2 Wefind much and many in afrmative sentence fe so as and to “He has so much money that he dost know what to do with tc ‘She has got as many friends as ave. ou make too many mistakes. Be cru 3 afirmatve sentences, the following forms are found, Spoken/informal There'l be plenty of fod/peaple. (uncount and count) Weve got os of timefriends (sncount and court) st aot of my furmiturethings (ancou and count) Wiriten/more formal A great deal of money was lost during the strike, (uncount) ‘large number of strikes are caused by bal management (count) ‘Many world leaders ae qute youn, (Count) ‘Much me s wasted in orl purse acount) 4 These forms are found without nouns “Have you got enough soc? ‘Los “How many people were ther? “A lt? Dor worry about fod. We've go pleny Uitle/tew/less/fewer 1A litle and « ew express 2 small amount or number in a postive ‘vay Although there i only ltl, is probably enough Gar you lend me alte sugar? A few friends ar coming round tonight 2 Little and few express a small amount in a negative way. Theres not enough, Very few people posed the exam, There’ very lle alk 1 Reweristhe comparative of fev ess the comparative of lis Fewer people 0 to church these days. (= coum noun) ‘spend less and Tess ime doing what I wart. (= uncount noun) Iris becoming more common o find ls witha count noun. Many people think tha this is incorrect and sounds terrible. “bese peoplegete cue “Yowchondd-mokeleeigereties all 1 Wedo not usally use allto mean everyhady/everyone/everything Everybody had a god time Everything was ruined in the fre. 1 sai hello to everyone. But if als fellowed by a relative clause, it can mean everything All (that) I own is yours. spend all earn. “This structure can havea negative meaning, expressing ideas such nothing more or only this. AIT want is plce to sleep “AIL had was coupe of bers All that happened was that he pushed her abit, ad she fll eve. 2 Before a noun with a determiner (for example the, mp; this) both all and all ofare posible Yu eat all (of) the time. All (of) my friends are coming tonight. Before a noun with no determiner, we use all. All people are born equa. 3. With personal pronouns, we use all of All of you pase. Wel done! 1 don’ need these books. You can have al of them UNIT 7 > Introduction to modal auxiliary verbs 1 These ate the modal ausiiary verbs. ‘might shall should ‘ought t0 ‘could may Ml would must ‘They are used with great frequency and with a wide range of mcanings. They express ideas such as willingnes and ability, permission and refusal, obligation and prohibition, suggestion, promise and intention. All modal auxiliary verbs can express degres of certainty, probability or possibility. 2 They have several characteristics, + There isno sin the third person. Ho can swim, ‘Sho must go. ‘There is no do/doesin the question. May 1 ask a question? ‘Shall we go? + There isno dow't/does' You should’ tel es, You wort believe this. ‘+ ‘They are followed by an infinitive without to. The exception is ought to. Te might rain. (Could you help? We ought to be on our way, ‘+ They don't realy have past forms or infnitives or -ing forms, Other verbs are used instead. Thad 10 work hard when Tas young. 1 lve to be able ski, ‘hate having to getup in the morning. + They cam be used with perfect infinitives to refer tothe past For ‘more information, see Grammar Reference Unit 10 on p151. You should have told me that you can't svi. You might have drowned! ‘She must have been crazy’ to marry hin the negative > Modal auxiliary verbs of probability, present and future “The main modal auiiary verbs that express probability ate described here inorder of certainty. Wills the most certain, and might/ould are the least certain, wil 1 Willand won'are ued to predict a future action. The truth of certainty of what is asserted is more or less taken for granted. Til3ce you later His latest book will be our next month, 2 Willand won't are also used to express what we believe or guess 10 be true about the present. They indicate an assumption based on ‘our knowledge of people and things, their routines, character and ‘qualities "You've gota letter from Canada‘ be from my aunt Freda” Leave she eat inthe oven, It won't be cooked yet. “L wonder wha Sarah's doing? "Well, i's Monday morning, so I guess ‘that right now she'll be taking the children to school” ‘must and can't 1 Mustis used to assert what we infer or conclude to be the most logical or rational interpretation ofa situation. We do not have all the facts, soit is less certain than wil. You say he walked across the Sahara Desert! He must be mad! Yu must be joking! I simply don’ believe you. Grammar Reference 6-7 1472 The negative ofthis use is can't. ‘She can’t havea ten-year-old daughter! She's only twenty-one herself: "Whose is this coat?” “It can't be Marys F's 10 small" should 1 Should expresses what may reasonably be expected to happen. Expectation means believing that things are or willbe as we want ‘them to be. This use of shoul has the idea of if everyting has gone ‘according to plan ur guests should be here soon (if they haven't go ast) ‘This homework shouldn't take you too long (if you've understood what you have 20 do) ‘We should be moving into our new house sor (as long as nothing 0es wrong). 2. Should in this use has the idea that we want the action to happen. It Js not used to express negative or unpleasant ideas. Yow should pass the exam. You've worked hard. You haven't done any work at alt. Ter’ think youl pass the exam. ‘We would sy ‘may and might 1-May expresses the possibilty that an event will happen or is happening. ‘We may goto Greee this year. We haven't decided yet “Where's Anni” “She may be having a bath, I don't know 2 Might is more tentative and slightly les certain than may. Imight rain. Take your umbrella “Where's Peter” ‘He might be upstairs. There’ alight on? 58- Learners of English often express these concept offre possibilty with perhaps or maybe. will and s avoid using may and might Hlowever, these are widely used by native speakers, and you should ‘ny to use them. could 1 Could has a similar meaning to might You could be righ. Fm not sure ‘That fl could be worth sein. It had a good review 2 Coulis not used to express a future possibility. The negative of could i this use is might not. You might not be right. ‘That fl might not be any good. 3. Gould has a similar meaning to can’t above, only slightly weaker, She coulda’t havea ten-year-old daughter She's only 21 herself Related verbs Here are some related verb forms that express probability. Willian’ 50 brainy He's bound to pass the exam. We're having a picnic tomorrow sits Bound to rain. You're likly to find lif very different when you livin Chin ‘Are you likey 9 come across Judith while you're in Oxford? > Other uses of modal auxiliary verbs and related verbs Here is some further information about modal auxiliary verbs, bu itis ‘by no means complete. See a grammar book for more details. biity 1. Cac exproe ly The pes i expeomed by ould Teamspeak tee angueges Ted opin when Tas he 2 Other forms are provided by beable to. Te never been able to understand her, (Present erect) Tove tbe abl to drive (ninitve) Being ables drive a tesformed my if ing fom) Youle abl to walk agin so ar) 148. Grammar Reference 7 3 To express fulfilled ability on one particular occasion inthe past, coulds not used. Instead, we use as able fo or managed to. ‘Sho was able to survive by clinging nto the wrecked boat. ‘The prisoner managed to escape by climbing onto the roof Advice 1 Should and ought express mild obligation or advice. Should s much ou shou got bd. You lok very tre Yo ought 0 ake things case. 2. We use had better to give strong advice, oF to tell people what todo, ‘There canbe an element of threst ~If you dont do ths, something bad wll happen? ‘ould beer et a haircut before the interview. (you don, you wos getthejob) Trae Pi bete ger a move on (11 dont, be in trouble) Note ‘The form is always pat (ad), but it refers to the immediate fture ‘Shel beter start revising The esas are nest week Obligation 1 Must expresses strong obligation. Other verb forms ae provided by have to. ou must ry harder! Yu must hit your baby nother. What ime do you have to tare work? Tha to work hard to pas ry exams (Past Simple) You have too this exercise again ute) We might have to make some economies. ifiitve) ‘She'smever had to doa singe days workin her je (Preset eset) hae having to getup oar (ing form) 2 -Mus expreses the opinion ofthe speaker. mus get my hie cut (Lam teling myse) You must do this gun. Teacher o student) -Mustisastociated with a more formal, written syle ‘Gandidtes must answer three questions (On an exam paper) ‘Books must retured by the end of the week. Instructions ina library) 3. Have expresses» general obligation based ons lwor rule, or bsed on the authority of another person. Children have to go 10 shoo ul hee sen. (i's the la.) _Mur say you have to tly your room 4 Must expresses negative obligation. Don hae to expresses the absence of obligation. Yu musta tea. 1° ery nau You dont have tog 10 England you wn ear English 5 Have got tos common in British English tis more informal than have Te got to go now. Cheera! Don't havea Tae night. We've got to ge up early tomorrow. 6 Here are some related verb forms that express obligation. Visitors are required to hve a visa When youre 18 you're supposed to take responsibility for yore. You are supposed to park on double yellow lines You need to think eareily before you make a docon. He doesnt need t work Hes milion. Permission 1 May, ca, and ould ate used to ask for permision. ‘May ask you a question? ‘May [we your phone? CandCoul Ig home® I dot fe wel CansCould I borow your car tanigh?2. May is sed to give permission, but it sounds very formal. Can and You eam use a dictionary inthis exam ou eat stay up ill midnight. You're only five. You ean't smoke in here e's forbidden. 3. Totalk about permission generally or permission inthe past we use can, could, or be allowed 10 Children canlare allowed to do wha they want these days Teouldn't _g0 out on my own until was sixteen. wasn't allowed 10 4 Here ate some related verb forms that express permission. Passengers are not permitted t use mobile phones. ‘My parents don’t allow me to Tm not allowed to stay out late, My parents don't let me Note that this sentence with letis not posible in the passive. “Emaotlet Willingness and refusal 1 Willexpreses willingness. Won't expresses a refusal by either people or things. Shallis used in questions PA help you. ‘She says she won't get up until she's had breakfast in bed. The car won't start, ‘Shall give you a hand? 2 The past is expressed by wouldn't. _My mum said she would’ give me any more money. Isn't she mean? Requests Several modal verbs express a request. Canicouldvillwould you do me a favour? Ganlcould I open the window? Modal verbs are also dealt with in Units 9,10, nd 11, UNIT 8 {> 21 Introduction to relative clauses [eis important to understand the diference between two kinds of relative clauses. 1 Defining relative (DR) clauses qualify a noun, and tell us exactly ‘whieh person or thing is being referred 1. ‘She likes people who are good fun to be with, Politicians who tll ies are odious. ‘A corkscrew isa thing you us to open a bottle of wine She likes people on its own doesn't mean very much; we need to know which people she likes ‘who tel lies tells us exactly which politicians are odious. Without it, the speaker is saying that all politicians are odious. ‘A corkscrew isa thing doesnt make sense on is ov. 2. Non-defining relative (NDR) clauses add secondary information to a sentence, almost as an afterthought. -My friend Andrew, who i Scottish, plays the bagpipes. Poltcian, who tell ies, are ious. [My favourite building is Dushams Cathedral, which took over 200 ‘years to build. [My friend Andrew is clearly defined. We don't need to know which ‘Andrew is being discussed, The clause who is Scomsh gives us extra information about him, The clause who tell ies suggests that all politicians tll ie. [isn't nnecesary to identify only those that deceive ~ they all do! [My favourize building is clearly defined. The following clause simply tells us something extra. 3. DR clauses are much more common in the spoken language, and [NDR clauses are more common in the written language. In the spoken language, we can avoid a NDR clause, _My friend Andrew plays the bagpipes. He's Scotish, bythe way. 4 When we speak, there is no pause before or afters DR clause, and ro commas when we write, With NDR clauses, thee are commas before and after, and pauses when we speak. lik the tings yow say to me. (No commas, no pauses) My aut (pase), who hasbeen a widow for twenty years (pause), Joves traveling Defining relative clauses 1 Notice how we can leave out the relative pronoun iit isthe abject, ofthe relative clause. Ths is very common. Pronoun left out Did you like the present (I gave yout Who was that man (_) you were talking to? The thing (-) lke about Dave is his sense of humour. 2 Weecannot leave out the pronoun if tis the subject ofthe clause, Pronoun not left out Tet a mars who works in advertising 1} len you the book that charged my lif ‘The thing that helped me most was knowing I wasn't alone, 3 Here ate the possible pronouns. The words in brackets are possible, bbut not as common. means ‘nothing’ Person Thing ‘Subject ‘who (that) | that (which) Object — (that) | (that) Notes ‘+ Thatis preferred to which after superlatives, and words such as all, everything), some(thing), anything), and only. Tha’ the funnies fm that was ever made, All thar’ leis afew slice of ham Give me something that takeaway the pain He's good at any sport that is played with a ball The omly thing thar’ help you is rest. + Thatis also prefered ater iis. isa film that wil be very popular. + Prepositions usually come atthe end of the relative clause. Come and meet the people I work with, This isthe book I wns telling you about She's a friend I can always rely on. Non-defining relative clauses 1 Relative pronouns cannot be let out of NDR clauses. Relative pronoun as subject Paul Jennings who has written several books, addressed the meting. His last book, which recived a lt of praise, has ben a grea succes. Relative pronoun as object Paul Jennings, who I knew at university addressed the meeting. His last book, which I could understand at all, hasbeen a great 2. Lookat the possible pronouns. Whom is possible, but not as Person Subject Object pwhO ss who (whom) oy Note Prepositions can come at the end of the clause, He taled about theories of marke forces, which Td never even heard of, Grammar Reference 7-8 149