoms approach chip and workpiece surface and seem
to diffuse into it. It was found that the chip length was
shorter with fluid, as shown in Figure 16(b) (black
arrow). White arrows showed that the contour of the
generated surface contained more atoms with the con-
sideration of the fluid, and it was a bit smoother than
Figure 12. Chip roots under different cooling conditions.64,65 vacuum condition. The shear stress and temperature
were also analyzed, but the increase in temperature of
the workpiece surface was still a matter of analysis.70
Besides, combining electrochemical impedance spectro-
scopy (EIS) and multivariate data analysis, an evalua-
tion model of concentration and pH of the cutting
fluids was proposed,71 which was vital for tooling pro-
cesses and online quality monitoring.

Environmentally friendly cutting fluids

New environmentally friendly cutting fluids. Cutting fluid
played an important role in metal machining, but it also
had considerable environmental and operator’s health
impact.72,73 The major defects were the environmental
and health impacts with the costs associated during
their use, maintenance, and disposal.74 The cutting fluid
posed significant health and environmental harms
throughout its life cycle, and pretreatment methods like
centrifugation, chemical coagulation, and electrochemi-
cal coagulation had been evaluated.75 Development of
Figure 13. The generation and effects of reaction layers on the eco-friendly/biodegradable lubricants was an important
surface in machining.64
way to reduce the side effects of cutting fluid.76 Many
researches were in progress to develop new type and
environmentally friendly cutting fluids available around
the world,77,78 or even cool air79 and gaseous and liquid
nitrogen.12
Natural vegetable oils were highly attractive substi-
tutes for mineral oils because they are renewable, less
toxic, and biodegradable,6 such as emulsions of soy-
bean oil or modified soybean oil and water, prepared
with ionic and nonionic surfactants.80 Coconut oil was
also used as the cutting fluids because of thermal and
oxidative stability, and it performed better on the basis
of tool wear and surface finish while turning AISI 304
stainless steel.81 With the application of 50 nm particle
size of boric acid solid lubricant as suspensions in coco-
Figure 14. Boundary layer of the machined surface.69 nut oil, due to lubricating action of boric acid, tem-
perature, tool flank wear, and surface roughness were
decreased significantly with nanolubricants compared
surface and formed a reaction layer of iron sulfide. A to base oil.82
correlation between sulfur in the mineral oil and sulfur New formulations of vegetable-oil-based cutting
at the machined surface was found. Changes in element fluids showed even better performance than mineral oils

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Yan et al. 29

Figure 15. Depth profile of concentration milling with mineral oil and sulfur additives.64

Figure 16. MD machining simulation with (a) fluid after 230 ps and (b) vacuum after 230.7 ps.70

on surface integrity, thickness of strain hardened layer, confirmed.86 There were direct and indirect associa-
and dimension accuracy.83 Biodegradable vegetable oil tions of the identified microorganisms with the poten-
was also used in minimum quantity cooling lubrication tial health risks. The potential of biodegradation for
(MQCL) during end milling Inconel 718.84 Considering cutting fluid was also evaluated.87
extension of tool life and reduction of cutting forces
shown in Figure 17, the results showed that MQCL cut-
ting with vegetable oil could effectively improve the
Summary
machinability of Inconel 718. With consideration mainly on basic functions of cool-
ing, lubricating, cleaning, and rust protection, the state
of art on cutting fluid research mainly focused on the
Disposal of cutting fluids. During machining process, the following aspects from the summarization of literature
cutting fluid changed due to chemical reactions review:
between components, tool and workpiece surfaces,
metal particles, and temperature on contact surfaces.  Applying method and penetration capacity to the
Metal particles in cutting fluid were in the form of tiny cutting zone;
chips, grains, coils of fine wire, and so on, depending  Effects on cutting force, tool abrasion, and chips
on cutting process, operating conditions, cutting fluid deformation;
characteristics, and coolant systems. The tribological  Effects on machined surface roughness, residual
processes, wear and failures on tribo-mechanical system stress, and hardness;
elements of machine tools, were also affected by the  Development of new kinds of green cutting fluid.
changes in the cutting fluid.85 The cutting fluid contam-
ination also contained microbial and the laboratory- The effect of cutting fluid on surface microstructure
based fluid biocontamination, and their ability to sur- evolution and elemental composition changes was stud-
vive in real coolant systems of metal cutting was ied preliminary, but the workpiece materials were

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30 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

Figure 17. Tool wear Vb and cutting force Fz under different cutting conditions.82

mainly simple crystal structure and lack targeted analy-

sis of complex tissue components. Dynamic process
analysis of time-varying characteristics of the cutting
fluid was also inadequate, and research on matching of
cutting fluid and the workpiece material was also neces-
sary. Current research results and measurements were
usually performed under normal temperature, lacking
the analysis of material removal at instantaneous high
temperature, high pressure, complex stress, and high
strain rate.

Results and discussion

Missing links
Recently, due to the development of precision machin-
ing, compared to machining efficiency and tool life,
high machined surface quality becomes more and more Figure 18. Adsorption state of the cutting fluid on the surface.
important, especially for the precision parts working in
extremely harsh environments with long life and high
stability requirements. The effect of cutting fluid on shown in Figure 19(a)), and complex adsorption, reac-
machined surface integrity and service performance in tion, and diffusion layer will be formed on the surface
precision machining will become an important research (as shown in Figure 19(b) and (c)); electrochemical and
direction of cutting fluid technology. chemical effect between cutting fluid and workpiece
The micro-scale construction of cutting fluid is inho- material will result in the loss of effective alloying ele-
mogeneous, for example, emulsion type. The compo- ments and damage of the material in the scope of grain
nents of the emulsion-type cutting fluid adsorbed on and grain boundaries (such as intergranular corrosion);
the fresh machined surface may be oil, solid pollutant penetration, diffusion, and surface residues of the cut-
particle, surface active molecule, water-soluble sub- ting fluids will affect the microstructure and composi-
stances, or even water molecule, as shown in Figure 18. tion of the surface and subsurface in a long time.
The interactions between the different adsorbed com- Cooling and lubricating properties of cutting fluids will
ponents and the surface will result in the surface micro- affect the material removal process and the material
inhomogeneity. Similarly, spray cooling will also cause and geometry properties of the machined surface.
heterogeneity of machined surface. Moreover, composition and performance of cutting
In addition to four basic functions, cutting fluid will fluid will vary with the extent of the life cycle and pol-
also significantly impact the metallographic structure lution, and further reflected in the quality of the
and composition of the machined surface: during cut- machined surface. The change in machined surface
ting process, the cutting fluid is under high tempera- quality and penetration, diffusion, and residue of the
ture, high pressure, and complex stress environment; cutting fluid will directly affect the lifetime and stability
the fresh machined surface is with high activeness (as of the workpiece during the period of service, especially

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Yan et al. 31

Figure 19. Adsorption, reaction, and diffusion state of the machined surface: (a) fresh machined surface, (b) absorption state of
surface, and (c) state of surface layers.

for the parts working in extremely harsh environments of them after machining, especially for that adsorbed
such as high temperature, high speed, and high load. via chemical adsorption. Residual cutting fluids will
continue to act on the workpiece surface in the service
environment in a long time, in extremely harsh environ-
Need of research
ments such as high temperature, pressure, and load.
Based on the analysis, we believe that the research on Surface defects caused by the cutting fluid will expand
effect of cutting fluid on machined surface quality rapidly in the service process, causing the service per-
should include the following, and in our research group, formance degradation. The differences in stress, hard-
these researches are moving forward: ness, and microstructure of machined surface under
different cutting fluids will also affect the service per-
Physical and chemical mechanisms between cutting fluid and formance and life.
metal. The development and preparation of cutting
fluid are aimed at universality of varied workpiece and
processing. However, each metal corresponds to a cer- Stability of the composition and physical and chemical proper-
tain optimum cutting fluid in precision machining. ties of cutting fluid. The composition and physical and
There is matching problems between metal and compo- chemical properties of the cutting fluids change with
nents of cutting fluid independent of cutting process. different applied period and pollution levels in practical
Components of cutting fluid and physical–chemical processing. The surface adsorption characteristics of
states determine the wetting and adsorption properties the cutting fluid also change, which will result in differ-
on metal surface, which further affect the chemical cor- ent effects on chemical and electrochemical corrosion
rosion and electrochemical performance. Physical– of metal surface. Geometry and material property of
chemical mechanisms of cutting fluid on metal surface machined surface will also dynamically change during
directly determine the defect and performance of mate- the cutting fluid usage. Stability of components and
rial surface. physical and chemical properties of cutting fluids have
a great effect on surface quality and service perfor-
mance of machined surface.
Action mechanism on fresh machined surface during machining
process. There are complex interactions between cutting
fluids and fresh machined surface under high tempera- Evaluation method of the effective use of cutting fluid. Aiming
ture, high pressure, and complex stress caused by cut- at high quality and long service life of machined sur-
ting process. The adsorption state of the cutting fluid face, evaluation method of effective use of cutting fluid
on the fresh machined surface with high activeness is in precision processing should be established. The key
extremely complicated, causing the surface diffusion, issues intended to be resolved are changes in physical
residual and pollution, grain boundary corrosion, and and chemical properties of cutting fluid and the adsorp-
loss of effective alloying elements. Meanwhile, different tion properties on the machined surface; physical/chem-
cutting fluids will cause differences in surface quality ical/electrochemical action mechanism of the
such as residual stress, microhardness, and interaction between cutting fluid and the machined sur-
microstructure. face during machining process; effect of cutting fluid on
microstructure, elemental composition, grain, and grain
Action mechanism in the period of long-term service. The boundary of machined surface; and action mechanism
component of cutting fluid has different adsorption of cutting fluid on service performance of the machined
property at the metal surface, and it is hard to clean all surface.

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32 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

Preliminary experimental results cemented carbide inserts (KC725M; Kennametal). The

Preliminary experimental study on the effect of cutting cutting parameters were as follows: cutting speed v =
fluid on milled surface quality of a certain kind of low 158 m/min, feed rate f = 0.12 mm/r, and depth of cut
Cr iron-base alloy (the content of Cr: 1.2–2.0 wt.%) ap = 1 mm. Composition and properties of different
was carried out. Cutting tests were carried out on a machined surface were analyzed preliminary.
HAAS computer numerical control (CNC) machine The Cr contents of different specimens on a certain
tool, and two kinds of cutting fluids which were com- depth of the machined surface (every 2 mm) were
monly used in actual production (denoted as CF-1 and obtained by energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis.
CF-2; CF-1 was an emulsion with additives containing For each sample, eight points at each depth were mea-
Cl and CF-2 was a semi-synthetic cutting fluid without sured, and the average of Cr contents was shown in
Figure 20. Compared to CF-2, CF-1 containing Cl
Cl) were selected during cutting processes, compared
with dry cutting. The cutting tools were coated would result in the loss of Cr in the machined surface,
and the depth of the influenced layer was approxi-
mately 2–3 mm. It was because the permeability of Cl-
was high and it was easy to go through the surface
defects, combined with Cr to form the complex
CrCl3
nH2O. The metal Cr constantly dissolved as
Cr3+ , and the Cr content in the machined surface
reduced.
The machined surface morphologies under different
conditions of cutting fluids were denoted in Figure 21.
For each sample, six different areas of the machined
surface were measured, and the roughness was the aver-
age of them, as given in Table 1. It was easy to see that
all the machined surface textures were regular. There
were some undesired material flow like burrs when dry
cutting, resulting in higher surface roughness. Cutting
fluids could significantly reduce the roughness of the
machined surface. However, under this cutting condi-
Figure 20. Cr contents of the machined surface under tion for this metal material, the difference between these
different cutting fluid conditions. two cutting fluids was not obvious. Comparatively

Figure 21. Machined surface morphologies under different cutting fluid conditions: (a) CF-1, (b) dry cutting, and (c) CF-2.

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Yan et al. 33

Table 1. Machined surface roughness under different cutting fluid conditions.

Cutting fluid Ra (nm) Rq (nm) Rz (mm) Rt (mm)

CF-1 749.36 936.24 7.84 9.27

Dry cutting 875.87 1130.00 14.16 16.49
CF-2 715.31 890.85 6.43 7.28

Figure 22. Machined surface residual stresses under different cutting fluid conditions: (a) the feed direction and (b) the width
direction.

speaking, the roughness of the machined surface was a

little lower when cutting with CF-2.
The machined surface residual stresses along
both the feed direction and the width direction under
different cutting fluid conditions were denoted in
Figure 22. Six different positions on each specimen
were analyzed, and the measured positions of speci-
mens under different cutting fluids were almost con-
sistent. It could be seen that the residual stresses
along both the feed and width directions under CF-2
conditions were small, even compressive stress in mul-
tiple positions, which is conducive to enhance the
working life. These two cutting fluids can effectively
improve the stress state of the machined surface, espe-
cially CF-2.
The microhardness gradient of different specimens Figure 23. Microhardness of the machined surface under
on a certain depth of the machined surface was shown different cutting fluid conditions.
in Figure 23, which was the average of four different
measurement positions. It indicated that the hardness
of the surface machined with CF-2 was a little higher
than that of CF-1 and dry cutting. The hardness of the serrated chips, while CF-2 caused the shift from ser-
surface might be relevant to work hardening and the rated chips to continuous chips.
state of stress. The depth of the hardened layer was According to the preliminary experimental studies,
about 20 mm. we did find that in the cutting process, the material
We also analyzed the morphology of the chips properties, geometric characteristics, and the corrosion
obtained under different cutting fluids, shown in Figure resistance of the machined surface were significantly
24. The morphology of chip under dry cutting was typi- affected by different types of cutting fluids. Due to the
cally serrated. CF-1 would lead to aggravation of lack of sufficient data and analysis, the current

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34 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 230(1)

Figure 24. Micro morphologies of the chips under different cutting fluid conditions: (a) CF-1, (b) dry cutting, and (c) CF-2.

conclusion stays only in phenomenon. The action  Stability of the composition and physical and chem-
mechanism of cutting fluid on machined surface integ- ical properties of cutting fluid;
rity and the service performance demanded consider-  Evaluation method of the effective use of cutting
able research. fluid.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Conclusion
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
In this article, a detailed review of literatures on cutting with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
fluids applied in metal cutting was done. Based on the cation of this article.
basic functions of cooling, lubrication, corrosion pro-
tection, and cleaning, the existing researches mainly
Funding
focused on the application strategies and penetration
capability, processing performance, new types of envir- The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following finan-
onmentally friendly cutting fluids, and preliminary cial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
machined surface quality. cation of this article: This work was supported by
Due to the development of precision machining, ‘‘Beijing Institute of Technology Research Fund
high machined surface quality becomes more and more Program for Young Scholars,’’‘‘Independent Research
important, especially for the parts working in extremely Project of State Key Laboratory of Tribology (Key
harsh environments with long life and high stability Project, SKLT2013A01),’’ and ‘‘National Science and
requirements. There are matching problems between Technology Major Project (2013ZX04009022).’’
the cutting fluids, the workpiece materials, and the pro-
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