Biological/Physiological Factors

Emotion is complex, and the term has no single universally accepted definition. Emotion is,
however, closely related to motivation and can sometimes provide motivation (as, for
example, a student's fear of failing provides motivation for studying). Psychologists do agree
that emotions are reaction patterns that include

• physiological changes
• responses or goal‐oriented behaviors
• affective experiences (feelings)

Theorists differ on the order of appearance of the reaction patterns.

The autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has two
components, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic
nervous system (PNS). When activated, the SNS prepares the body for emergency
actions; it controls glands of the neuroendocrine system (thyroid, pituitary, and
adrenal glands). Activation of the SNS causes the production
of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal glands, increased blood flow to the
muscles, increased heart rate, and other readiness reactions. Conversely, the PNS
functions when the body is relaxed or at rest and helps the body store energy for
future use. PNS effects include increased stomach activity and decreased blood flow
to the muscles.

The reticular activating system. The reticular activating system (RAS) is a

network of neurons that runs through the core of the hind‐brain and into the midbrain
and forebrain. It has been demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the RAS causes
changes in the electrical activity of the cortex (as measured by an
electroencephalogram) that are indistinguishable from changes in electrical activity
seen when external stimuli (such as loud sounds) are present. The RAS is believed
to first arouse the cortex and then to stimulate its wakefulness so that it may more
effectively interpret sensory information.

The limbic system. The limbic system includes the anterior thalamus,
the amygdala, the septal area, the hippocampus, the cingulate gyrus, and
structures that are parts of the hypothalamus (Figure ). The word limbic means
“border” and describes this system because its structures seem to form a rough
border along the inner edge of the cerebrum. Studies have associated the limbic
system with such emotions as fear and aggression as well with as drives, including
those for food and sex.
Figure 1

The Limbic System

Lie detectors (polygraphs). Lie detectors, or polygraphs, rely upon the

physiological arousal of the emotions. Concomitant measurements are taken of the
heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, and galvanic skin response
(GSR). (The GSR is a measure of the skin's electrical conductivity, which changes
as the sweat glands increase their activity.) Polygraph recordings are used to see if a
person is not telling the truth (lying), which usually creates emotional arousal.
Because of polygraphs' high error rates, however, their findings are generally not
accepted as evidence in the courts.

Early Theories of Emotion

Darwin. Darwin believed that body movements and facial expressions (body
language, or nonverbal communication) are used by members of a species to
communicate meaning. He suggested that although emotional expressions are
initially learned behavior, they eventually evolve to become innate in a species
because they have survival value. Recognition by one animal that a second animal is
afraid rather than angry, for example, allows appropriate survival actions to be
undertaken.

The James‐Lange theory. Two theorists, William James in 1884 and Carl Lange in
1885, independently proposed that emotions do not immediately follow the
perception of an event but rather occur after the body has responded to the event.
Their ideas were combined into the James‐Lange theory of emotion. According to
the theory, the perception of an environmental stimulus (such as a growling dog)
causes bodily changes (such as rapid heart beat and fast breathing). The brain
perceives those changes in behavior and identifies them as the emotion. The
progression is
The Cannon‐Bard theory. Walter Cannon criticized the James‐Lange theory for
several reasons. He argued that emotion occurs even if the bodily changes which
transmit feedback to the brain are eliminated. He severed neural connections to the
cortex of cats (creating “decorticate cats”). The decorticate cats, when provoked,
exhibited the emotional behavior normally associated with rage and aggression, as
demonstrated by erect hair, growling, and the baring of teeth. (Canon called the
behavior sham rage because according to the James‐Lange theory emotional
behavior could not occur without connections to the brain.) In addition, Cannon
argued that visceral responses occur too slowly to be recognized by the brain before
emotional responses to a stimuli occur.

Philip Bard agreed with Cannon and expanded on his work in what is now known as
the Cannon‐Bard theory (also called the emergency theory), which argues that
the thalamus, a lower brain stem structure (part of the limbic system) is necessary
for emotional responses. The thalamus sends messages to the cortex for
interpretation of the emotion and simultaneously to the sympathetic nervous system
for appropriate physical responses. According to the Cannon‐Bard theory, then, the
identification (experience) of an emotion occurs at the same time as the activation of
bodily responses and not because of them (as the James‐Lange theory proposed).
The progression is

The Schachter‐Singer theory. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed that
experiencing an emotion requires both emotional arousal and cognitive
activity (perception, reasoning, memory) to understand the reason for the arousal
(that is, to appraise the stimuli) so that the emotion can then be appropriately
identified. (The process of labeling the stimuli producing an emotion is
called attribution.) Schachter and Singer concluded that although individuals usually
are aware of the reason for their aroused emotional state, if the reason is not
apparent, they search their environment for clues to help them interpret the emotion.
Although this theory has generated a great deal of research, experimental data only
partially support it.

Arousal theory. Many researchers propose that behavior changes as a function of

arousal. The curve (called an inverted U function) shown in Figure illustrates that
performance increases as arousal increases up to a point but then decreases if
arousal is increased beyond that point. This arousal‐performance phenomenon is
known as the Yerkes‐Dodson law. It is well known that while a certain amount of
anxiety can enhance performance (for example, by promoting thorough preparation),
too much can impair it (as could, for example, severe stage fright). Research
evidence has not totally supported the inverted U relationship for all types of tasks,
particularly those that are complex.

Figure 1 The Inverted U Function

Learning Factors in Emotion

Emotions may also be learned. For example, fear may be learned
through conditioning, and once fear is learned, the drive to avoid it is a powerful
motivator. The learning of some fears, however, as well as certain other emotions,
may involve other processes, which are discussed later.

Emotional responses may be learned also through modeling. The high incidence of
violence in our society is seen by some to be related to the high incidence of
violence in the media, particularly television and movies.

Neural Transmission
The function of a neuron is to transmit information within the nervous
system. Neural transmission occurs when a neuron is activated, or fired (sends
out an electrical impulse). Activation (firing) of the neuron takes place when the
neuron is stimulated by pressure, heat, light, or chemical information from other
cells. (The type of stimulation necessary to produce firing depends on the type of
neuron.) The fluid inside a neuron is separated from that outside by a polarized cell
membrane that contains electrically charged particles known as ions. When a
neuron is sufficiently stimulated to reach the neural threshold (a level of
 stimulation below which the cell does not fire), depolarization, or a change in cell
potential, occurs.

Potentials. The term potential refers to a difference in electrical charges. Neurons

have two types of potentials, a resting potential and an action potential. The neural
threshold must be reached before a change from resting to action potential occurs
(Figure 1).

Figure 1

Transmission of a Nerve Impulse

Resting potential is the potential maintained by the inactive neuron. When

unstimulated, a neuron is like a small battery and has a measurable negative
electrical charge (about 70 millivolts) called the resting potential.

Action potential is the potential produced when appropriate stimulation is high

enough to reach the neural threshold and causes the neuron to fire, that is, alters
the membrane permeability. Alteration of membrane permeability (polarization)
allows a change of electrical charges (negative to positive) that runs along the entire
cell membrane. The neuron then returns to its resting electrical state, the resting
potential, until stimulated again. The rate of neural transmission, however, is
independent of the level of stimulation. That is, if the neural threshold is not reached,
the neuron will not fire. If the threshold is reached or exceeded, the amplitude of the
action potential is the same regardless of the level of stimulation.

The relationship between the level of stimulation and the production of a neural
impulse is called the all or none principle. Once triggered, the action potential
continues the length of the axon without diminishing because the action potential
depends upon cell membrane permeability, a cell characteristic, and not upon the
strength of the triggering stimulus.

After the action potential occurs, however, there is a short period of refractoriness,
which affects neuron firing. During the first part of the refractory period (the absolute
refractory period), the neuron will not fire again no matter how great the stimulation.
The absolute refractory period lasts for only a short time. It is followed by the relative
refractory period, during which a stronger than usual stimulus is required to trigger
the action potential before the neuron returns to resting state. After the refractory
period, the neuron will fire when the neural threshold is reached.

Synaptic transmission. The synapse is the name given the junction between
neurons where information is exchanged. The action potential causes information to
be transmitted from the axon of the first neuron (presynaptic neuron) to the
dendrites or cell body of the second neuron (postsynaptic neuron) by secretion of
chemicals called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are stored in small
containers (vesicles) located in knoblike structures (terminal buttons) on the axon
tips. The axon of the presynaptic neuron does not actually touch the dendrites of the
postsynaptic neuron and is separated from them by a space called the synaptic
cleft. Stimulation of the presynaptic neuron to produce an action potential causes
the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Most of the released
neurotransmitters bind with molecules at special sites, receptors, on the dendrites of
the postsynaptic neuron. (Molecules of the neurotransmitter that do not bind to
receptors in the postsynaptic neuron are taken up again by the presynaptic neuron, a
process called reuptake).

The combination of the neurotransmitter molecules to receptor cell molecules in the

postsynaptic cell membrane produces a change of potential in the postsynaptic cell
membrane called the postsynaptic potential (PSP). The PSP allows ions to enter
or leave the cell membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. The ionic movements
increase or decrease the probability of a neural impulse occurring in the postsynaptic
neuron. There are two types of PSPs, excitatory (EPSPs) and inhibitory
(IPSPs). EPSPs increase and IPSPs decrease the likelihood that the postsynaptic
neuron will fire a neural impulse. The rate of firing of a neuron at a particular time
depends upon the relative number of EPSPs and IPSPs.

Neurotransmitters. Many drugs, both therapeutic and recreational, work by

affecting the level of neurotransmitters (the chemicals released at the axon
terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron), and some disorders are associated with
neurotransmitter deficiencies or excesses. Neurotransmitters are of several types:

• Acetylcholine occurs throughout the nervous system and is the only

neurotransmitter found in synapses between motor neurons and voluntary
muscle cells. (Degeneration of cells producing acetylcholine is associated with
Alzheimer's disease.)
• Biogenic amines include three neurotransmitters: norepinephrine,
dopamine, and serotonin. Parkinson's disease is believed to be related to a
deficiency of dopamine; certain types of depression are associated with low
levels of norepinephrine; levels of serotonin increase with the use of the
recreational drug LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide).
• GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) appears to produce only inhibitory PSPs.
Many tranquilizers work by increasing the inhibitory actions of GABA.
• Glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the lower brainstem, spinal
cord, and retina.
• Endorphins modulate the activity of other neurotransmitters and are
called neuromodulators. They seem to function in the same way as opiates
such as morphine; “runner's high” is produced by an increase in endorphins.
• Substance P is a neurotransmitter in many neural circuits involving pain.
Nervous System
The nervous system (Figure ) has two components: the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Figure 1

The Nervous System

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which lie within the skull and
within the spinal column, respectively; both are bathed in a special fluid called
the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and are protected by enclosing sheaths
called meninges.The meninges consist of three layers: the outer layer (dura
mater), the middle layer (arachnoid layer), and the inner layer(pia mater). Below
the arachnoid layer and above the pia mater is a space called the subarachnoid
space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

The PNS consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system, which is composed of thesympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous
systems.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
Early in its development, the CNS is a hollow tube with three interconnected
chambers. During development, the chambers become the ventricles

(see below), and the tissue around them becomes the three major brain divisions
Table 1
The brain. The three major parts of the brain are

• the forebrain, the most recently evolved section

• the midbrain, which contains the upper part of the brain stem
• the hindbrain, which contains most of the brain stem

The brain has a series of hollow, interconnected chambers

called ventricles. The lateral ventricles are in the forebrain and are connected to
the third ventricle in the midbrain. The third ventricle is connected by way of
the cerebral aqueduct, a long tube, to the fourth ventricle in the hindbrain, which
is then connected to the central canal of the spinal cord (Figure ). The ventricular
system provides the pathway for cerebrospinal fluid to move in the nervous system.

Figure 1

The Ventricles and the Three Major Parts of the Brain

The forebrain (prosencephalon) consists of two major components: the

telencephalon and, below it, the diencephalon.

• The telencephalon (cerebrum) is divided into two left and right symmetrical halves
known as cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is divided into four areas
called lobes (Figure ), which have different functions.

• In the frontal lobe are the principal areas that control the movement of
muscles.
• The parietal lobe contains information that regulates so matosensory
information (the skin senses of touch, heat, pressure, and pain).
• The temporal lobe helps integrate sensory information and some auditory
information, including language.
 • The occipital lobe (back of the head) is the area from which visual signals
are sent.

The central sulcus divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe, and the lateral
fissure separates the temporal lobe from frontal and parietal lobes (Figure ). The
hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, the
largest commissure (cross‐hemisphere connection) of the brain.

The cerebral hemispheres are covered with a layer of cells called the cerebral
cortex and contain the basal ganglia and the limbic system.

• The cerebral cortex consists of cell bodies, dendrites, the interconnecting

axons of neurons, and glial cells (supporting cells). The neurons give the
cortex a gray color (hence the name gray matter. Cells connecting to the
cortex contain a large concentration of myelin, which is white, and are
called white matter.) In humans, the cortex has many convolutions that
consist of sulci (small grooves), fissures (large grooves), and gyri (bulges
between adjacent sulci or fissures). Most of the cortex is hidden in these
grooves.
• Below the cortex are the basal ganglia, a collection of sub‐cortical nuclei that
are involved in movement. (Degeneration of these structures is associated
with Parkinson's disease.)
• The limbic system is a collection of numerous brain areas involved in emotion
expression. Among the system's structures are the portion of the cortex known as
the rhinencephalon, which contains the anterior thalamus, amygdala, septal
area, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus (a structure involved in the processing of
memories, particularly short‐term memory). The limbic system also includes neural
connections to the hypothalamus.
• The diencephalon, the lower portion of the forebrain, contains the thalamus, and
hypothalamus (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Sagittal Section of the Brain

• The thalamus is a structure through which all sensory information except

olfaction (smell) must pass.
 • The hypothalamus is below the thalamus and contains structures that
regulate the biological drives (for example, hunger or thirst).

The midbrain (mesencephalon, Figure ) (located between the forebrain and

hindbrain) helps regulate sensory processes (such as locating the position of objects
in space) and is the location of the dopamine systems involved with performance of
voluntary movements. (Damage to these dopaminergic systems may result in
Parkinson's disorder.) The midbrain also contains the tectum (which contains
the superior and inferior colliculi, primitive centers for vision and hearing) and
the tegmentum (which contains the midbrain reticular formation, part of
the reticular formation, a structure that runs through both the midbrain and
hindbrain and is involved in certain muscle reflexes, pain perception, and breathing).

The hindbrain (rhombencephalon) includes the metencephalon and the

myelencephalon.

• The metencephalon contains the cerebellum and the pons (Figure ).

• The cerebellum is a large structure in the lower back of the brain that
coordinates movement and equilibrium.
• The pons (which means “bridge”) has fibers that connect the brain stem to
the cerebellum and also has groups of cells that are important in sleep and
arousal, the pontine reticular formation.

• The myelencephalon is below the pons and contains the medulla oblongata, a
structure involved with functions such as breathing, swallowing, regulation of heart
rate, and other important functions essential to life.

Brain stem is a term used to identify certain brain structures; it consists of the
midbrain and parts of the hindbrain (pons and medulla) and connects the spinal cord
to the forebrain (Figure ).

The spinal cord. The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body through
the peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord is connected to the brain through an
opening in the base of the skull and extends to a point just below the waist. It is
covered by meninges and is contained within the bones (vertebrae) of the spinal
column.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) has two components: the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The PNS consists of all of the
nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron
fibers (axons) that are grouped together to carry information to and from the same
structure.

• The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary

skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors. It is composed of afferent nerves
that carry information to the central nervous system (spinal cord)
and efferent fibers that carry neural impulses away from the central nervous
system.
• The autonomic nervous system also consists of two components: the
sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. This system mediates
 much of the physiological arousal (such as rapid heart beat, tremor, or sweat)
experienced by a fearful person in an emergency situation.

• The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes the body to respond to

emergencies.
• The parasympathetic nervous system generally helps to conserve the
body's energy. It controls normal operations of the body such as digestion,
blood pressure, and heart rate. It helps the body return to normal activity after
an emergency.

Hearing
Sound. Sound, the stimulus for hearing, is made up of a series of pressures,
usually of air, that can be represented as waves. Sound waves have three
characteristics—amplitude, frequency, and purity—each of which is related to a
psychological experience. Greater wave amplitudes are related to
greater loudness; wave frequency is related to pitch; and wave purity is
related to timbre.

The hearing system. The outer ear, the pinna, collects sound waves and funnels
them through the auditory canal to the eardrum (which separates the outer and
middle ears) and causes it to vibrate. (See Figure .) The middle ear contains
the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup), which move and
transmit the sound to the oval window, which separates the middle ear from the
inner ear. Beyond the oval window is the inner ear, whose main structure is
the cochlea, a snail‐like structure that has a membrane, the basilar membrane,
stretched along its length. When the stapes vibrates against the oval window, the
fluid in the cochlea moves and causes the basilar membrane to vibrate. The
receptors for hearing, the hair cells, lie in the basilar membrane and convert the
vibrations into neural impulses. The neural impulses, in turn, move along
the auditory nerve to the lower brain stem and then ascend to the auditory part of
the thalamus and on to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. Input from each
ear is received on both sides of the brain.

Figure 1
The Ear

The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell

 Taste. The stimuli for taste are chemical substances dissolved in water or other
fluids. Taste can be described as four basic sensations, sweet, sour,
salty, and bitter, which can be combined in various ways to make all other taste
sensations. Taste receptors (called taste buds) for these sensations are located
primarily on various areas of the tongue: front, sweet; sides, sour; sides and front,
salty; and back, bitter (Figure ). There are about 10,000 taste buds, which are
situated primarily in or around the bumps (papillae) on the tongue.
Each papilla contains several taste buds, from which information is sent
by afferent nerves to the thalamus and, ultimately, to areas in the cortex.

Smell (olfaction). The stimuli for smell are volatile chemical substances suspended
in the air. These molecules stimulate the olfactory receptors, which are in the
upper portions of the nasal passages. Neurons from these receptors bundle together
to form the olfactory nerve, which travels to the olfactory bulb at the base of the
brain. The theory of smell is not well understood (for example, how an odor of apple
pie can evoked pleasant childhood memories).

Figure 1

Taste Receptors

The Cutaneous Skin Senses

The skin contains receptors that respond to touch, pressure, and temperature. The
relationships between receptors and the cutaneous sensations are not completely
understood. Meissner's corpuscles are sensitive to touch and Pacinian
corpuscles to deep pressure. Ruffini endings transmit information about
warmth and Krause's bulbs about cold. Information is transmitted from the
receptors to nerve fibers that are routed through the spinal cord to
the brainstem. From there they are transmitted to an area of cortex in
the parietal lobe. Skin senses also undergo various kinds of sensory adaptation.
For example, a hot tub can be initially so hot that it is intolerable, but after awhile
one can sit in it without discomfort.

Pain. Pain receptors are mostly free nerve endings in the skin. Information is
transmitted by two types of pathways to the brain by way of the thalamus.

• The fast pathway (myelinated) detects localized pain and sends that
information rapidly to the cortex.
 • The slow pathway (unmyelinated) carries less‐localized, longer‐acting pain
information (such as that concerning chronic aches).

Many of the neural circuits that deliver pain signals to the brain and the spinal cord
use substance P as a neurotransmitter. In addition, chemicals in the body
called endorphins (chemicals with actions similar to those of morphine) increase in
concentration when the body is responding to pain by serving
as neuromodulators (chemicals that increase or decrease—modulate—the activity
of specific neurotransmitters).

The gate control theory of pain, proposed by Ronald Melzack, proposes that a
“neurological gate” in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain impulses to
the brain. Determination of whether the gate is open or closed depends upon a
complex competition between different types of nerve fibers.

Acupuncture is a procedure developed by the Chinese for controlling pain by the

insertion of long needles in various parts of the body. Although it is not known
precisely how acupuncture alleviates pain, one theory suggests that the needles
activate large nerve fibers and close the pain gate, while another suggests that the
needles cause the release of endorphins, which serve as analgesics.

The Vestibular Senses

Awareness of body balance and movement are monitored by the vestibular
system. The vestibular senses (the sensations of body rotation and of
gravitation and movement) arise in the inner ear; the sense organs are the hair cells
that send out signals over the auditory nerve.

The sensation of body rotation arises in the three semicircular canals in the inner
ear. Movement of fluid in the canals stimulates hair cells, which send messages to
the brain about speed and direction of body
rotation. Gravitation and movement sensations are produced by movement of
two vestibular sacs in each ear that lie between the semicircular canal and the
cochlea. Both sacs are filled with millions of tiny crystals that bend hair cells when
moved. In turn, impulses giving a sense of position are sent to the brain. (Motion
sickness originates from excessive stimulation of the vestibular organs.)

The Kinesthetic System

Movement of the body's muscles, tendons, and joints is also monitored
by mechanoreceptors in these structures. The process is called kinesthesis

Sensory Thresholds
The nervous system receives input through an array of sense organs (for example,
the eye, ear, or nose) and transforms the information into neural processes through
a procedure called sensation. (Using the computer analogy, sensation can be
 compared to computer input.) Each sensory system follows similar principles for the
conversion of a physical stimulus into a psychological experience.

Receptors for each sensory system are limited by the amount of stimulation
necessary to elicit a sensation and by the amount of stimulus change that can be
detected. In the field of psychology called psychophysics, relationships between
physical stimuli and psychological experience are studied. One technique to study
such relationships is called the method of constant stimuli, in which stimuli of
varying intensities are presented in random order to a subject. The results are used
to determine the absolute threshold—the minimum intensity detected by a subject
50% of the time. (Your dog, for instance, has a much lower absolute threshold for
sound than you do and hears a car in the driveway before you hear the knock on the
door.)

The difference threshold—the minimum (physical) distinction between stimulus

attributes that can be detected 50% of the time—is also of concern. The difference
threshold is also called a just noticeable difference (JND). Ernst Weber, a well‐
known early investigator, observed that regardless of their magnitude, two stimuli
must differ by a constant proportion for their difference to be detectable. His
observations are formulated as Weber's law, which states that the “just noticeable
difference” is a constant fraction of the stimulus intensity already present. (If a room
is quiet, you can hear a faint knock at the door. But if your CD player is blaring, it
takes a loud bang on the door for you to hear it.) If you are exposed to a stimulus
that doesn't change over a period of time, sensory adaptation occurs, and you
become less sensitive to the stimulus. If you have to study in a room with a constant
noise outside, for example, you will usually eventually adapt to the noise, and it will
become less offensive.

Signal detection. Factors other than the magnitude of the stimulus also affect
sensory discriminations. When a discrimination—that is, the detection of a stimulus
(a signal)—must be made against a background of noise, the procedure is
called signal detection. Signal detection theory takes into account the fact that
people are making decisions as they make sensory discriminations. When they
attempt to separate a signal change from its background, they may guess, have
biases in their judgments, or become less vigilant during the judging process.
Knowledge of signal detection theory is useful in many situations—for instance, if
one were teaching people to detect accurately small blips on radar screens in an air
control tower. Another aspect of sensory perception, subliminal
perception (perception without awareness), has been of interest in recent years.
However, the data concerning the existence of the phenomenon are still
controversial.

Vision
Light. The stimulus for vision is light, which travels in waves.
The amplitude (wave height) is associated with the sensory experience
of brightness; the wavelength determines the hue (color) of the light; and
the wave purity (whether there is more than one type of wave) produces the
psychological experience of saturation.

The vision system. Light travels to the eye and passes through the cornea,
the pupil (regulated in size by the iris), and the lens and then moves to the retina,
where it strikes the photoreceptors for vision, the cones and the rods. The cones, in
the center (fovea) of the retina, are responsible for color vision, and operate best in
intense illumination. The rods are important for night vision and peripheral vision and
have a greater density at the edge of the retina. Visual information proceeds from the
eye through optic nerves attached to the retina at the back of each eye; the optic
nerves meet and then divide at the optic chiasm in the center of the brain (Figure ).
The lateral portion of each optic nerve travels from the optic chiasm to the
lateral visual cortex on the same side of the brain (that is, the outside of the right
nerve to right visual cortex and the outside of the left nerve to the left visual cortex).
However, the medial portion of each nerve crosses over at the optic chiasm and
goes to the medial visual cortex on the other side of the brain (medial right nerve to
left medial visual cortex and medial left nerve to right medial visual cortex).

Figure 1

The visual pathway

Color vision. The three primary colors are red, green, and blue. Two theories
suggest the way the eye functions in color vision.

• The Young‐Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision, proposed by

Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, states that the eye has three
types of cones with different sensitivities to lights of different wavelengths that
produce the primary hues of red, green, and blue.
• Ewald Hering, feeling that the Young‐Helmholtz theory did not cover all visual
phenomena, offered the opponent process theory to explain visual images
that are the complementary color of the image of the stimulus. For example, if
you stare at a red dot and then look at a white paper, you will see the
afterimage of a blue‐green dot. (Blue‐green is the complementary color of
red.) These theories help to explain some of types of color blindness (some
 people, dichromats, have a hard time telling green from red or yellow from
blue).

Organization of Perceptions
The manner in which stimuli are arranged, that is, grouped, (in addition to their
individual characteristics) also affects their perception.

Stimulus characteristics that affect organization. Important stimulus

characteristics that affect the organization of stimuli and their perception include the
following:

• Closure. Closure is the completion of an incomplete stimulus. If someone

yells at you, “Close the_____,” the word door isn't said, but you fill in the blank
because of past experience and close the door.
• Nearness. Stimuli that are near one another tend to be grouped together;
stars near one another are sometimes seen as a pattern or constellation,
which is not the case for stars that are far apart.
• Similarity. Stimuli that are similar to one another are frequently grouped
together; people wearing the same band uniforms are seen as similar
compared to a group of marching people wearing everyday clothes.
• Continuity. The tendency is to view a figure, pattern, or illustration that
contains gaps as smooth and continuous rather than as discontinuous. The
broken line down the middle of the highway is perceived as a continuous
dotted line rather than a long row of blocks.
• Contiguity. Contiguity, or nearness in time and space, also influences
perception. If certain theme songs and visual stimuli are placed near the
beginning or end of television programs, these stimuli are associated with the
starting or stopping of the program.

Perceptual Constancy
There is a tendency to maintain constancy (of size, color, and shape) in the
perception of stimuli even though the stimuli have changed. For example, you
recognize that small brownish dog in the distance as your neighbor's large golden
retriever, so you aren't surprised by the great increase in size (size constancy) or
the appearance of the yellow color (color constancy) when he comes bounding up.
And in spite of the changes in the appearance of the dog moving toward you from a
distance, you still perceive the shape as that of a dog (shape constancy) no matter
the angle from which it is viewed.

Depth and Distance Perception

Perceptual processes function in the three‐dimensional organization of stimuli as
well as in distance judgments. The processes include use of both monocular and
binocular cues.

Monocular cues. Monocular cues, those used when looking at objects with one
eye closed, help an individual to form a three‐dimensional concept of the stimulus
object. Such cues include

• size of the stimulus

 • interposition, when one stimulus blocks the image of another
• shadows, which indicate distance
• linear perspective, the convergence of parallel tracks or lines as they recede
into the distance
• texture changes (distinct bricks are seen in a near wall but become a pattern
with increased distance)
• relative motion (motion parallax), used in judging distance (when you are
traveling in a car, near objects seen out the window seem to move rapidly, but
far ones don't seem to move)

Binocular cues. Binocular cues, those used when looking at objects with both
eyes, also function in depth perception. Examples are

• retinal disparity, the differences in images on the retinas of the two eyes
• eye convergence, a necessary visual response in order to focus on a distant
object

Illusions. Presentation of multiple stimuli elicits a tendency to group some of them

together and others apart, a phenomenon which can create optical illusions. An
example is the Müller‐Lyer illusion shown in Figure . The lengths of the two lines
appear to be different but are the same.

figure 1

The Müller‐Lyer Illusion

Other Factors Influencing Perception

Personal characteristics. Personal characteristics, such as past experience
(learning) and motivation, may also affect the way stimuli are perceived.

• Learning (a musician quickly learns the pattern of tones that make a melody
and detects a discordant note)
• Motivation (while an individual may not initially have a taste for espresso
coffee, if the person's group of acquaintances perceives it as an “in”
beverage, he or she may then start drinking espresso)

Gestalt Theory
A group of early experimental psychologists known as Gestalt psychologists
believed that perceptions are more than the stimuli that create them. By more is
 meant that a meaningful, whole pattern is created by the stimuli (that is, the total is
more than the sum of its parts). These psychologists developed the idea, the
principle of Prägnanz, that stimuli can be grouped and seen as a whole. These
psychologists believed that the innate, organizing tendencies of the brain would
explain organization functions in perception, including many optical illusions, for
example, the phi phenomenon and certain figure‐ground relationships.

• The phi phenomenon occurs when you see two adjacent lights alternately
blinking off and on and perceive them as one light moving back and forth. This
phi phenomenon illusion is frequently used in signs to suggest movement.
• Figure (object)‐ground (background) relationships are important in Gestalt
theory, which suggests that perceptions are organized to produce a figure‐
ground effect. One tends to see objects against backgrounds rather than to
view each separately. However, when instructed, one may reverse the
relationship and see the object as background and vice versa. In the famous
figure‐ground illustration shown in Figure , do you see a goblet or the profile of
two faces?

Figure 1

A Figure‐Ground Illustration

Extrasensory Perception
A phenomenon related to the study of perception and well known in the popular
domain is called extrasensory perception (ESP). The belief is that one can have a
perceptual experience without any sensory input. Types of reported ESPs include

• mental telepathy, the ability to read another person's thoughts

• forecasting, the ability to predict future incidents accurately (for example,
who will win a race or engage in a particular activity)
• clairvoyance, the awareness of some event that one cannot see (for
example, knowing where a body is hidden)
• psychokinesis, the ability to cause things to move by virtue of thought processes

Psychologists known as parapsychologists study these phenomena, but the majority of

psychologists feel that evidence for the existence of ESP phenomena has not been adequately
documented.

Stimulus Input: Attention and Set

 Perception is the way that sensory information is chosen and transformed so that
it has meaning. Once sensory input starts, an individual uses perceptual processes to
select among sensory input stimuli and to organize them so that relevant action can
occur. (In the computer analogy, the process of perception would represent use of
both hardware and software in the central nervous system; many of the perceptual
processes are innate—hardware—but some may be modified—software.)

Attention. Too many events occur simultaneously in the environment to pay

attention to all of them at once, so selective attention is used to focus on those
stimuli relevant to current activity. (For example, you might not generally pay much
attention to wind direction, but you do if you're flying a kite or hitting a golf ball.)

Set. In terms of perception, a set, a predisposition to respond in a particular fashion,

may be one of several types.

• Motor set. When attending to a stimulus, an individual organizes muscular

responses, a motor set, to be ready for the particular attention situation. For
example, a golfer getting ready to hit a golf ball adopts a particular posture
and a practiced way of holding the golf club; similarly, members of basketball
teams adopt particular stances, motor sets, as they stand lined up and ready
to jump while waiting for the free throw.
• Perceptual set. A perceptual set is the readiness to interpret a stimulus in a
certain way. For example, if you have just run a red traffic light, you might be
more inclined to view a flashing light as a police car than as just a bright turn
signal. (Note that perceptual sets occur in all of the sensory modalities, not
just vision.)
• Mental set. A mental set is a predisposition to think about a situation or a
problem in a specific way. For example, a student's poor performance on a
math assignment might be because of lack of preparation or because of the
mental set “I just can't do well on math problems.”

Stimulus characteristics that affect set. A variety of stimulus characteristics affect

perception and the set that is formed.

• Stimulus intensity. If other stimulus factors are comparable, a more intense

stimulus attracts more attention than does a more subtle one. For example, a
loud siren gets more attention than a faint one.
• Stimulus changes. Stimulus changes elicit more attention than does
sameness or monotony. A flashing light, for example, stands out in a horizon
of steady city lights.
• Stimulus magnitude. Stimulus magnitude is also a factor in attracting
attention. For example, a large advertising billboard attracts more attention
than a small one.
• Stimulus repetition. A repeated stimulus affects attention; the public
quickly recognizes a product seen in repeated advertisements.

Circadian Rhythms
Circadian rhythms are the regular changes in biological processes that follow rhythmical
patterns over a 24‐hour period. These rhythms involve, in addition to sleep‐wake cycles,
changes in other body functions, such as the rise and fall of body temperature and blood
pressure. Although connected to alternation of night and day, the rhythms are retained
(although in 25‐ rather than 24‐hour periods) even when people are forced to adapt to unusual
cycles of light and dark, such as those in Antarctica. Animal species other than humans also
maintain circadian rhythms, but there are species differences. Horses, cattle, and cats, for
example, spend much more time sleeping than do humans. But of particular interest to
psychologists are the effects of circadian rhythms on human response to environmental
stimulation (that is, on levels of consciousness).