Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Radio NAVIGATION
 Introduction
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) equipment in the aircraft is used in conjunction with a simple low and medium
frequency non-directional beacon (NDB) on the ground to provide an aid for navigation and for non-precision
approaches to airfields. However, it was due to be phased out in 2005, but still continues in use. Indeed, many UK
aerodromes still have NDB instrument approach procedures, and it is the only instrument approach procedure
available at some aerodromes.
 Non-directional Beacon (NDB)
The Non-directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground based transmitter which transmits vertically polarized radio signals,
in all directions (hence the name), in the Low Frequency (LF) and Medium Frequency (MF) bands. When an aircraft’s
Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) is tuned to an NDB’s frequency and its call sign identified, the direction of the NDB
will be indicated. A ‘cone of silence’ exists overhead the NDB transmitter during which the aircraft does not receive
any signals. The diameter of the cone increases with aircraft height
 Principle of Operation
The ADF measures the bearing of an NDB relative to the fore/aft axis of the aircraft.

If a loop aerial is placed in the plane of the transmitted radio frequency a voltage will be generated in the vertical elements of the
loop because of the phase difference of the wave in each of the vertical elements. As the loop is rotated the voltage induced will
decrease until it becomes zero when the loop is perpendicular to the radio wave. As the loop continues to rotate a voltage will
be induced in the opposite sense etc.

A loop aerial
The polar diagram formed is a figure of eight as shown below (Figure below). It can be seen that there are two
null positions and that by rotating the loop until a null is reached the direction of the beacon can be determined.
This is fine if the approximate direction of the beacon is known, but if that is not the case then there are two
possible choices. Furthermore, if equipment is to automatically determine position, then with only the single
loop it would have an insoluble problem.

Polar diagrams of loop & dipole aerials

To resolve this ambiguity a simple dipole aerial, called a sense aerial, is added. The polar diagram of the sense
aerial is circular. The currents generated are combined electronically as if the sense aerial was in the middle of
the loop aerial (Figure below). The relative signal strengths of the two signals are shown.
It is arranged for the field from the sense aerial to be in phase with one element (the left hand element shown
in diagram) of the loop aerial (Figure below). The resultant polar diagram is known as a CARDIOID. The
cardioid has a single null which as can be seen is ill-defined and would not in itself provide an accurate
bearing. However, the correct null in the loop aerial can be defined by introducing a logic circuit which defines
the correct null as being that null, in the loop aerial which, when the loop aerial is rotated clockwise, produces
an increase in signal strength in the cardioid.
The resultant null with a single cardioid is not precise enough to meet the ICAO accuracy requirement of +/-5°.
To improve the accuracy to meet the requirements, the polarity of the sense aerial is reversed to produce a
right hand cardioid. Then by rapidly switching (about 120 Hz) between the two cardioids, the null is more
precisely defined and hence the accuracy is improved.
In reality it is not feasible to have a rotating loop outside the aircraft, so the loop is fixed and has four elements,
two aligned with the fore-aft axis of the aircraft with the other two perpendicular to the fore-aft axis. The
electrical fields are transmitted to a similar four elements in a goniometer reproducing the electro magnetic field
detected by the aerial. The signal from the sense aerial is also fed to the goniometer where a search coil
detects the unambiguous direction. The principle employed within the goniometer is as described above.

Fixed Loop ADF

 Frequencies and Types of NDB
The allocated frequencies for NDBs are 190 - 1750 kHz in the LF and MF bands. Since the mode of propagation used is surface
wave, most NDBs will be found between about 250 and 450 kHz. There are two types of NDB in current use:

Locator (L). These are low powered NDBs used for airfield or runway approach procedures or are co-located with, and
supplement, the outer and middle markers of an ILS system. They normally have ranges of 10 to 25 NM and may only be
available during an aerodrome’s published hours of operation.

En route NDBs. These have a range of 50 NM or more, and where serving oceanic areas may have ranges of several hundred
miles. They are used for homing, holding, en route and airways navigation.
Aircraft Equipments

The aircraft equipment comprises:

• A loop aerial
• A sense aerial
• A control unit
• A receiver
• A display

Two ADF Receivers

 Emission Characteristics and Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)

The NDBs have a 2 or 3 letter identification and there are two types of emission:

N0NA1A N0NA2A

The N0N part of the emission is the transmission of an unmodulated carrier wave, which would not be detectable on a normal
receiver, so a BFO is provided on ADF equipment. When selected, the BFO produces an offset frequency within the receiver
which when combined with the received frequency produces a tone of say 400 or 1020 Hz.

The A1A part is the emission of an interrupted unmodulated carrier wave which requires the BFO to be on for aural reception.
A2A is the emission of an amplitude modulated signal which can be heard on a normal receiver.

Hence, when using N0NA1A beacons, the BFO should be selected ON for (manual) tuning, identification and monitoring.
N0NA2A beacons require the BFO ON for (manual) tuning but OFF for identification and monitoring. (The BFO may be labelled
TONE or TONE/VOICE on some equipments).
 Information Display
The information may be presented on a relative bearing indicator (RBI) or a radio magnetic indicator (RMI). In either case the
information being presented is relative bearing.

The RBI has a standard compass rose where 360° is aligned with the fore-aft axis of the aircraft, although with some RBIs it is
possible to manually set heading to directly read the magnetic bearing. In the diagram the aircraft is heading 300°(M), the RBI is
showing a relative bearing of 136°, thus the magnetic bearing is 300° + 136° - 360° = 076°. The information from the ADF to the
RMI is still relative, but the RMI compass card is fed with magnetic heading, so the bearing shown is the magnetic bearing of the
NDB. The needle always points to the beacon (QDM) and the tail of the needle gives the QDR.

RBI RMI
Uses of the Non-directional Beacon

• En route navigational bearings.

• Homing to or flying from the NDB when maintaining airway centre lines.
• Holding overhead at an assigned level in a race-track pattern.
• Runway instrument approach procedures.

Plotting ADF Bearings

The plotting of ADF bearings is dealt with in depth in the Navigation General syllabus. At this stage it is
sufficient to remind the reader that the bearing is measured at the aircraft so variation to convert to a true
bearing must be applied at the aircraft. Account will also need to be taken of the convergency between the
aircraft and beacon meridians.
Track Maintenance Using the RBI

An aircraft is required to maintain track(s):

• When flying airway centre line between NDBs.

• When holding over an NDB or Locator.
• When carrying out a let-down procedure at an airfield based solely upon NDB(s)/Locator(s) or
NDB(s)/Locators combined with other navaids.
• When requested by ATC to intercept and maintain a track or airway centre line.
• When carrying out interceptions.
 Homing
Figure below shows an aircraft maintaining 360° relative bearing, in zero wind (zero drift). The aircraft is heading 077° and
therefore will track inbound on 077°.

Homing in zero drift

 Homing
Figure below shows an aircraft maintaining a relative bearing of 360°, with a crosswind from the left. As a result a curved track
will be followed.

Homing Making no Allowance for Drift

 Tracking Inbound
To achieve a required track inbound to an NDB, with a crosswind, the correct method is to allow for the anticipated drift therefore
maintaining a constant track. In Figure below, 20° Starboard drift is anticipated, so 20 is Subtracted from track. The aircraft is
heading 060° with a relative bearing of 020°.
 Tracking Inbound
In Figure given, 28° Port drift is anticipated, so this is added (Plus) to the track value. The aircraft is heading 108° with a relative
bearing of 332°.
 Tracking Outbound
Figure below shows an aircraft maintaining the required track outbound from an NDB in zero wind (zero drift) conditions. The
aircraft is heading 260° and has a relative bearing of 180°.
 Tracking Outbound
Figure below shows an aircraft maintaining a track of 100° in crosswind conditions where the drift is known. 23° of Starboard
drift is anticipated, this is Subtracted from the track, therefore the heading is 077° with a relative bearing of 203° from the NDB.
 Tracking Outbound
In Figure below 20° Port drift is anticipated, this is added (Plus) to track giving an aircraft heading of 110° with a
relative bearing of 160°.
 Drift Assessment and Regaining Inbound Track

Assessing Drift Inbound

Initially, fly the aircraft on the required track with the beacon dead ahead (000° rel.).
Maintain the aircraft heading and watch the relative bearing indicator. If the relative bearing increases the
aircraft is experiencing port drift. Alter heading, say 30° starboard, to regain track. The relative bearing will
become 330° when track is regained. Assume a likely drift (say 10° port) and calculate a new heading to
maintain track. When this heading has been taken up, the relative bearing will become 350°. If the drift has
been correctly assessed this relative bearing will be maintained until overhead the NDB. If the relative bearing
changes however, further heading alterations and a new assessment of drift will be necessary.
 Drift Assessment and Outbound Track Maintenance

Drift Assessing Outbound

In Figure above it can be seen that with zero drift the RBI indicates 180° relative. With 10° starboard drift, the relative bearing
increases to 190°, and with 10° port drift the relative bearing decreases to 170°. To assess drift by this means the aircraft must
maintain a steady heading from directly overhead the beacon. When the drift has been assessed, alter heading port or
starboard, by say 30°, to regain track, until the correct relative bearing of 210° or 150° is obtained. The aircraft is now back on
track. The heading must now be altered to take into account the original assessment of drift.
Drift Assessment and Outbound Track Maintenance

Determining Drift and Maintaining Track away from an NDB

 Drift Assessment and Outbound Track Maintenance

The holding system

When density of traffic or bad weather delay an aircraft’s landing at an airport, the air traffic controller directs it to a Holding
Area. The area, also known as a ‘stack’, is organized over a ‘radio’ beacon where each waiting aircraft flies a special circuit
separated vertically from other aircraft by a minimum of 1000 ft. An aircraft drops to the next level as soon as it is free of other
traffic, until it finally flies from the stack and comes in to land.
 Factors Affecting ADF Accuracy

Designated Operational Coverage (DOC)

The DOC of NDBs is based upon a daytime protection ratio (signal/noise ratio of 3:1) between wanted and unwanted signals
that permits the required level of bearing accuracy. At ranges greater than those promulgated, bearing errors will increase.
Adverse propagation conditions particularly at night will also increase bearing errors.

Static Interference
There are two types of static interference that can affect the performance of ADF:

Precipitation static is generated by the collision of water droplets and ice crystals with the aircraft. It causes a reduction in the
signal/noise ratio which affects the accuracy of the bearings and can, in extreme circumstances completely mask the incoming
signal. The indications on the RMI/RBI will be a wandering needle and the audio will have a background hiss, which is also likely to
be present on VHF frequencies.

Thunderstorms have very powerful discharges of static electricity across the electromagnetic spectrum including LF and MF.
These discharges cause bearing errors in the ADF. A static discharge in a cumulonimbus cloud (Cb) will be heard as a loud crackle
on the audio and the needle will move rapidly to point to the Cb. When there are several active cells close together, it is possible
for the needle to point to them for prolonged periods. Care must be taken in the use of ADF when Cb activity is forecast. It has
been said that during Cb activity the only sensible use of the ADF is to indicate where the active cells are
Night Effect

By day the D-region absorbs signals in the LF and MF bands. At night the D-region disappears allowing sky
wave contamination of the surface wave being used. This arises for two reasons: phase interference of the sky
wave with the surface wave because of the different paths and the induction of currents in the horizontal
elements of the loop aerial. The effect is reduced by the aerial design having very short vertical elements and
by screening the aerial above and below, but the contamination is not eliminated. The effect first becomes
significant at 70 - 100 NM from the NDB. The effect is manifest by fading of the audio signal and the needle
‘hunting’ and is worst around dawn and dusk, when the ionosphere is in transition.

If ADF is to be used at night:

• Positively identify the NDB call sign.

• Continue to check the tuning and the identification.
• Avoid use of the equipment within 1 hour of sunrise or sunset.
• Use NDBs within their promulgated range which is valid during daytime only.
• Treat bearings with caution if the needle wanders and the signal fades.
• Cross-check NDB bearing information against other navigation aids.
Station Interference
Due to congestion of stations in the LF and MF bands, the possibility of interference from stations on or near
the same frequency exists. This will cause bearing errors. By day, the use of an NDB within the DOC will
normally afford protection from interference. However, at night, one can expect interference even within the
DOC because of sky wave contamination from stations out of range by day. Therefore positive identification of
the NDB at night should always be carried out.

Mountain Effect

Mountainous areas can cause reflections and diffraction of the transmitted radio waves to produce errors in
ADF systems. These errors will increase at low altitude and can be minimized by flying higher.
Coastal Refraction
Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (attenuation) compared to that
which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to bend (refract) away from its normal path
and pull it towards the coast. Refraction is negligible at 90° to the coast but increases as the angle of incidence
increases.

For an aircraft flying over the sea the error puts the aircraft position closer to the coast than its actual position.
The effect can be minimised by:

• Using NDBs on or near to the coast.

• Flying higher.
• Using signals that cross the coast at or near to 90°
Quadrantal Error
The theoretical reception polar diagram of the loop aerial is distorted by the airframe which produces a strong
electrical field aligned fore and aft. Incoming NDB signals are thus refracted towards the fore and aft airframe
axis. The maximum refraction occurs in the quadrants (i.e. on relative bearings of 045°, 135°, 225° & 315°.)
Older ADF systems are regularly ‘swung’ to assess the value of quadrantal error. In modern aircraft the error is
determined by the manufacturer and corrections are put into the equipment to reduce the effect to a minimum.

Angle of Bank (dip)

A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction finding. If the incoming wave has any
horizontal component of polarization it will induce currents in the top and bottom horizontal members of the
loop resulting in a circulating current. This would destroy the nulls of polar diagram (similar to night effect) and
reduce the accuracy of the bearings. The angle of bank during a turn causes currents to be induced in the
horizontal elements of the loop thereby leading to a bearing error which is referred to as dip error. This error is
only present when the aircraft is not in level flight.
Lack of Failure Warning System
False indications due to a failure in the system are not readily detectable because of the absence of failure
warning on most ADF instruments. Particular care should therefore be exercised in identifying and monitoring
the NDB and independent cross-checks made with other navigational aids where possible. It is essential that
when using the ADF as the primary navigation aid, for example for a runway approach procedure, that it is
continuously monitored to detect any failure.

Factors Affecting ADF Range

The major factors which affect the range of NDB/ADF equipment are listed below:

NDB transmission power; the range is proportional to the square root of the power output i.e. to double the
NDB range, quadruple the power output of the transmitter. NDB range is greater over water:

3 × √P (W) over water 2 × √P (W) over land

Note: Using ranges calculated by these formulae does not guarantee that the aircraft will be within the DOC.

The lower the frequency, the greater the surface wave (greater diffraction, lower attenuation). All
precipitation, including falling snow, reduces the effective range and accuracy of ADF bearings.
N0NA1A NDBs have greater ranges than N0NA2A. But note that ICAO Annex 10 recommends the
use of N0NA2A for long range beacons.
Accuracy
The accuracy of ADF is +/-5° within the designated operational coverage, by day only. This refers to the
measured bearing and does not include any compass error.
ADF summary