Irrigation Chapter 7 - Flow

Measurement and Basic Water

Calculations
Managing our water resources begins with knowing how much water is being
used for irrigation and comparing that with how much the crop uses. This
can help identify water losses and improve application

efficiency
, which can reduce pumping costs and protect or conserve natural resources.
These water use measurements can be used to:
1. check
irrigation efficiency
2. determine pumping plant efficiency, and
3. detect well and pump problems

Methods of measuring irrigation water can be grouped into three categories:

direct, velocity-area, and constricted flow. Method selection will depend on
the volume of water to be measured, the degree of accuracy desired,
whether the installation is permanent or temporary, and the financial
investment required.

Author: Chuck Burr, University of Nebraska Lincoln Extension Educator in

Phelps and Gosper counties.

Direct Measurement Methods

To measure small flow rates such as from individual siphon tubes, sprinkler
nozzles or individual outlets in gated pipe, use a stop watch or other timing
device to see how long it takes to fill a container of a known volume.
Ordinarily one-gallon or five-gallon containers will be adequate. It is
recommended that the measurement be repeated three or preferably five
times to determine a reliable flow rate per unit of time. For example, if you
collect five gallons of water from a siphon tube in 30 seconds, the flow rate
would be 10 gallons per minute.

Velocity-Area Methods
Commercial flow meters measure the total volume of water flowing through a
pipe and are extremely accurate if properly installed and maintained ( Figure
7.1). Most meters include an indicator which estimates the instantaneous
flow rate (Figure 7.2). Measurement accuracy is greatly improved by
recording the totalizer readings over a given time, perhaps 10 minutes. This
will provide an average flow rate measurement.

Figure 7.1. Typical irrigation flow meter.

Figure 7.2. Flow meter head.

Since most meters use the units of acre-inches, gallons, or cubic feet for the
totalizer, you will need to convert to gallons. Some helpful conversions are:

1 acre-inch = 27,154 gallons

1 cubic foot (cu. ft.) = 7.48 gallons

Example 7.1
A propeller type flow meter is used to estimate the gallons per minute being
delivered to a pivot irrigated field. During a 10-minute interval, the
accumulator reading changed from 10,973 cubic feet to 12,109 cubic feet.
Determine the average flow rate.

Answer:

Final
reading
12,109 cu.ft.
Initial reading –
10,973 cu.ft.
Volume pumped in 10 minutes 1,136 cu.ft.

Flow rate = 1,136 cu.ft. x 7.48

gallons/cu.ft.
10 minutes

Flow rate = 850 gpm

Installation of Flow Meters

Proper installation of flow meters is important to obtain accurate readings.
Spiraling and turbulent flow in the meter section caused by valves, pumps,
reducers, increasers, tees and elbows will reduce the accuracy of the
reading. Because of this, most manufacturers recommend a minimum of five
straight diameters (inside measurement of the pipe) without obstructions
ahead of the propeller, and at least one straight pipe diameter without
obstructions downstream from the meter. For an 8-inch diameter pipe, you
need 40 inches upstream and 8 inches downstream of straight, unobstructed
pipe. For better results, ten diameters or more is preferred upstream.

If space does not allow for ten diameters upstream, straightening vanes can
be installed in the pipe section ahead of the meter. These vanes will reduce
the turbulence of the water within the pipe near the meter propeller( Figure
7.1). The position of the saddle, the base of the meter that attaches to the
pipe, is also very important since the propeller shaft needs to be in the
center of the pipe. It also is necessary that the pipe be flowing full to obtain
accurate readings. Sometimes a piece of pipe that looks like an upside down
“U” is installed downstream of the meter. This insures a full pipe at the
meter.

Figure 7.3. U-Shaped fitting to insure full pipe at the meter.

Periodic meter inspection and maintenance are essential for dependable

service and accurate readings. At a minimum the meter should be inspected
every three years. First, remove the meter from the pipe and check the
propeller surface for any cracks, rodent damage or excessive wear. Replace
the propeller if needed and recalibrate. Check the propeller for excessive
wobbling which would indicate worn bearings. Replace the bearings if
needed. Grease the propeller bearings with a lubricant recommended by the
meter manufacturer.

Inspect the meter head for moisture accumulation. A wet or foggy

appearance on the inside of the plastic cover indicates a break in the seal
and possible moisture damage to the register. Replace the meter register
and seal the canopy with the proper gaskets or sealant. Be sure the meter
saddle is sealed properly to the irrigation pipe.

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic flow meters are easy to install, non-intrusive, and becoming
increasingly popular in the irrigation industry. If installed properly, they are
quite accurate. The ultrasonic flow meter normally is used as a rate meter
but can total the volume when desired. In contrast to ultrasonic meters,
most conventional flow meters require installation in the pipe, which
requires shutting down the line to install the meter. A head loss is almost
always associated with conventional meters. The ultrasonic flow meter has
several advantages over conventional in-line meters. First, there is no head
loss associated with the ultrasonic meter because the installation is on the
outside of the pipe. Installation of the clamp-on transducers eliminates the
need for line shutdown. As a result, ultrasonic meters can be used in several
locations for different applications. Since the pipeline is not broken,
measurements are leak free.

Because of the relatively high cost, ultrasonic meters typically are not used
for permanent flow measurements in irrigation. Rather, they are used as test
meters by water management agencies, researchers, and consultants to get
a “snapshot” of the flow rate of the irrigation system.

Like most flow measuring devices, proper application and installation is

important. For example, the pipeline must be flowing full where the meter is
installed. Also there must be a similar adequate distance of straight pipe,
free of obstructions, upstream from the point of measurement.

Constricted Flow Methods

Methods employing a constriction of pre-determined dimensions are
frequently used for measuring flow in irrigation canals and ditches. Weirs and
flumes are the most common constricted-flow devices.

Basically, a weir measures flow by causing the water to flow over a “V” or
trapezoidal notch of pre-determined shape and dimensions. This method is
quite accurate when properly constructed, installed and maintained. Weirs
do have some limitations. First, they require considerable drop (difference in
elevation) between the upstream and downstream water surfaces which
often is either unavailable in flat grade ditches or undesirable. Second, it is
often necessary to construct a pool or stilling area above the weir so the
water velocity slows. Unless the water appears practically still, flow rate
readings will be inaccurate. Weir installations in earthen ditches can be
particularly troublesome. The stilling area in the ditch above the weir
frequently tends to “

silt
in” while excessive
erosion
may occur immediately downstream of the weir.

Generally, only one or two measurements of water depth flowing over the
weir are required where the dimensions of the constriction are known. Using
these measurements, rate of flow is determined from either a table, graph or
by calculation. Due to the wide variety of types and sizes of constricting
devices, flow tables are not included in this publication. Most weirs and
flumes purchased from the manufacturer include a table or graph.

Example 7.2
A canal system is used to deliver water to several fields. A 90 o triangular
notch weir is used to measure the flow rate. The manufacturer provided the
following formula to determine flow rate:

Q = 2.49 x H2.48

Where : Q = Flow rate in cubic feet per

second (cfs)

H= Head in feet (or depth of water

flowing through the weir)

Calculate the flow rate if the head is 2.0 feet.

Answer:

Q = 2.49 x (2.0 ft)2.48

Q = 13.89 cfs
A flume measures flow by restricting the flow through a channel of pre-
determined dimensions. Flumes can operate with less difference in elevation
between upstream and downstream water surfaces than can weirs. Like
weirs, when properly installed and maintained, flumes are quite accurate.
Recently smaller flumes have been developed to measure flow rate in an
individual furrow. They are normally used in conducting research.

Flow measuring devices estimate the average flow rate. To calculate total
volume pumped, the flow rate must be multiplied by the length of time the
pump is operated.

Example 7.3
A pump supplies water to a gravity system. The propeller type flow meter
indicates that the average flow rate is 900 gallons per minute. Calculate the
total number of gallons and acre-inches applied during a 12-hour

set
time.

Answer:

Total volume = 900 gpm x 12 hr x 60 min/hr

Total volume = 648,000 gallons

Total acre inches = 648,000/27,154

Total acre inches = 23.86

Basic Water Calculations

The easiest and most common calculation used by irrigators is gross
irrigation application. Gross application is simply the average water depth
applied over a unit area. To calculate gross application, determine flow rate,
length of time water was applied and area irrigated.

Many flow measurement devices provide a reading in gallons per minute

(gpm). To convert to acre-inches per hour, use the following conversion
factor:

1 acre-inch/hr = 453 gallons per

minute (gpm)
 When meters use units of gpm,
divide the gpm by 453 to convert units to acre-inch/hr.

Multiply the flow rate (now in units of acre-inch per hour) times the number of
hours irrigated and divide by the number of acres irrigated. The result is the
average depth applied across the whole field. This conversion factor could
be written on the lid of the meter for easy reference.

Example 7.4
An irrigation pump delivers 900 gpm to a 40-acre furrow irrigated field. If the
pump runs for 48 hours, determine the gross depth of water applied.

Answer:

Flow rate in acre-inch =

hr

900 gpm x 1 acre-inch/hr

453 gpm

Flow rate = 2.0 acre-in/hr

Depth = 2 acre-inch/hr x 48
hrs
40 acres

Gross depth = 2.4 inches

Some flow meters have an output reading in cubic feet per second (cfs).
Cubic feet per second is nearly equal to acre inch per hour and the labels can
be used interchangeably.

1 cfs = 1 acre-inch/hr

To calculate the area of a field, multiply the length in feet by the width in
feet and divide by 43,560 ft2/acre. The resulting area is in the unit of acres.
The area of fields with a shape other than a square or rectangle can be
determined using geometric calculations.

Example 7.5
Calculate the set size of an area to be irrigated. The field is 1,320 feet long
and 80 rows wide. The row spacing is 30 inches.

Answer:

Area = 1,320 feet x 80 rows x 30

inches/row
12 inches/ft x 43,560 ft2/acre

Area = 6 acres

Example 7.6
A pivot is used to irrigate a 130-acre field. If the irrigation pump delivers 1.85
cfs and it takes three days to complete the circle, calculate the average
depth applied.

Answer:

1.85 cfs = 1.85 acre-inches/hr

Depth =1.85 acre-inches/hr x 72 hrs

130 ac

Gross depth = 1.02 inches

Flow meters also can help determine the amount of water applied during a
growing season. The totalizer reading on the meter should be read at the
beginning and end of the irrigation season. The volume of water is then
divided over the acres irrigated to determine the gross depth for the season.
Most totalizer readings have units of acre-inches, gallons, or 1,000 ft 3. When
buying a new meter, choose one that uses acre-inches. The following formula
may be useful for those totalizers that use 1,000 ft3 as the unit of
measurement:

1 acre-inch = 3,630 ft3

Example 7.7
A furrow-irrigated field is 80 acres. Knowing the beginning reading of
12,978.4 (1,000 ft3) and the ending reading of 17,624.8 (1,000 ft3), calculate
the gross depth per acre for the season.
 Answer:

Final reading
17,624.8 (1,000 ft3) Initial
reading – 12,978.4 (1,000
ft3) Volume of water
used 4,646.4 (1,000 ft3)

Volume = 4,646,400 ft3 x 1 acre-inch

3,630 ft3

Volume = 1,280 acre-inch

Depth = 1,280 acre-

inch
80 acres

Depth applied = 16.0 inches

Example 7.8
A pivot irrigated field has a flow meter with totalizer units in acre-inches. The
field is 130 acres. The beginning reading is 2,980 acre-inches and the ending
reading is 4,540 acre-inches. Calculate the application depth for the season.

Answer:

Final reading 4,540 acre-

inch Initial reading – 2,980
acre-inch Volume used
1,560 acre-inch

Depth = 1,560 acre-

inch
130 acres

Depth applied = 12 inches