Physics Project

Name:- Rohan Srivastava

Class:- 11C
Roll no.:- 47
Topic:- Thermodynamics
 Acknowledgement
All the content present in the following project is either sourced from my knowledge or
the internet or from the academic resources provided by our school.
Contents
Acknowledgement............................................................................................................... 2
Thermodynamics ................................................................................................................ 4
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4
History ............................................................................................................................. 5
Etymology........................................................................................................................ 7
Branches of thermodynamics ......................................................................................... 7
Classical thermodynamics .......................................................................................... 7
Statistical mechanics ................................................................................................... 8
Chemical thermodynamics ......................................................................................... 8
Equilibrium thermodynamics..................................................................................... 8
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics ............................................................................. 8
Laws of thermodynamics ................................................................................................ 9
Zeroth law ................................................................................................................... 9
First law ..................................................................................................................... 10
Second law ................................................................................................................ 10
Third law ................................................................................................................... 11
System models .............................................................................................................. 11
States and processes ...................................................................................................... 13
Instrumentation............................................................................................................. 13
Conjugate variables ....................................................................................................... 14
Potentials ....................................................................................................................... 14
Axiomatic thermodynamics .......................................................................................... 15
Notes ............................................................................................................................. 15
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 16
 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature,
and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and
radiation. The behaviour of these quantities is governed by the four laws of
thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable
macroscopic physical quantities but may be explained in terms of microscopic
constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of
topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, biochemistry,
chemical engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in other complex fields
such as meteorology.

Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of

early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Sadi Carnot
(1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the
Napoleonic Wars.
Scots-Irish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of
thermodynamics in 1854 which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the
relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation
of heat to electrical agency." German physicist and mathematician Rudolf Clausius
restated Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle and gave to the theory of heat a
truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat",
published in 1850, first stated the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he
introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem, which
applied to heat.

The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was quickly

extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions. Chemical
thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical
reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other
formulations of thermodynamics emerged. Statistical thermodynamics, or statistical
mechanics, concerns itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of
particles from their microscopic behaviour. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory
presented a purely mathematical approach in an axiomatic formulation, a description
often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics.

Introduction

A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of

thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that energy can
be transferred between physical systems as heat, as work, and with the transfer of
matter. The second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, which
describes the direction, thermodynamically, in which a system can evolve and
quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful
work that can be extracted from the system.
In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and
categorized. Central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its
surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its
properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through equations of
state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic
potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and
spontaneous processes.

With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to
changes in their environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in
science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions,
transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are
essential for other fields of physics and chemistry, chemical engineering, corrosion
engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical
engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a few.

This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies

systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often
treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought
many advances to that field.
History
The thermodynamicists are representative of the original eight founding schools of
thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting effect in founding the modern
versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin school, particularly as established in
Rudolf Clausius's 1865 textbook The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the Vienna school,
with the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann, and the Gibbsian school at Yale
University, American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1876 On the Equilibrium of
Heterogeneous Substances launching chemical thermodynamics.

The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto

von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and
demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres. Guericke was driven to
make a vacuum to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a
vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle
had learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist
Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a
correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time, Boyle's Law was
formulated, which states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Then, in
1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built a
steam digester, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam
until a high pressure was generated.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from
exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived
of the idea of a piston and a cylinder engine. He did not, however, follow through
with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas
Savery built the first engine, followed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Although these
early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading
scientists of the time.

The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and latent heat, which were necessary for
the development of thermodynamics, were developed by Professor Joseph Black at
the University of Glasgow, where James Watt was employed as an instrument maker.
Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the
idea of the external condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine
efficiency. Drawing on all the previous work led Sadi Carnot, the "father of
thermodynamics", to publish Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire (1824), a
discourse on heat, power, energy and engine efficiency. The book outlined the basic
energetic relations between the Carnot engine, the Carnot cycle, and motive power. It
marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.

The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, originally
trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the
University of Glasgow. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged
simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine, Rudolf
Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The foundations of statistical
thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig
Boltzmann, Max Planck, Rudolf Clausius and J. Willard Gibbs.
Clausius, who first stated the basic ideas of the second law in his paper "On the
Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, and is called "one of the founding fathers
of thermodynamics", introduced the concept of entropy in 1865.

During the years 1873–76, the American mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs
published a series of three papers, the most famous being On the Equilibrium of
Heterogeneous Substances, in which he showed how thermodynamic processes,
including chemical reactions, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the energy,
entropy, volume, temperature and pressure of the thermodynamic system in such a
manner, one can determine if a process would occur spontaneously. Also Pierre
Duhem in the 19th century wrote about chemical thermodynamics. During the early
20th century, chemists such as Gilbert N. Lewis, Merle Randall, and E. A.
Guggenheim applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical
processes.

Etymology

Thermodynamics has an intricate etymology.

By a surface-level analysis, the word consists of two parts that can be traced back to
Ancient Greek. Firstly, thermo- ("of heat"; used in words such as thermometer) can be
traced back to the root θέρμη therme, meaning "heat". Secondly, the word dynamics
("science of force [or power]") can be traced back to the root δύναμις dynamic,
meaning "power".

In 1849, the adjective thermo-dynamic was used by William Thomson.

In 1854, the noun thermo-dynamics was used by Thomson and William Rankine to
represent the science of generalized heat engines.

Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858
to designate the science of relations between heat and power, however, Joule never
used that term but used instead the term perfect thermo-dynamic engine about
Thomson's 1849 phraseology.

Branches of thermodynamics

The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches,
each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or
applying the principles to varying types of systems.

Classical thermodynamics
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems
at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model
exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics. The
qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of
the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system
in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A
microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided by the development of
statistical mechanics.

Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics, also known as statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the
development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th
century and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the
microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states.
This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the
macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale,
thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical
mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.

Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical
reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of
thermodynamics. The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is determining
the spontaneity of a given transformation.

Equilibrium thermodynamics
Equilibrium thermodynamics is the study of transfers of matter and energy in systems
or bodies that, by agencies in their surroundings, can be driven from one state of
thermodynamic equilibrium to another. The term 'thermodynamic equilibrium'
indicates a state of balance, in which all macroscopic flows are zero; in the case of the
simplest systems or bodies, their intensive properties are homogeneous, and their
pressures are perpendicular to their boundaries. In an equilibrium state, there are no
unbalanced potentials, or driving forces, between macroscopically distinct parts of the
system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: to give a system in a well-
defined initial equilibrium state, given its surroundings, and its constitutive walls, to
calculate what will be the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified
thermodynamic operation has changed its walls or surroundings.

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with
systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are
not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are
continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from
other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more
general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural
systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic
thermodynamic methods.
Laws of thermodynamics

Annotated colour version of the original 1824 Carnot heat engine showing the hot
body (boiler), working body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the letters
labelled according to the stopping points in the Carnot cycle.

Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws that are universally valid
when applied to systems that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the
various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in
seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent formulations are the following.

Zeroth law
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states: If two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set
of thermodynamic systems under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium
if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g. Brownian motion) do not lead to a
net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of
temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide whether two bodies are at the same
temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes in
their observable properties in time. The law provides an empirical definition of
temperature and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.

The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a separate law of thermodynamics, as
its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first,
second, and third laws had been explicitly stated already and found common
acceptance in the physics community before the importance of the zeroth law for the
definition of temperature was realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other
laws, it was named the Zeroth law.
First law

Opening a bottle of sparkling wine (high-speed photography). The sudden drop in

pressure causes a huge drop in temperature. The moisture in the air freezes, creating a
smoke of tiny ice crystals.

The first law of thermodynamics states: In a process without transfer of matter, the
change in internal energy, of a thermodynamic system is equal to the energy gained as
heat, less the thermodynamic work, done by the system on its surroundings.
Second law
A traditional version of the second law of thermodynamics states that heat does not
spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.

The second law refers to a system of matter and radiation, initially with
inhomogeneities in temperature, pressure, chemical potential, and other intensive
properties, that are due to internal 'constraints', or impermeable rigid walls, within it,
or to externally imposed forces. The law observes that, when the system is isolated
from the outside world and those forces, there is a definite thermodynamic quantity,
its entropy, that increases as the constraints are removed, eventually reaching a
maximum value at thermodynamic equilibrium, when the inhomogeneities practically
vanish. For systems that are initially far from thermodynamic equilibrium, though
several have been proposed, there is no general physical principle that determines the
rates of approach to thermodynamic equilibrium, and thermodynamics does not deal
with such rates. The many versions of the second law all express the general
irreversibility of the transitions involved in systems approaching thermodynamic
equilibrium.

In macroscopic thermodynamics, the second law is a basic observation applicable to

any actual thermodynamic process; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is
postulated to be a consequence of molecular chaos.

Third law
The third law of thermodynamics states: As the temperature of a system approaches
absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a
minimum value.

This law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the
impossibility of reaching absolute zero temperature. This law provides an absolute
reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to
this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions include "the entropy of all
systems and all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently "it is
impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of
processes".

Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to achieve, is
−273.15 °C (degrees Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit), or 0 K (kelvin), or
0° R (degrees Rankine).

System models

An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system, which is a

precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe
except the system is called the surroundings. A system is separated from the
remainder of the universe by a boundary which may be physical or notional, but serve
to confine the system to a finite volume. Segments of the boundary are often
described as walls; they have respective defined 'permeabilities'. Transfers of energy
as work, as heat, or of matter, between the system and the surroundings, take place
through the walls, according to their respective permeabilities.

Matter or energy that passes across the boundary to effect a change in the internal
energy of the system needs to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The
volume contained by the walls can be the region surrounding a single atom resonating
energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a
steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824. The system could also be just one
nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics. When
a looser viewpoint is adopted, and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium is
dropped, the system can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel
theorized in 1986 in the field of atmospheric thermodynamics or the event horizon of
a black hole.

Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an
engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position, within which a
constant volume process might occur. If the piston is allowed to move that boundary
is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head boundaries are fixed. For closed
systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary.
In the case of a jet engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake
of the engine, fixed boundaries along the surface of the case and a second fixed
imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.

As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences in pressures, densities, and

temperatures tend to even out. A system in which all equalizing processes have gone
to completion is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition,
unchanging in time. Systems in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to
understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often, when analysing a
dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made that each
intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic
processes that develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an
equilibrium state and are said to be reversible.

States and processes

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a
definite thermodynamic state. The state of the system can be described by several
state quantities that do not depend on the process by which the system arrived at its
state. They are called intensive variables or extensive variables according to how they
change when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be
described by an equation of state which specifies the relationship between these
variables. The state may be thought of as the instantaneous quantitative description of
a system with a set number of variables held constant.

A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a

thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. It can be
described by process quantities. Typically, each thermodynamic process is
distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what
parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed;
Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable
held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.

Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:

•Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy by heat
•Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy
•Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process, that occurs at a constant entropy
•Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure
•Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/isovolumetric)
•Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature
•Steady state process: occurs without a change in the internal energy

Instrumentation

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A
thermodynamic meter is any device that measures any parameter of a thermodynamic
system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is defined in terms of an
idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies
are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is
possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas
at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law pV=nRT, the volume of such a sample
can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature.
Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a
barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant
temperature. A calorimeter is a device that is used to measure and define the internal
energy of a system.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system that is so large that its state parameters are not
appreciably altered when it is brought into contact with the system of interest. When
the reservoir is brought into contact with the system, the system is brought into
equilibrium with the reservoir. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a
particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is
mechanically connected. The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir.
The ocean can act as a temperature reservoir when used to cool power plants.

Conjugate variables
The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy, the ability to do work. By
the First Law, the total energy of a system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy
may be transferred into a system by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and
extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. In mechanics,
for example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the
resulting displacement.

Conjugate variables are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to
a "force" applied to some thermodynamic system, the second being akin to the
resulting "displacement", and the product of the two equals the amount of energy
transferred. The common conjugate variables are:
•Pressure-volume (the mechanical parameters);
•Temperature-entropy (thermal parameters);
•Chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).

Potentials

Thermodynamic potentials are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in

a system. Potentials are used to measure the energy changes in systems as they evolve
from an initial state to a final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of
the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example, the Helmholtz and
Gibbs energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when the
temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively.
Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied
to a thermodynamic system. Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained
through Legendre transformation.

Axiomatic thermodynamics

Axiomatic thermodynamics is a mathematical discipline that aims to describe

thermodynamics in terms of rigorous axioms, for example by finding a
mathematically rigorous way to express the familiar laws of thermodynamics.

The first attempt at an axiomatic theory of thermodynamics was Constantin

Carathéodory's 1909 work Investigations on the Foundations of Thermodynamics,
which made use of Pfaffian systems and the concept of adiabatic accessibility, a
notion that was introduced by Carathéodory himself. In this formulation,
thermodynamic concepts such as heat, entropy, and temperature are derived from
quantities that are more directly measurable. Theories that came after, differed in the
sense that they made assumptions regarding thermodynamic processes with arbitrary
initial and final states, as opposed to considering only neighbouring states.

Notes

1. The sign convention (Q is heat supplied to the system as W is work done by the
system) is that of Rudolf Clausius. The opposite sign convention is customary in
chemical thermodynamics.
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Further reading

•Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993). The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-75325-9. OCLC 32826343. A non-technical
introduction, good on historical and interpretive matters.
•Kazakov, Andrei; Muzny, Chris D.; Chirico, Robert D.; Diky, Vladimir V.; Frenkel,
Michael (2008). "Web Thermo Tables – an On-Line Version of the TRC
Thermodynamic Tables". Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology. 113 (4): 209–220. doi:10.6028/jres.113.016. ISSN 1044-677X. PMC
4651616. PMID 27096122.
•Gibbs J.W. (1928). The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs Thermodynamics. New
York: Longmans, Green and Co. Vol. 1, pp. 55–349.
•Guggenheim E.A. (1933). Modern thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs.
London: Methuen & co. ltd.
•Denbigh K. (1981). The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium: With Applications in
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. London: Cambridge University Press.
•Stull, D.R., Westrum Jr., E.F. and Sinke, G.C. (1969). The Chemical
Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds. London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
•Bazarov I.P. (2010). Thermodynamics: Textbook. St. Petersburg: Lan publishing
house. p. 384. ISBN 978-5-8114-1003-3. 5th ed. (in Russian)
•Bawendi Moungi G., Alberty Robert A. and Silbey Robert J. (2004). Physical
Chemistry. J. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
•Alberty Robert A. (2003). Thermodynamics of Biochemical Reactions. Wiley-
Interscience.
•Alberty Robert A. (2006). Biochemical Thermodynamics: Applications of
Mathematica. Vol. 48. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–458. ISBN 978-0-471-75798-6.
PMID 16878778. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
•Dill Ken A., Bromberg Sarina (2011). Molecular Driving Forces: Statistical
Thermodynamics in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Nanoscience. Garland Science.
ISBN 978-0-8153-4430-8.
•M. Scott Shell (2015). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: An Integrated
Approach. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107656789.
•Douglas E. Barrick (2018). Biomolecular Thermodynamics: From Theory to
Applications. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-0019-5.

The following titles are more technical:

•Bejan, Adrian (2016). Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics (4 ed.). Wiley. ISBN
978-1-119-05209-8.
•Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002). Thermodynamics – an Engineering
Approach. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-238332-4. OCLC 45791449.
•Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997). Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and
Applications. Horwood Publishing. ISBN 978-1-8985-6315-0. OCLC 36025958.
•Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics. W.H. Freeman
Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-1088-2. OCLC 32932988.

Websites:-
www.wikipedia.org
Books:-
HC Verma - Concepts of Physics Volume 2
DC Pandey Waves And Thermodynamic