&

Publications
Handbook
Style Manual

American Society of Agronomy

Crop Science Society of America
Soil Science Society of America
 Publications Handbook and Style Manual

American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America,

Soil Science Society of America
Updated April 2023
 Publications Handbook and Style Manual
Chapter 1: Manuscript Preparation
Chapter 2: Style
Chapter 3: Specialized Terminologies
Chapter 4: Statistical Design and Analysis
Chapter 5: Tables and Figures
Chapter 6: Mathematics and Numbers
Chapter 7: Units and Measurement
Chapter 8: Journal Procedures
Chapter 9: Procedures for Monographs, SSSA Book
Series, Books, and Other Publications
Chapter 10: Copyright and Permission to Publish

Appendix A: Online Resources

Appendix B: Software Papers and Case Studies

References and Selected Bibliography

© American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil

Science Society of America 2023
Chapter 1. Manuscript Preparation
The American Society of Agronomy (ASA), Crop Science Society of America (CSSA),
and Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) have a reputation for publishing high-quality
papers in their journals, books, and other publications. Authors are strongly urged to have
their papers thoroughly reviewed by competent colleagues before submitting those papers
for consideration by any ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publication.
The format used in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals differs from that used in books,
special publications, and other media (see Chapter 9). This chapter deals mainly with jour-
nal formats, but the discussion applies broadly to the other formats.
Publications of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA follow the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association, 7th edition (APA, 2020), for reference and citation
styles. For questions of scientific style and format beyond what is covered in this manual,
consult the style manuals of the American Chemical Society (Coghill & Garson, 2006), the
Council of Science Editors (CSE, 2006), and the Chicago Manual of Style (UCP, 2010).
Recent issues of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals also provide examples of the desired
format. Be consistent in whatever style choices you make.
All manuscripts are critically reviewed before they are published in any ASA, CSSA,
or SSSA journal, monograph, book, or special publication. Written guidelines for manuscript
submission are published periodically in all ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals and can be
accessed online.
DETAILS OF MANUSCRIPT PREPARATION

Eligibility of Authors
Membership is not required for publishing in ASA, CSSA, or SSSA publications.
Some of the journals, however, assess a surcharge to nonmembers. Authors who wish to
join a society to avoid this charge should do so before the paper is accepted for publication.
For information on membership, visit https://www.agronomy.org/membership/become-a-
member/, https://www.crops.org/membership/become-a-member/, or https://www.soils.
org/membership/become-a-member/. Eligibility policies are summarized in each journal’s
author instructions.
Publication Charges
Publication and open access charges vary depending on the journal and whether at
least one of the authors is a member of ASA, CSSA, or SSSA. These charges are subject
to change. Check the journals’ instructions to authors for current information.
No Prior Publication, No Simultaneous Submission
Except for reviews or timely essays, papers published in the scientific journals of the
ASA, CSSA, and SSSA must be original reports of research. Submission of a scientific
manuscript for review is understood to imply that the work is original and unpublished and
not being considered for publication elsewhere. If portions of the paper have been submit-
ted or published elsewhere, the authors must disclose that fact at the time of submission
and provide details of relevant prior publications.
Whether publication in nontechnical outlets constitutes prior publication is decided
on a case-by-case basis. In general, publication in nontechnical media will be considered
prior publication only if substantially all of the data and conclusions have been published.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-01
 Posting of preprints to a preprint server is considered acceptable but requires citing
of the preprint. Note the use of a preprint server in the cover letter, and as appropriate,
state how the manuscript has been adjusted or updated between the preprint version and
the version submitted to the journal. Failure to alert the journal in your cover letter to any
prior publication of your submission may be viewed as an ethical violation.
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are handled by similar, but not identical, procedures in ASA, CSSA,
and SSSA journals. The basic policy is that at least two independent scientists must agree
before a paper is accepted for publication or released back to the author (rejected). Release
of a paper by a journal does not preclude its resubmission to that same or another ASA,
CSSA, SSSA journal after its weaknesses have been eliminated. For example, a paper
released because it needed another year of data may be resubmitted after those data have
been gathered and the results incorporated into the paper. Such a resubmission must be
accompanied by a copy of the original release letter. A manuscript may be released before
review, either because it does not conform to acceptable standards or because the subject
matter is outside the scope of the journal.

Manuscript Submission
Manuscripts are submitted via the journal’s online manuscript submission system.
Consult the instructions to authors for details.
Receipt of manuscripts will be acknowledged. Communication from editorial board
members and the headquarters staff is usually with the corresponding author only; normal-
ly the submitting author is the corresponding author (see Authorship, below). The cover
letter or title page should give the corresponding author’s current phone number and email
address for use during review and production.
A journal editor may determine that the submitted paper’s subject matter is more
suitable for a different society journal. In those cases, the editor will release the paper and
suggest the corresponding author transfer their paper to that journal.
Manuscript Processing
Upon receipt, each paper is assigned a unique manuscript number that identifies the
manuscript. This number is communicated to the corresponding author along with acknowl-
edgment of receipt. Refer to the manuscript number in all subsequent communications
during the review process. Authors will be informed as the manuscript moves through the
various steps involved in review, acceptance or release, and production. (See also Chapter 8.)
After a manuscript has been accepted for publication, it receives a separate manu-
script number and DOI. It is then edited for style and grammar and prepared for publica-
tion.
Anonymous Review
All papers submitted to ASA, CSSA, SSSA journals are given an anonymous
review—meaning that the names of reviewers are not revealed to the authors of the papers
or to the other reviewers.
Most ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals use a single-blind review process, where
the authors do not know the names of the reviewers. Some of our journals use a double-
blind process and also withhold the names of the authors from the reviewers. Check the
individual journal's instructions to authors for details on the review process. For journals
that use a double-blind process, prepare the manuscript with no identifying information

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1-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
(e.g., no byline, addresses/ affiliations, acknowledgments, etc.; these will be added after a
manuscript has been accepted). Take care to label tables and figures with reference to the
paper’s title, not author names. Any identification in headers or footers should be similarly
anonymous. Authorship may also be unintentionally revealed through such software fea-
tures as document summaries. If this is a concern, consult your local software experts.
When authors submit a manuscript via the online manuscript submission system,
they will be asked to enter contact information into the system database, and the editors
will have access to this information so that they can contact the authors about the outcome
of the review.
SUBMISSION SPECIFICS
All accepted manuscript files will be edited in Microsoft Word. Therefore, authors
are encouraged to compose manuscripts in Microsoft Word. The manuscript must be
double-spaced, with continuous line numbering.
Do not use complicated fonts and features available in Microsoft Word. Limited use
of italics, bold, and superscripts and subscripts is acceptable.
Do not use such word-processing features as automatic footnoting and outlining.
These features interfere with both electronic editing and typesetting. If you need to place
a numbered list in your manuscript, enter the numbers and use appropriate tabs and indents
manually instead of using automatic outlining.
Headings and Subheadings
Headings guide the reader, but too many headings can be distracting. Keep
headings short. Abbreviations are allowed in headings.
Differentiate between the heading levels in your manuscript. For style, examine recent
issues of the publication to which the manuscript will be submitted. In most ASA, CSSA,
and SSSA journals, Level 1 headings (the main headings) are used for the main sections,
such as Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion, with Level 2 headings
used for subsections. Level 3 and Level 4 headings are allowed, but use them sparingly.
TYPES OF JOURNAL ARTICLES
The most common type of paper to appear in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals is the
standard research paper. The journals also publish other paper types. Consult the instruc-
tions to authors of each journal for a description of all current types of papers.
Review Papers
Review papers are usually less formal than full-length articles. Such papers should
provide a synthesis of existing knowledge and give new insights or concepts not previ-
ously presented in the literature, or at least not with the same level of detail.
These articles should not be considered exhaustive reviews of the literature (as per
Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology) but should include enough
literature review to provide a basis for understanding and interpretation of the topic
under consideration.
A good review is often one of the most important ways to advance an area of science.
Readers expect a review paper to
• deal with an important subject that needs a scholarly review,
• cover the entire spectrum of the subject, not just the segment about which the
author of the review paper has published articles,
• present a balanced coverage that is fair to all the work it reviews, and

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-03
 • add a perspective to the entire subject and contribute significantly to understanding.
Issue Papers
The intent of these papers is to stimulate discussion and possibly a rethinking of
current views. They may be provocative and controversial. Our journals use different
headings for such papers, such as "Perspectives" or "Forum" papers. Check the individual
journal's online About pages for details.
Notes and Short Communications
Notes and Short Communications represent a separate category of scientific manu-
scripts. Papers in this category typically describe research techniques, apparatus, and
observations. Observations usually are limited to studies and reports of unrepeatable
phenomena or other unique circumstances. These articles are usually shorter than research
papers.
Occasionally, an editor may determine that a paper submitted as a research paper will
better fit this category, or vice versa. If the author agrees, the manuscript can be transferred
to or from this category of papers.
The review procedure for these papers is identical to that for research papers.
Letters to the Editor
All our journals publish Letters to the Editor. Letters may contain comments on articles
appearing in the journals or general discussions about agronomic research and are limited to
one printed page. Letters must be approved by the editor and may be peer reviewed. If a letter
discusses a published paper, the author of that paper will be invited to submit a response to the
comments; typically, the response is published along with the letter.
Core Ideas
At submission, most journals ask authors to to prepare three to five core ideas (up to
115 characters each, spaces included), which will appear with the accepted article and on
the journal's table of contents.
Research Papers
Manuscripts of research papers prepared for ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals are
normally arranged in the following order:
1. Title and byline
2. Core Ideas
3. Author–paper documentation (addresses/affiliations, email address of the correspond-
ing author, etc.—see below)
4. Abstract
5. Abbreviations
6. Introduction (including literature review)
7. Materials and Methods
8. Results. This section is sometimes combined with the discussion section
9. Discussion. No separate summary section is used because it would duplicate the func-
tion of the abstract; a summary statement may, however, be given as a closing paragraph.
10. Conclusions (optional; this may be a titled section or part of the discussion section)
11. Data Availability Statement (optional)
12. Author Contributions (this is generated from metadata provided during submission)
13. Acknowledgments (optional)

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1-04 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
14. Conflict of Interest Statement
15. References
16. Figure captions and tables should be placed in the main text close to where they are
first called out for submitted manuscripts. For accepted manuscripts, figure captions
and tables appear after the reference list, and figures should be submitted as separate
high-resolution image files in the following acceptable formats: EPS, TIF, PDF, or JPG.
For journals with a double-blind review process, the byline, author–paper documentation,
and acknowledgments should not be included at the time of submission to ensure anonym-
ity—authors will be asked to add these items once the paper has been accepted.
Sometimes a Theory section substitutes for or precedes Materials and Methods. Any
section may include subheadings to guide the reader through significantly different aspects
of the topic.
Manuscript Format

Title. The title should represent the article’s content and facilitate retrieval in indexes
developed by secondary literature services. The terms in the title should be limited to those
words that give significant information about the article’s content. It is best to start the
title with key words—not with words such as "Effect of" or "Influence of." Many readers
peruse titles in a journal’s table of contents to decide whether to read a given paper. A good
title briefly identifies the subject, indicates the purpose of the study, and introduces key
terms or concepts. The recommended limit is 12 words.
Keep titles free of nonstandard abbreviations, chemical formulas, or proprietary names,
and avoid unusual or outdated terminology. Use common names of crops and chemicals. If a
crop or microorganism has no common name or if the common name is in dispute, then the
scientific name (with authority) may be used in the title.
Series titles are used infrequently in ASA, CSSA, SSSA journals. An author contem-
plating a series of articles on the same subject should refer to the journal's current editorial
policy. Articles in a series are not discouraged as such, but the editors need to be assured
that all papers in the series are available for review and that the reader will be able to
obtain earlier and later material in that series.
Titles may be descriptive (e.g., Variables A and B under C Conditions), declara-
tive (A Relates to B in C Manner), or even a question (Does A Do X?). Examples:
Soil-Water and Root Dynamics under Hedgerow Intercropping in Semiarid Kenya
(Govindarajan et al., Agronomy Journal, 88:513–520); Clipping Foliage Differentially
Affects Phytosiderophore Release by Two Wheat Cultivars (Hansen et al., Agronomy
Journal, 87:1060–1063); Is Soil Temperature Better Than Air Temperature for Predicting
Winter Wheat Phenology? (McMaster and Wilhelm, Agronomy Journal, 90, 602–607).
Authorship. (Added at acceptance for double-blind journals.) We encourage the use
of full names in bylines (e.g., Morgan L. Jones or M. Louise Jones instead of M. L. Jones).
The first person listed in the title is, by definition, the senior author; the corresponding
author deals with proofs and, after publication, with reprint requests. The authors of the
paper decide the sequence of author names; the order should be agreed upon by all authors
involved.
Author–Paper Documentation. (Added at acceptance for double-blind journals.) The
author–paper documentation appears on the first page of the published article. The purpose
is to give addresses for all authors and an email address for the corresponding author (author

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-05
documentation), as well as any necessary institutional identification such as a grant sup-
port, dissertation requirement, or a journal article number (the paper documentation). In the
manuscript, put this paragraph after the byline, on the cover page only. Alternatively, any
necessary institutional identification can be placed in the Acknowledgments section.
If all authors are at one address, do not repeat the names in the documentation. Otherwise,
group together all authors at a single address in the order they appear in the byline. Do not
include professional titles. Following complete addresses for all authors (ZIP codes optional),
provide the corresponding author's address and email address. Example:

Neha Kothari, B. Todd Campbell, Jane K. Dever, and Lori L. Hinze

Neha Kothari and Jane K. Dever, Texas A&M AgriLife Research, 1102 East FM 1294, Lubbock, Texas 79403, USA
B. Todd Campbell, USDA-ARS, 2611 W. Lucas St., Florence, South Carolina 29501, USA
Lori L. Hinze, USDA-ARS, 2881 F&B Rd., College Station, Texas 77845, USA

Correspondence: Lori L. Hinze, USDA-ARS, 2881 F&B Rd., College Station, TX 77845, USA. Email: lori.hinze@
ars.usda.gov

If an author has moved, the current address can be added, but if the previous address is a
funder, then the previous should be retained. The address where the work was done should
go first; the current address normally goes at the end:

A. Smith and B. Jones, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, 1102 S., Goodwin Ave., Urbana,
Illinois, 61801, USA
A. Smith, current address: Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA

Acknowledgment of grant funding, support information, and personal thanks belong in the
acknowledgments section at the end of the paper. Any required government or institutional
disclaimer in reference to commercial products or trade names mentioned in the text should
also be placed in the acknowledgments section.
Footnotes. Footnotes are not allowed.
Abstract. A journal abstract has two typical uses. Printed at the head of a scientific
paper, an abstract helps readers decide whether to delve into the paper; abstracts are also
published via abstracting and indexing services. Because the abstract will be seen and read
by many more people than will read the paper, everything that is important in the paper
must be reflected in the abstract. The abstract should call attention to new techniques,
observations, or data. Be specific.
In essence, an informative abstract (also called a substantive abstract) presents the
paper in miniature, complete within itself. It moves from an introductory statement of the
rationale and objectives or hypotheses, through materials and methods, to the results and
conclusions. (A descriptive abstract is more like a table of contents for the paper and is
rarely used in scientific publications except, perhaps, for review or opinion papers.) A
number of books and articles offer useful advice on preparing abstracts (e.g., O’Connor
& Woodford, 1976; O’Connor, 1979; Day, 1988), and an Internet search for “informative
abstract” is likely to have recent course materials on scientific writing among the results.
Because an informative abstract has to stand alone, do not deflect the reader with
phrases such as "will be discussed" or "will be explained." For the same reason, do not
include reference, figure, or table citations. stats also are inappropriate in an abstract unless

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1-06 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
they are the central finding of the study. Limit your use of abbreviations, and define the
ones you do use.
At first mention in the abstract, give the complete scientific name (with authority)
for plants. The scientific names of plants should be repeated at the first mention in the
main text. In the main text, give scientific names of other organisms, including causal
agents of diseases. The scientific names for larger animals (e.g., sheep) do not need to be
given unless germane to the article and/or there may be confusion as to what animal is
being discussed. Complete soil series descriptions should be provided upon first mention
in the main text; they do not need to be given in the abstract. Using the common names of
chemicals is acceptable. The full names of chemicals can be provided at first mention in
the main text if germane to the article.
Write the abstract as a single paragraph, with a limit of 250 words (~1,500 charac-
ters) for full-length papers and 150 words (~900 characters) for notes. Some abstracting
services truncate text beyond a certain length; what is lost is most likely the conclusions.
Reproduced below (with permission of the author) is a published abstract with its struc-
ture labeled. This example shows both the overall construction of the abstract and the contents
of its parts. (From Agronomy Journal, 78, 720–726 [1986], updated to conform to new style
guidelines.)
Introduction. Use the introduction to review published literature and issues related
to your topic. A thorough introduction helps the reader recognize what your research
contributes to the current knowledge in your subject area. Begin your article by clearly
identifying its subject, and state the hypothesis or definition of the problem the research
was designed to solve. To orient readers, give a brief reference to previous concepts and
research. Limit literature references to essential information, and do not rely on old refer-
ences when newer ones are available.
Keep the introduction short, but include (a) a brief statement of the problem that jus-
tifies doing the work, or the hypothesis on which it is based; (b) the findings of others that
will be further developed or challenged; and (c) an explanation of the general approach
and objectives. This last part may indicate the means by which the question was examined,
especially if the methods are new.
Abbreviations and acronyms defined in the abstract should also be defined in the
main body of the text.
Materials and Methods. In the Materials and Methods section, give enough detail
to allow a competent scientist to repeat the experiments, mentally or in fact.
In the materials section, describe the preparation method, equipment, and measure-
ments, using SI-acceptable units. Not all materials need to be identified by brand name
and manufacturer. Consider first whether the particular product is essential to the outcome
of the research, and then how readily available that particular product might be to other
researchers. For example, if any standard test tube will work, it is not necessary to state
the manufacturer of the tubes you used. If, however, the test tube must be lined with Teflon
or be made of Pyrex (or in any other way differ from standard), then say so and, if such a
test tube is not readily available, tell where it can be obtained.
When a product must be identified by trade name, add the name of the manufacturer
or a major distributor parenthetically after the first mention of the product. Example: “Soil
respiration was measured with a CO2 analyzer (Model LI-6251, LI-COR).” If the particu-
lar product is both essential to the research and no longer commercially available, describe
a suitable substitute and its source.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-07
 Dryland Grain Sorghum Water Use, Light Interception,
and Growth Responses to Planting Geometry

J. L. Steiner

ABSTRACT

Rationale Crop yields are primarily water-limited under dryland production systems in semiarid
regions.
Objectives or This study was conducted to determine whether the growing-season water
   hypothesis balance could be manipulated through planting geometry.
Methods The effects of row spacing, row direction, and plant population on the water use, light
interception, and growth of grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] were investi-
gated at Bushland, TX, on a Pullman clay loam (fine, mixed, superactive thermic Torrertic
Paleustoll).
Results In 1983, which had a dry growing season, narrow-row spacing and higher population
increased seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) by 7 and 9%, respectively, and shifted the
partitioning of ET to the vegetative period. Medium population crops yielded 6.2 and
2.3 Mg ha–1 of dry matter and grain, respectively. High population resulted in high dry
matter (6.1 Mg ha–1) and low grain yield (1.6 Mg ha–1), whereas low population resulted
in low dry matter (5.4 Mg ha–1) and high grain yield (2.3 Mg ha–1). Row direction did not
affect water use or yield. In 1984, dry matter production for a given amount of ET and light
interception was higher in the narrow-row crops. Evapotranspiration was less for a given
amount of light interception in the narrow-row crops and in the north–south row crops.
Conclusions Narrow-row planting geometry appears to increase the partitioning of ET to the transpira-
tion component and may improve the efficiency of dryland cropping systems.

In the case of specially procured or proprietary materials, give the pertinent chemical
and physical properties (e.g., purity, pH, concentration). Chemical rather than trade names
are preferred. Example: “Reference Suwannee River fulvic acid (IHSS-FA) and humic
acid (IHSS-HA) were purchased from the International Humic Substance Society (IHSS).”
Plants and other organisms, including viruses, insects, bacteria, and pathogens should be
identified accurately at first mention by scientific name (with authority for plants) and cultivar
name if applicable. Scientific names for larger animals (e.g., sheep) should be given if relevant
to the article and/or there may be confusion as to what animal is being discussed. Identify soils
by great group name at least and preferably by soil series name and description.
Cite references for your methods and reference the edition you used. If the techniques
are widely familiar, use only their names. If a method is modified, outline the modification
or cite a reference, unless the modification is trivial. Give details of unusual experimental
designs or statistical methods.
The Materials and Methods section may be arranged chronologically, by a succession
of techniques, or in any other logical manner, such as by experiment or location, and may
include tables and figures.
Results. Use tables, graphs, and other illustrations in the Results section to provide
the reader with a clear understanding of representative data obtained from the experiments.
Call attention to significant findings and special features (e.g., one quantity is greater than
another, one result is linear across a range, or a particular value is optimum), but do not
repeat in detailed prose what is already clear from an examination of the graphics.
If you have minimal results, describe them in the text. You may want to summarize
more complicated results in tables or figures.

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1-08 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 If you do not have a separate Discussion section, relate the results to your objectives
and to each other.
Discussion. Use the Discussion section to interpret your results. Give particular
attention to the problem, question, or hypothesis presented in the introduction. A good
discussion typically covers most or all of the following steps:
1. Relate the results to the original objectives.
2. Explain the principles, relationships, and generalizations that can be supported by
the results.
3. Address any exceptions or lack of correlation that qualify the findings, or difficul-
ties that point to areas for further investigation.
4. Explain how the results relate to previous findings, whether in support, contradic-
tion, or simply as added data.
5. Present conclusions, supported by a summary of the evidence.
Whether combined with the Results section or standing alone, the Discussion section
should focus on the meaning of your findings, not recapitulate them.
Scientific speculation is encouraged, but it should be reasonable, firmly founded
in observation, and subject to tests. It must also be identified as such. Where results dif-
fer from previous results for unexplained reasons, possible explanations should not be
labored. Controversial issues should be discussed clearly and fairly.
References. The References section lists only the literature cited in the paper.
Authors are encouraged to cite only significant, published, and up-to-date references.
Figure Captions, Tables, and Figures. In the submitted manuscript, tables and fig-
ures (review quality) with captions should be placed into the text document at first mention.
Figures can also be submitted separately as image files in the following acceptable formats:
EPS, TIF, PDF, or JPG.
For accepted manuscripts, figure captions and tables appear after the reference list,
and figures should be submitted as separate high-resolution image files in the following
acceptable formats: EPS, TIF, PDF, or JPG. No separate list of table titles is needed.
Color figures of accepted manuscripts must adhere to our color policy (see Chapter 5
and our online "ASA, CSSA, SSSA Editorial Policies" for details). To maintain clear con-
trast, use line patterns instead of shading and avoid thin, light lines. As feasible, plan for
reduction to one-column width (84 mm, or ~3.25 inches). The original should be one-third
to one-half larger than the intended final size. Keep relative sizes in mind when adding
symbols, letters, and numbers.
For book chapters, consult the book editor for the sequence of the final elements.
See Chapter 5 for more information on figures and tables.
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Most journals of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA accept supplemental material that will
enhance and support your research. Supplemental files will appear online and will be
accessible from the issue TOC and article-level pages. Authors are encouraged to submit
materials that contribute to the content and quality of the article or to use supplemental
material as a means to shorten the text of manuscripts. Ancillary information such as some
experimental data, including schematics of apparatus and maps of study sites, or material
of interest mainly to specialists are examples of potential supplemental material. When
using supplemental material to shorten the text of a manuscript, keep in mind that the

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-09
Materials and Methods section should provide enough detail to allow the reader to deter-
mine whether the interpretations are supported by the data.
Supplemental material undergoes peer review and so should be submitted along with the
original manuscript. A list of the supplemental material should be included in the main manu-
script directly preceding the reference list. Supplemental tables and figures should be cited in
order in the main manuscript.
Supplemental material should be formatted with a cover sheet listing authors and manu-
script title, and the number of pages, figures, and tables. Tables and figures should be numbered
Supplemental Table S1, S2, Supplemental Figure S1, S2, etc.
Ideally, the supplement should consist of a single PDF or MS Word file (rather than
a series of files with individual images or structures); however, most file types are allowed,
including video, spreadsheets, and PowerPoint files. To keep file size down, please compress
large files if possible. The following are not allowed: executables (.exe) of any kind or TeX.
CITATION STYLE
Journals of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA follow the APA citation style as found in the
Publication Manual of the APA, 7th edition (APA, 2020) The author–year notation system
is required; do not use numbered notation.

Two authors. For within-text citations of papers with two authors, name both authors. Use
an amersand for citations in parentheses.
Murphy and Jones (2018) supported...; (Murphy & Jones, 2018)
Three or more authors. With three or more authors, use the first author's last name plus
"et al."
Murphy et al. (2018)
(Murphy et al., 2018)
Exception: If two references with the same year shorten to the same form (e.g., Murphy,
Smith, Davis, & Xu, 2018, and Murphy, Xu, Smith, Jones, & Davis, 2018; both shorten to
Murphy et al., 2018), cite as many of the authors' surnames as needed to distinguish the two
references, followed by "et al."
Murphy, Smith, et al. (2018) and Murphy, Xu, et al. (2018)
Two or more works within the same parentheses. Separate citations with a semicolon.
(Murphy, 2001a; Murphy & Wong, 2001; Murphy et al., 2001)
(Murphy, 2001; Murphy et al., 2001, 2002; Murphy & Davis, 2002)
Two or more articles by the same author(s) in the same year. Add a distinguishing lower-
case letter (a, b, c, etc.) to the year in both the text and references list. Separate citations with
a comma.
(Murphy, 2001a, 2001b)
Authors with the same last name. Use first initials with the last names to help prevent
confusion.
(E. Murphy, 2001; C. Murphy, 2011)
See APA (2020) for additional examples.
Citing Quotations
Direct quotations from a book or very long chapter require a page number in the text
citation. When practical, the exact page number is preferred for any quotation.
Example: [from Weidenhamer, 1996: Agronomy Journal, 88:867]: Harper (1977,
p. 372), who called for a Koch’s postulates type of approach..., remained skeptical

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1-10 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
about the feasibility of designing “an experiment that conclusively tests the toxin
hypothesis of plant interaction.”
Citing Unpublished Sources
Only literature available through libraries or other readily accessible public media may
be cited. All other material, such as personal communications (information from someone
other than the authors) and unpublished data (information from one or more author named
in the byline), is cited in the text as parenthetical matter. Give both the source and the date
for the information. Examples:
(R. D. Jackson, personal communication, March 4, 2018)
(unpublished data, 2019) [when all authors are responsible for the data]
(Faribault, unpublished data, 2019) [when only the author Faribault is responsible
for the data]
Placing “unpublished data” or “personal communication” between the name and year
clearly distinguishes these citations from those in the reference list.
The terms in review and in press are not synonymous. Material that is in press has been
accepted for publication but has not yet appeared in print. This material may be listed in
reference sections because the reader will eventually be able to locate it. Material submitted
for publication but not yet accepted may be included in the reference list of your paper dur-
ing the review process, but upon your paper’s acceptance these entries must be converted to
citations of unpublished data or personal communication. If the change from review status to
in press status occurs before or by the proof stage, the citation can be restored and completed.
Reviewers and editors are not expected to verify the accuracy of the literature cita-
tions. Authors should check the alphabetical reference list against the citations in the body
of the manuscript before submitting the manuscript for publication.

REFERENCES
Journals and books of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA follow the APA reference style as
found in the Publication Manual of the APA, 7th edition (APA, 2020).
Preparing the Reference List
Authors are responsible for the completeness and accuracy of all references.
If you have consulted abstracts, theses or dissertations, extension bulletins, in-press
articles, or secondary materials during your research or for early drafts of the paper, check
again upon acceptance for publication whether this this information has been published in
a more readily available source.
Alphabetization
Arrange the list alphabetically by the surnames of authors. All single-authored arti-
cles of a given individual should precede multiple-author articles of which the individual
is senior author. Alphabetize entries with the same first author according to surnames of
succeeding coauthors and then by year, when the names are repeated exactly. Two or more
articles by the same author (or authors) are listed chronologically and then by title. Articles
by the same author or authors published within a single year by adding lowercase letters,
a, b, c, etc., to the year. Example:
Shotwell, C. A., & Smith, G. W. (2001).
Shotwell, O. L. (1998a).
Shotwell, O. L. (1998b).

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-11
 Shotwell, O. L., Goulden, M. L., & Hesseltine, C. W. (1994).
Shotwell, O. L., Hesseltine, C. W., & Goulden, M. L. (1993).
Shotwell, O. L., Hesseltine, C.W., & Goulden, M. L. (1997).
Shotwell, O. L., Hesseltine, C. W., Vandegraft, E. E., & Goulden, M. L. (1992).
Authors
An author can be a person, committee, organization, or other party responsible for
the work. Only when no author can be determined for a document should "anonymous" be
used. For web pages, it is most common to use the name of the organization as the author.
Examples:
University of Wisconsin Extension. (2012). University of Wisconsin automated weath-
er observation network. http://www.soils.wisc.edu/wimnext/awon/awon.html
Food and Agriculture Organization. (1994). Production and trade yearbook, 1993.
FAO.

The author's name is listed by last name first, followed by initials (Smith, J. R.).
For works by more than one author, all authors' names are inverted (Smith, J. R., Li, L.,
& Rosen, C.). For works by two authors, use an ampersand (&) between the names. For
works by 3 to 20 authors, list all authors, with an ampersand before the final author. For
works by more than 20 authors, list the first 19. After the 19th author, use an ellipsis (...)
in place of the author names. Then provide the final author's name. There should be no
more than 20 names (Basso, B., Dumont, B., Maestrini, B., Shcherbak, I., Robertson,
G. P., Porter, J. R., Smith, P., Paustian, K., Grace, P. R., Asseng, S., Bassu, S., Biernath,
C., Boote, K. J., Cammarano, D., De Sanctis, G., Durand, J.‐L., Ewert, F., Gayler, S.,
Hyndman, D. W., ... Rosenzweig, C.).
Titles
Use sentence-style capitalization for titles and subtitles of articles, book chapters,
bulletins, and books, capitalizing the first letter of the first word as well as proper nouns
and adjectives. Capitalize journal titles. Book and journal titles should be italicized.
Acronyms
Use acronyms or commonly understood abbreviations (e.g., SSSA, USEPA,
ICRISAT) for publishers in the reference list and in the text citation. For institutional
authors, it is usual to spell out acronyms and abbreviations. As an exception, acronyms
are used for IPCC and the international agricultural research centers of the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system (www.cgiar.org). Use
postal state abbreviations with publisher locations to identify US states or Canadian
provinces (see Table 2–2).
Style of the Reference List
Some common types of references are shown below. Extensive rules and examples
for references of all kinds are given in the APA Publication Manual (APA, 2020).
Periodicals
Each reference to a periodical publication must include, in order, the author(s), year
of publication, full title of the article, publication in which it appears, and volume and
inclusive page numbers. For publications without consecutive pagination (i.e., each issue

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1-12 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
within the volume begins with page 1), include the issue number. Example: 11(2):5–10.
An article ID may take the place of the page range.

First author, second author, & third author. (Year). Title of article. Journal Title, Vol
no.(issue no.), page range. DOI (Digital Object Identifier)

Journal article without a DOI.

Bordoli, J. M., & Mallarino, A. P. (1998). Deep and shallow banding of phosphorous and
potassium as alternatives to broadcast fertilization for no-till corn. Agronomy Journal,
90, 27–33.
Journal article with a DOI.
Doerge, T. A. (2002). Variable-rate ntirogen management creates opportunities and chal-
lenges for corn producers. Crop Management, 1. https://doi.org/10.1094/cm-2002-
0905-01-RS
Kato, C., Nishimura, T., Imoto, H., & Miyazaki, T. (2011). Predicting soil moisture and
temperature of Andisols under a monsoon climate in Japan. Vadose Zone Journal, 10,
541–551. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2010.0054
Basso, B., Dumont, B., Maestrini, B., Shcherbak, I., Robertson, G. P., Porter, J. R.,
Smith, P., Paustian, K., Grace, P. R., Asseng, S., Bassu, S., Biernath, C., Boote, K.
J., Cammarano, D., De Sanctis, G., Durand, J.‐L., Ewert, F., Gayler, S., Hyndman,
D. W., ... Rosenzweig, C. (2018). Soil organic carbon and nitrogen feedbacks on
crop yields under climate change. Agricultural & Environmental Letters, 3, 180026.
https://doi.org/10.2134/ael2018.05.0026
Article in serial publication.
Brown, P. D., & Morra, M. J. (1997). Control of soil-borne plant pests using glucosinolate-
containing plants. Advances in Agronomy, 61, 167–231.
Edwards, A.C., & Cresser, M.S. (1992). Freezing and its effect on chemical and biological
properties of the soil. Advances in Soil Science, 18, 59–79. [After Vol. 20, Advances
in Soil Science is no longer published as a serial with volume numbers. Treat listings
in later editions as you would a chapter in a book.]
Article not in English with English abstract.
Title translated into English
Rosolem, C. A., Silverio, J. C. O., & Primaves, O. (1982). Foliar fertilization of soy-
bean: II. Effects of NPK and micronutrients. (In Portuguese, with English abstract.)
Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 17, 1559–1562.
Title in original language
Rosolem, C. A., Silverio, J. C. O., & Primaves, O. (1982). Adubação foliar de soja: II.
Efeitos de NPK e micronutrientes. (In Portuguese, with English abstract.) Pesquisa
Agropecuária Brasileira, 17, 1559–1562.
Article not in English and without English abstract (translated title).
He, X., Xie, W., Deng, S., & Lu, S. (1983). The problems and achievements about improv-
ing use of red-yellow soil in China. (In Chinese.) Chinese Journal of Soil Science, 2,
1–4. https://doi.org/10.19336/j.cnki.trtb.1983.02.001

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-13
Articles in press.
For an in-press article, use the current year as the date. If the manuscript has been posted
online ahead of publication, include the DOI.

Author. (Year). Article title. Journal title. DOI link (in press).
Preprint papers.
Include the DOI or other persistent indentifier if one is given. For articles without a DOI,
include the URL.

Al-Halbouni, D., Watson, R. A., Holohan, E. P., Meyer, R., Polom, U., Dos Santos, F. M.,
Comas, X., Alrshdan, H., Krawczyk, C. M., & Dahm, T. (2021). Dynamics of hydro-
logical and geomorphological processes in evaporite karst at the eastern Dead Sea:
A multidisciplinary study. Hydrology and Earth Systems Science Discussions. https://
doi.org/10.5194/hess-2021-37
Huijser, D., Goodman, J., & Brewer, B. J. (2015). Properties of the affine invariant ensemble
sampler in high dimensions. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1509.02230.pdf
Magazine article.
Davenport, C. H. (1981, March 2). Sowing the seeds. Barron’s, p. 10.
Mulla, D. (2021). Trends in satellite remote sensing for precision agriculture. Crops and
Soils, 54(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/crso.20093
Books (including bulletins, reports, multivolume works, series)

Author. (Year). Book title. Publisher.

Brown, J. (1966). Soils of the Okpilak River region, Alaska (CRREL Research Report
188). U.S. Army Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory.
Budavari, S. (Ed.). (1996). The Merck index (12th ed.). Merck.
California Certified Organic Farmers. (1995). California Certified Organic Farmers cer-
tification handbook. CCOF.
Chemical Abstracts Service. (1989). Chemical Abstracts Service source index: 1907–1984
cumulative, plus annual supplements. Chemical Abstracts Service.
Doty, W. T., Amacher, M., & Baker, D. E. (1982). Manual of methods: Soil and envi-
ronmental chemistry laboratory. Department of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State
University.
Dzombak, D. A., & Morel, F. M. M. (1990). Surface complexation modeling: Hydrous
ferric oxide. Wiley.
Fehr, W. R., & Caviness, C. E. (1977). Stages of soybean development (Special Report 80).
Iowa Agricultural and Home Economics Experiment Station, Iowa State University.
Food and Agriculture Organization. (1994). Production and trade yearbook, 1993. FAO.
Goering, H. K., & Van Soest, P. J. (1971). Forage fiber analysis (apparatus, reagents,
procedures, and some applications) (USDA Agriculture Handbook 379). U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Schneiter, A. A. (Ed.). (1997). Sunflower technology and production. ASA, CSSA, and
SSSA.
Snedecor, G. W., & Cochran, W. G. (1989). Statistical methods (8th ed.). Iowa State
University Press.

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1-14 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Soil Survey Staff. (1999). Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making
and interpreting soil surveys (Agriculture Handbook 436, 2nd ed.). U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Southern Cooperative Series. (1983). Reference soil test methods for the southern region of
the United States (Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin 289). Georgia Agricultural
Experiment Station. [Publisher varies as the series rotates among institutions.]
Steel, R. G. D., & Torrie, J. H. (1960). Principles and procedures of statistics, with special
reference to the biological sciences. McGraw-Hill.
Steel, R. G. D., & Torrie, J. H. (1980). Principles and procedures of statistics: A biometri-
cal approach (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Taylor, B. N. (1995). Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST
Special Publication 811). U.S. Government Printing Office.
USEPA. (1981). Process design manual for land treatment of municipal wastewater
(USEPA Report 625/1-77-008, COE EM1110-1-501). U.S. Government Printing
Office.
Westerman, R. L. (Ed.). (1990). Soil testing and plant analysis (3rd ed.). SSSA.
Online Books
Online books usually correspond to printed versions, and the reference style is similar. Use
the DOI if available.

Boverhof, D. R., & Gollapudi, B. B. (Eds.). (2011). Applications of toxicogenomics in

safety evaluation and risk assessment. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118001042
Chapter in a Book
The entry for a chapter or article within a larger work must give the author(s), year,
chapter title, the word "In," any editors, and the publication title, followed by the volume
(for multi­volume works), edition (when more than one has been published), page range,
publisher, and DOI if known.

Author. (Year). Chapter title. In Editor name(s) (Ed.), Book title (page range). Publisher.
DOI
Boutton, T. W. (1991). Stable carbon isotope ratios of natural materials: II. Atmospheric,
terrestrial, marine, and freshwater environments. In D. C. Coleman & B. Fry (Eds.),
Carbon isotope techniques (pp. 173–185). Academic Press.
Buresh, R. J., Smithson, P. C., & Hellums, D. T. (1997). Building soil phosphorus capi-
tal in Africa. In R. J. Buresh et al. (Eds.), Replenishing soil fertility in Africa (pp.
111–149). SSSA. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaspecpub51.c6
Gardner, W. H. (1986). Water content. In A. Klute (Ed.), Methods of soil analysis: Part 1.
Physical and mineralogical methods (2nd ed., pp. 493–544). ASA and SSSA.
Online Chapter in a Book
Casado, M. R., Corstanje, R., Bellamy, P., & Marchant, B. (2013). Issues of sampling
design in wetlands. In R. D. DeLaune et al. (Eds.), Methods in biogeochemistry
of wetlands (pp. 1–19). SSSA. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser10.c1
Conference, Symposium, or Workshop Proceedings and Transactions
An entry for conference proceedings is similar to an entry for a book. Conference
proceedings often have two titles: the title of the book of proceedings and the name of the

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-15
conference or symposum. Capitalize the name of the conference; use sentence style for the
name of the book.
Published proceedings.
Editor. (Year). Title of book: Number and Name of Conference. Publisher.
Faw, W. (Ed.). (1992). Forages '92, grassroots of animal agriculture: 1992 American
Forage Grassland Council Proceedings. AFGC.
Pascale, A. J. (Ed.). (1989). Proceedings of the World Soybean Research Conference IV.
Orientación Gráfica Editora S.R.L.
Wilkinson, D. (Ed.). (1993). Proceedings of the 49th Annual Corn and Sorghum Industry
Research Conference. American Seed Trade Association.
Chapter in a proceedings volume.
Papers published in a proceedings volume are treated much like a book chapter. If only an
abstract of the article appears in the proceedings, insert "[Abstract]" after the article title
and before the period. Include the DOI at the end if one is available.

Dawson, J. C., & Goldringer, I. (2009). Direct or indirect selection in breeding for organic
agriculture. In H. Østergård et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the BioExploit/Eucarpia
Workshop on the Role of Marker Assisted Selection in Breeding Varieties for Organic
Agriculture (pp. 15–18). BioExploit Project.
Golding, K. A., Davidson, D. A., & Wilson, C. A. (2010). Micromorphological evidence
for the use of urban waste as a soil fertiliser in and near to historic Scottish towns. In
R. J. Gilkes & N. Prakongkep (Eds.), Proceedings of the 19th World Congress of Soil
Science, Brisbane, Australia: Soil solutions for a changing world (pp. 12–15). IUSS.
Power, J. F., & Biederbeck, V. O. (1991). Role of cover crops in integrated crop pro-
duction systems. In W. L. Hargrove (Ed.), Cover crops for clean water: The
Proceedings of an International Conference, West Tennessee Experiment Station,
April 9–11, Jackson, Tennessee (pp. 167–174). Soil and Water Conservation Society.
Abstracts.
Cite meeting abstracts only until a more formal publication becomes available.

Caldwell, B. A. (1997). Fatty acid esterase activity in forest soils and ectomycorrhizal mat
communities. In 1997 Agronomy abstracts (p. 223). ASA.
Krischnamurti, G. S. R., & Huang, P. M. (1991, October). The role of Al in Fe(II) trans-
formation. In Abstracts, Annual Meeting, Clay Mineral Society (p. 96). Clay Mineral
Society.
Papers and poster sessions presented at meetings.
Use the following format when citing unpublished conference papers. Include the month
of the meeting. When possible, avoid citing conference papers older than 2 years. If sub-
sequent publication is known, cite the published form.

Author. (Date). Title of paper [Paper or poster presentation]. Conference name, Place of
Conference. DOI or URL
Kaeppler, S., De Leon, N., Sekhon, R., Hansey, C., Buell, C., Lin, H., & Childs, K. (2011,
October 16–19). Expression analysis supporting functional genomics research in

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1-16 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 maize [Paper presentation]. 2011 ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual
Meeting, San Antonio, TX.
Miscellaneous

Dissertations and theses.

Christianson, L. E. (2011). Design and performance of denitrification bioreactors for
agricultural drainage [Doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University]. Iowa State
University Digital Repository. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/10326
Oba, M. (2015). Adsorption selectivity of cations in constrained environments [Master’s
thesis, University of Connecticut]. UCONN Library. https://opencommons.uconn.
edu/gs_theses/781/
Software and software documentation.
References are not needed for common software such as Microsoft Excel and SAS soft-
ware.

Abacus Concepts. (1991). SuperANOVA user’s guide (Release 1.11). Abacus Concepts.
Minitab. (1998). MINITAB 12 [Software]. Minitab.
Map.
Cite a map separately only if it is a stand-alone publication. If there is no author for a map,
do not use "Anonymous." In such cases, the name of the map stands in for the author.
Author. (Year). Map title [map type, e.g., demographic map]. Map number (if included).
Publisher. Notes (e.g., scale).
Patent and plant patent.
Dudeck, A. E. (1995). Bermudagrass plant ‘FHB-135’ (U.S. Plant Patent No. 9030). U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office.
Titcomb, S. T., & Juers, A. A. (1976). Reduced calorie bread and method of making same
(U.S. Patent No. 3,979,523). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Performance and variety test.
Pietsch, D., Gaas, R., Rosenow, D. T., Miller, F., & Peterson, G. C. (1992). Grain sorghum per-
formance tests in Texas: 1991 (Technical Report 92-2). Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station.
Schapaugh, W. T., & Roozeboom, K. L. (1993). 1992 Kansas performance tests with
soybean varieties (Report of Progress 673). Kansas State University.
Tyler, J. M., & Bell, P. P. (1998). Uniform soybean tests, southern states, 1997.
USDA-ARS.
Crochet, W. D. (2011). The uniform soybean tests, northern states: 2010. USDA-ARS.
Standard.
Institution. (Year). Title (Rule number). Publisher.

ASABE (1993). Manure production characteristics (ASABE Standard D384.1). ASABE.

ASTM. (2003). Specification for concrete aggregates (ASTM Standard C33). ASTM
International. https://doi.org/10.1520/C0033-03

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 1-17
 Electronic Sources
Treat electronic sources as you would the same kind of material in print. Start with
the author, date, article or web page title, and further information essential to the online
reference. When citing an entire website, give the URL in text only.
Some electronic sources are the equivalent of personal communications or unpublished
data (e.g., email, an online interview or chat session, or information posted on an individual's
home page). Cite these in the text only as personal communication; include the date (F. Li,
personal communication, January 29, 2019).
Author. This is the organization or person responsible for the web page. The web-
master or contact person for the page is not usually considered the author. If the page's
author is not listed, use the title of page as author.
Date. Three dates are important: (a) the date when the publication was placed on the
internet or was copyrighted, (b) the latest date of any update or revision, and (c) the date
of access if the page's content is likely to change over time.
Title. Book and journal titles are usually clearly stated on a website. For original
content from online sources, other than formally published documents such as journal
articles and books, include as much of the following as can be determined: Author of the
content, date, title or description of the page, website name, and the URL. Citations to
databases should include the URL or preferably, the DOI if one is given. Include the site
name for web pages on websites.
For citing an online document that gives no publication date, use n.d. If the author is
the same as the website name, omit the site name to avoid repetition.

Author. (Year). Title of document. Site name. URL

Rummer, B., Prestemon, J. P., May, D., Miles, P., Vissage, J., McRoberts, R., Liknes, G.,
Shepperd, W. D., Ferguson, D., Elliot, W., Miller, S., Reutebuch, S., Barbour, J.,
Fried, J., Stokes, B., Bilek, E., & Skog, K. (2003). A strategic assessment of forest
biomass and fuel reduction treatments in western states. USDA Forest Service. http://
www.fs.fed.us/research/pdf/Western_final.pdf
Soil Survey Staff. (n.d.). Web soil survey: Soil data mart. USDA-NRCS. http://websoil-
survey.nrcs.usda.gov
USEPA. (2002). National Water Quality Inventory: 2000 report (EPA-841-R-02-001).
http://www.epa.gov/305b/2000report/

Electronic, Non-Internet Sources

It is standard practice to indicate a publication is not in print format by placing after the
title a word that describes the specific nonprint medium. Use brackets, such as [CD].
Watschke, T. L., DiPaola, J. M., & Shepard, D. P. (2012). Turf growth regulation [CD].
CSSA.

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1-18 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Chapter 2. Style
This chapter addresses a few of the more common or troublesome questions of style in
terms of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publication requirements and guidelines. It only inciden-
tally covers English grammar, style, and usage.
To improve the quality of your writing, consult this manual and any of the excellent
books available that cover grammar, punctuation, and other points of English usage (APA,
2020; Burchfield, 2004; Skillin & Gay, 1974; UCP, 2010). The ACS Style Guide (Coghill &
Garson, 2006) and Scientific Style and Format (CSE, 2006) address scientific writing and
usage in general and provide detailed guidelines and examples within the sciences.
Strategies for eliminating awkwardness and cumbersome constructions include
writing short, declarative sentences; keeping subjects and verbs as close together as pos-
sible; and, given a choice, selecting shorter and simpler rather than longer words (try vs.
endeavor, show vs. demonstrate). In addition, a sentence recast in the active voice is often
both shorter and clearer than the passive form.
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Define abbreviations at first mention in the abstract and main text and again in the
tables and figures. Provide an alphabetical list of abbreviations, placed after the abstract.
The common abbreviations in Table 2–1 do not need definition, nor do SI units (Chapter 7)
or chemical element symbols. For commonly used abbreviations and statistics that do not
need definition, see Table 4–1.
Rules for abbreviating and lists of many accepted abbreviations and acronyms are
given in Scientific Style and Format (CSE, 2006, p. 135–140) and in the ACS Style Guide
(Coghill & Garson, 2006, Chapter 10). Acronyms do not have periods; nor do SI unit
symbols. Abbreviations may or may not have periods.
Use abbreviations sparingly. If you do abbreviate, use a standard abbreviation rather than
making up one specific to your paper. If you must devise an abbreviation, use letter groups that
are not already familiar abbreviations for other phrases, that are not identical to units of mea-
sure, and that will not be confused with an element symbol. (For example, do not abbreviate
leaf appearance interval as LAI, even if you are not going to discuss leaf area index).
If possible, avoid using abbreviations to begin a paragraph.
Additional useful points are as follows.
• Abbreviate SI units in numeric expressions; SI unit symbols do not end in a period.
(See Chapter 7.)
• Abbreviate the names of states, provinces, and territories when following a city
name, using the US postal abbreviations (Table 2–2). Otherwise, spell out place
names in full.
• The symbol % is used with numerals. Unlike with other units, the symbol is
repeated with each number in a range or series (e.g., 10%–20%) . Do not use the
word percent with a number.
• In a full date (format: month day, year), spell out the month. Always abbreviate
the month in references and tables. (See also the section on time and dates in
Chapter7.)
• Use the abbreviation or symbol for units only with numeric values. Use the same
form for both singular or plural (e.g., 1 kg; 14 g; 2 h).

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 2-01
TABLE 2–1 These common abbreviations do not need definition. Use may be restricted to use in tables and
figures (T) or with numeric values (N). For statistics symbols and abbreviations, see Table 4–1. For other unit
symbols, see the tables in Chapter 7.
Abbr. Meaning (restriction) Abbr. Meaning (restriction)
a.i. active ingredient GIS geographical information system
asl above sea level (N) GPS global positioning system
avg. average (T) h hour (N)
bce before common era i.d. inside diameter (N)
bp base pair max. maximum (T)
ce common era min minute (N)
CI Cereal Investigation [number] a min. minimum (T)
cM centimorgan no. number
coef. coefficient (T) o.d. outside diameter (N)
conc. concentration (T) PI Plant Introduction, Plant Identification [no.]
Da dalton s second (N)
diam. diameter (N,T) sp., spp. species
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid v/v volume per volume
dry wt. dry weight (N,T) vs. versus
Exp. experiment (N) w/v weight per volume
fresh wt. fresh weight (N,T) w/w weight per weight
g gravity constant

ARS Agricultural Research Service

EU European Union
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USDOE United States Department of Energy
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
USGS United States Geological Survey
a The CI must be followed by a two-letter abbreviation for the applicable cereal genus: CIav for oat, CIho for barley
(Hordeum), CItr for wheat (Triticum), etc.

• Use an uppercase "L" for "liter" when used as a stand-alone unit or with prefixes
(e.g., 15 L, 15 mL).
• At the beginning of a sentence, spell out the numeric value and the unit of measure-
ment that follows (e.g., "Fif­teen liters . . . was added"). Within a sentence, use the
usual numerals and symbols ("15 L . . . was added"). Note the use of singular verb.
• For chemical elements, use the standard symbols or spell out the word. No definition
is needed at first use. Spell out the word at the beginning of a sentence.
• In a series of measurements, give the unit(s) at the end (e.g., 2–10°C; 5, 10, and 20
kg ha−1).
• Use United States as a noun. Use the abbreviation "US" for United States as an adjec-
tive (e.g., US Cotton Belt). You may use "USA" as a noun in tables and titles.
• Abbreviate the genus in a scientific name (i.e., the scientific binomial) of organ-
isms after first mention, except at the beginning of a sentence; always spell out the
specific name or epithet. Abbreviate authorities (used for plants only). For abbrevia-
tions of authorities, follow the form given in your source for the scientific name or
consult Authors of Plant Names (Brummitt & Powell, 1992). For further details, see
Chapter 3 in this manual. See also Appendix A for online resources.

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2-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
TABLE 2–2 Postal abbreviations for states, provinces, and territories in USA, Canada, and Australia.
Area Abbrev. Area Abbrev.
United States
Alabama AL Montana MT
Alaska AK Nebraska NE
Arizona AZ Nevada NV
Arkansas AR New Hampshire NH
California CA New Jersey NJ
Colorado CO New Mexico NM
Connecticut CT New York NY
Delaware DE North Carolina NC
District of Columbia DC North Dakota ND
Florida FL Ohio OH
Georgia GA Oklahoma OK
Hawaii HI Oregon OR
Idaho ID Pennsylvania PA
Illinois IL Puerto Rico PR
Indiana IN Rhode Island RI
Iowa IA South Carolina SC
Kansas KS South Dakota SD
Kentucky KY Tennessee TN
Louisiana LA Texas TX
Maine ME Utah UT
Maryland MD Vermont VT
Massachusetts MA Virginia VA
Michigan MI Washington WA
Minnesota MN West Virginia WV
Mississippi MS Wisconsin WI
Missouri MO Wyoming WY
Canada
Alberta AB Nunavut NU
British Columbia BC Ontario ON
Manitoba MB Prince Edward Island PE
New Brunswick NB Quebec QC
Newfoundland and Labrador NL Saskatchewan SK
Northwest Territories NT Yukon Territory YT
Nova Scotia NS
Australia
Australian Capital Territory ACT South Australia SA
(Canberra) Tasmania TAS
New South Wales NSW Victoria VIC
Northern Territory NT Western Australia WA
Queensland QLD

• Use the abbreviations "lat" and "long" with geographical coordinates (e.g., 30° N
lat; 89°24′04″ N lat; 30° W long). Omit the abbreviations when both coordinates are
given (12°39′ N, 8°00′ W; 27°33′00″ S, 151°58′00″ E). Decimal degrees are allowed.
• Some organizations do not need to be defined in the references and may stand alone
as institutional authors, including IPCC and international agricultural research
centers in the Consultative Group on Agricultural Research (CGIAR; www.cgiar.
org/)—CIAT, CIFOR, CIMMYT, CIP, ICARDA, ICLARM, ICRAF, ICRISAT,

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 2-03
 IFPRI, IITA, ILRI, IBPGR, IPGRI, IRRI, ISNAR, IWMI, and WARDA. Thus, the
text citation "CIMMYT (1988)" would appear in the reference list as "CIMMYT.
(1988)." Alphabetize such abbreviations letter by letter.
SPELLING AND CAPITALIZATION
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2019) is the dictionary
used by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA editing staff regarding spelling, capitalization, and com-
pound terms. Whichever your dictionary, use American spelling instead of British, except
in quotations and reference titles, and choose the first spelling of a word.
The Chicago Manual of Style and the CSE style manual contain chapters on distinc-
tive treatment of words, including hyphenation and compounds (UCP, 2010, Chapter 7;
CSE, 2006, Chapter 6). The ACS Style Guide (Coghill & Garson, 2006) has several help-
ful lists, including the spelling, abbreviation, and presentation of chemical elements and
compounds. An additional resource for specialized terms in the physical and life sciences
is the New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors (Martin, 2009). This book
is not primarily a dictionary of definitions but of usage and style.
The first letter is capitalized in the following cases:
• Regions, sections, or groups of sites commonly associated together (e.g., Corn
Belt, the Mid­west, the South, the West). Do not capitalize the adjectival form (e.g.,
midwestern practices, southern states, western Texas). Note the following distinc-
tion: the southeastern United States, but the US Southeast.
• The first letter of genus and all higher taxa (e.g., family and order), but not lower
taxa (specific name or epithet, subspecies, variety).
• Trademarked names. Trademarks are adjectives and must modify a generic noun. It is
a misuse of a trademark to pluralize it or to derive a verb or noun from it. For ASA,
CSSA, and SSSA publications, omit the various trademark symbols, such as ® and ™.
• Words specified by number, and so treated as proper nouns (e.g., Treatment 1, Day
2, Exp. 3, Year 4, No. 5 [but Paper no. 6]). Exceptions may apply within special
fields (e.g., chromosome 6 and metaphase I).
• The first word after a colon if the colon introduces a quotation, a complete sen-
tence, or a direct question.
• Any title of office immediately preceding a name (SSSA President Jane Smith). Do
not capitalize titles standing alone (e.g., the SSSA president was elected).
If a chemical name to be capitalized (as in titles, or beginning a sentence)
begins with a Greek letter, a numeral, or a prefix in italics or small capitals, leave that
unchanged and capitalize the next letter. Examples: β-1-4-Glucose, p-Coumar­ic acid,
and d-Glyceraldehyde.
Words derived from proper names but now in common usage tend not to be capital-
ized (e.g., paris green, bunsen burner, petri dish; but Erlenmeyer flask). Common names,
races, and market types of crops are not capitalized, even if the name comes from a proper
noun (e.g., bermudagrass, japonica rice, pima cotton, spanish peanut, sudangrass).
Months and days of the week are capitalized; seasons are not.
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation marks help to show the meaning of written speech by grouping words
according to meaning. Too much or too little punctuation slows down the reader, and care-
less punctuation misleads the precise reader without helping anyone else.

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2-04 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 The standard rules of punctuation are adequate for all ASA, CSSA, and SSSA pub-
lications. The APA and ACS style manuals (APA, 2020; Coghill & Garson, 2006) treat
punctuation clearly and comprehensively.
The following rules address usages that often give authors trouble.
• Use a comma before "and" or "or" in a series of three or more items. Examples:
"0.8, 2.1, and 3.9 kg ha−1"; "shoot biomass, root biomass, leaf blade or leaflet
length and width, and plant height."
• Use a semicolon to separate a series of items within a list if any one of them includes
a comma. Example: Treatments in the second fertilizer study were rates of 56, 112,
and 448 kg ha−1 N; 25 and 49 kg ha−1 P; and 47, 93, 139, 186, and 279 kg ha−1 K.
• Punctuation in display lists (where each item starts on a new line) depends on the
content and context. Use no period if all are short, independent phrases. If any one
of the items is a complete sentence, end each item with a period. If the list is func-
tionally part of the introductory sentence, punctuate with commas or semicolons
and a final period, just as you would if the sentence had no line breaks.
• For display lists, bullets or arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) followed by a period for
each item are preferred. For run-in lists in text, lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.) in
parentheses are preferred, although numbers are acceptable.
• Use no comma in dates with only month and year (e.g., May 2000; May 14, 2000).
• Commas and periods come before a closing quotation mark, an asterisk, or a
superscripted footnote number; semicolons and colons come after. Do not double
periods at the end of a quotation: "Once is enough."
• Use single quotes around a cul­tivar name when it follows the Latin name (e.g., Triticum
aestivum L. 'Cheyenne'); you do not need to use single quotes after the word cultivar
(e.g., the cultivar Cheyenne). Place punctuation outside of the single-quote marks. Do
not use cultivar quotes with landraces or experimental lines. With the exception of
Crop Science and Journal of Plant Registrations, single quotes are not needed when
cultivar names are written alone unless their absence would create confusion.
• Use parentheses to indicate equation numbers in display equations. Spell out
"Equation" when referring to equations in the text, e.g., Equation (2).
• For parentheses within parentheses, substitute square brackets for the inner pair.
Example: "(Lloyd-Jones, 1873 [as cited by Andrews, 1996])." Two exceptions in
prose are required in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications:
• Use brackets to enclose scientific names that already contain parentheses, as
in "soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr .] was. . . ." Alternatively, use commas:
"soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., was. . . ."
• For mathematical usage, fences are used in the order {[( )]}. See Chapter 6.
• To form the plural of abbreviations without periods, add a final lowercase s (e.g.,
RFLPs, PIs, SEs). To form plurals of abbreviations with periods, lowercase letters
used as nouns, uppercase letters that could be confused for something else, and
abbreviations or symbols ending in a superscript or subscript, use an apostrophe
before the s. Examples: j's, A's, F2's.
COMPOUND WORDS AND DERIVATIVES
Hyphens, Spaces, and Dashes
A word containing a prefix, suffix, or combining form is a derivative and is most
often written as one word. Compound words used to express an idea different from that

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 2-05
expressed by the separate parts are usually writ­ten as one word. Hyphens and en-dashes
are used to avoid a confusing sequence of letters, a confusing sequence of adjectives, a
jumble of ideas, or possible confusion with a word of the same spelling without the hyphen
(e.g., co-op, as distinct from coop). Com­prehensive rules for compounds are found in the
Chicago Manual of Style (UCP, 2010) and Scientific Style and Format (CSE, 2006).
Most compounds and derivatives fall under these general rules:
• Derivatives are usually written as one word. Examples: antiquality, clockwise,
fourfold (but 10-fold or 1.5-fold), nonadditives, nonsignifi­cant, postdoctoral,
preemergent, reuse, shortwave.
• Where several usages are acceptable, choose one and use it consistently throughout
the manuscript. Example: main stem or mainstem, but not both.
• Use hyphens with prefixes to words that begin with a capital letter and in a few
awkward combinations that bring like vowels together. Examples: un-American,
semi-independent.
• Hyphenate a compound adjective when used before, but not after, the word it modi-
fies. Example: a winter-hardy plant; the plant is winter hardy.
• Use a hyphen after a prefix to a hyphenated adjective. Examples: semi-winter-
hardy plant, non-winter-hardy plant.
• Use a hyphen in a compound adjective that includes a number. Examples: 10-year-
old field, 6-kg samples, 4-mm depth.
• Hyphenate compound modifiers starting with the adverb "well," except when anoth-
er adverb precedes it. Example: well-known method, but very well known method.
• Do not use a hyphen after an adverb formed by adding "-ly" to an adjective.
Example: an intensively cultivated hillside.
• Use a hyphen for compound adjectival expressions as needed for clarity (e.g., "on
a per-gram basis," "winter-grown cereals," but "low molecular weight substance").
• Use an en-dash instead of a hyphen in a compound or prefixed adjective that has a
phrase in one of its parts (and the phrase cannot be hyphenated). Examples: "Avena
sterilis–derived resistance genes"; "pre–Civil War surveys."
• Use an en-dash instead of a hyphen after a superscript or subscript. Examples:
F3–derived; NO3–N (but "nitrate N" when spelled out).
• Use hyphens to join numbers and prefixes in chemical names (e.g., trans-2-bromo-
cyclopentanol). For exceptions, see the ACS Style Guide (Coghill & Garson, 2006,
Chapter 12).
• Use an en-dash between joined nouns of equal importance. Examples: Webster–
Nicollet soil complex; oxidation–reduction potential; Waller–Duncan k ratio; corn–
soybean rotation; Fusarium wilt–root-knot nematode complex.
• As a specialized instance of the previous rule, use an en-dash between two chemi-
cal compounds (e.g., HCl–H2SO4).
• Use an en-dash to indicate a range of numbers. Examples: "p. 23–49."; "Plant
Disease, 66, 172–176"; ; "during the final study years (1997–1999)," "the 1999–
2000 winter wheat growing season". Exception: If either of the numbers is nega-
tive, or is otherwise modified, use the word "to" instead of the dash. Examples:
"(0% to ≤5%)" or "(−5 to 10°C)".
If you cannot or do not wish to distinguish hyphens from en-dashes in your manuscript,
use hyphens throughout. The copyeditors will convert as necessary.

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2-06 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 MISCELLANEOUS POINTS OF USAGE
The following entries address common difficulties in scientific usage.
Affect vs. effect (verb). "To affect" means to act upon something that already exists;
"to effect" means to bring some thing or condition into existence.
Affect vs. effect vs. impact (noun). An "effect" is a result or outcome; an "affect" is an
emotion (the term is used chiefly in psychology); an "impact" is a collision, the force of a col-
lision, or (by extension) a major effect. That is, "impact" is not a neutral equivalent of "effect."
Alternate vs. alternative. Use "alternate" to mean occurring or following by turns,
or alternating in time or space—first one, then the other. Use "alternative" for one of two
or more mutually exclusive possibilities.
Based on. "Based on" can have verbal force ("We based our conclusions on 4 years
of experience") or adjectival force, in a passive sense, modifying a noun or pronoun
(which usually immediately precedes it). Example: "This conclusion is based on four
years of experience" or "Conclusions based on experience may still require testing." To
modify a verb, use other constructions, such as "on the basis of." Avoid: "Based on the
first four years of results, we discarded the original hypothesis." Better: "On the basis of
our results, we discarded the original hypothesis."
Between vs. among (prep.). Use "between" for two entities, "among" for more than two.
British spelling. Except in references and quotations, change British to American
spelling (e.g., "analyse" to "analyze"; "behaviour" to "behavior"; "grey" to "gray"; "mod-
elled" to "modeled").
cf. (Latin confero, compare). Use "cf." sparingly, to mean “see, for a contrasting
view.” For scientific writing, the English "see" and "compare" are preferable.
Compare to vs. compare with (verb + prep.). Use "compare to" for overall like-
nesses and contrasts and for subjective, qualitative comparisons ("Shall I compare thee to
a summer day?" [Shakespeare, Sonnet 18]). Use "compare with" for objective, quantita-
tive comparisons (e.g., the results of the low-P treatment were compared with those of the
high-P treatment). Also, do not be afraid to simplify "more ... compared with" to "more ...
than" (e.g., "more biomass at the second harvest than the first" instead of "more biomass
at the second harvest compared with the first").
Due to (adj. or prep.) vs. because of (prep.). "Due to" as an adjective must modify
a noun or pronoun; as a preposition, however, it is equivalent to "because of" or "owing
to" and can modify a whole clause. Authorities disagree on this usage. A writer wishing to
avoid minor controversy may safely use "because of" instead of "due to" at the beginning
of a sentence or an independent clause.
e.g. (Latin exempli gratia, for example) vs. i.e. (Latin id est, that is). Use "e.g." to
mean "for example"; use "i.e." to mean "that is." Use the abbreviated forms only in paren-
theses; otherwise, use the English words.
Ensure vs. insure (verb). Use "ensure" to mean "make certain that a desired outcome
occurs." Use "insure" to mean "protect" against monetary loss (as in an insurance policy).
Further vs. farther (adj. or adv.). "Further" means in addition or to a greater extent;
"farther" implies distance in space or time.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 2-07
 Geographical names. Use common English equivalents of place names where such
exist (e.g., Rome, not Roma; Munich, not München; Mexico City, not México; but Buenos
Aires, Beijing).
Percent vs. percentage vs. percentage point. "Percent" is used with numeric values
and is spelled out only at the beginning of a sentence. "Percentage" describes such a value
and is always spelled out. "Percentage point" is used with numeric values and refers to a
step of 1% in a percentage value; it is treated as a word, not a unit, and so is not abbrevi-
ated. Examples: "Grain fill was 20%"; "Nine percent of the plants"; "the percentage of
grain fill"; "was reduced by 1.2 percentage points."
Principal (adj.) vs. principle (noun). Use "principal" to mean foremost, chief, main;
use "principle" to mean a tenet or belief.
Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses (that; which). Generally, "that" introduces
a restrictive clause, one that gives information essential to the meaning of the sentence;
"which" may also do so, but to be read as restrictive, "which" must not be preceded by
a comma. Examples: "Only soil samples that contained >30% clay were tested." "Those
samples which were rejected for testing were stored for use in a separate study." If in
such sentences the restrictive "that" clause were omitted, essential meaning would be
lost.
"Which" introduces a nonrestrictive clause, one that gives only incidental, supple-
mental information. Examples: "The soil samples, which had been stored in a rain shelter,
were tested for clay content." "The rejected samples, which received no further treatment,
were stored for use in a separate study." If in such a sentence the nonrestrictive "which"
clause were removed, the basic statement remains.
Because the difference in meaning between restrictive "that" or "which" and nonre-
strictive "which" is signaled by only a comma, we suggest following a simple rule: Use
"that" with no preceding comma when the added phrase is restrictive; use "which" with a
preceding comma when the added phrase is nonrestrictive.
Some troublesome singulars. Apparatus (pl. apparatuses or apparatus); criterion
(pl., criteria); medium (pl., media); phenomenon (pl., phenomena); species (pl., species).
Subject–verb agreement. The cause for errors in subject–verb agreement is often con-
fusion about the number of the subject. Two singular nouns joined by "and" require a plural
verb unless the two nouns function as a single entity (e.g., "research and development").
When two or more nouns are joined by "or," the verb takes the number of the closest subject.
Collective nouns take a singular verb when the group as a whole is meant (usually preceded
by "the") (e.g., "The series of experiements was...."; "A series of experiments were....").
Units of measure should be treated as collective nouns that take a singular verb:
• Six milliliters of the solution was....
• After 3 h, 6 mL of the solution was....
Use vs. employ (verb). "Use" is the simpler word, and neutral. "Employ" carries
additional connotations, as of advantageous use or hiring for wages.
Use vs. utilize (verb). The meanings are not identical. Use "utilize" (meaning "to
turn to practical use") only to indicate that some unexpected use was found for an object
or procedure ("kerosene tins utilized as champagne glasses").

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2-08 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 Using. The participle "using" must modify the agent of the action, and the agent must
be expressed. People (and experiments) use, but plants and pieces of equipment do not. A
passive sentence such as "the samples were oven-dried using the larger oven" implies "by
us" (this grammatical construction is called subject understood), but in scientific writing
an explicit statement is far preferable. Recast the sentence in the active voice ("We oven
dried the samples using..."). Alternatively, change "using" to "with" for pieces of equip-
ment or materials and "by" for procedures.
Words of foreign origin. Foreign words in common usage in English and that appear
in the main section of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (e.g., ad hoc, a priori, et al.,
in situ, in vitro, in vivo, per se, vice versa, and vs.) are considered to have been incorporated
into the language. They are thus considered English words and are set in roman type, not
italic. Do not hyphenate such foreign words, even in adjectival position.
/ (slash or solidus). With a few exceptions (e.g., and/or), reserve the slash for math-
ematical division and ratios. To express a combination of ideas, "and" or "or" can usually
be substituted for the slash. Example: For phrase "Appearance of collar/ligule of first
leaf," change the wording to "collar or ligule," "collar and ligule," or "collar and/or ligule."
GREEK LETTERS
The Greek alphabet, showing both uppercase and lowercase letters, is given below.
Modifications of a few of these letters may be acceptable, but the ones given here should
be used insofar as possible.
Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower
case case case case case case
alpha A a iota I i rho R r
beta B b kappa K k sigma S s, V
gamma G g lambda L l tau T t
delta D d mu M µ upsilon Υ u
epsilon E e nu N n phi F f, j
zeta Z z xi Ξ x chi C c
eta H h omicron O o psi Y y
theta Q q, J pi P p omega W w

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 2-09
Chapter 3. Specialized Terminologies
The specialized vocabulary used in various scientific disciplines has precise meaning to
those engaged in that discipline but occasionally a different meaning to scientists practic-
ing a different discipline.
This manual should be used as a primary source for conventions and style in all ASA,
CSSA, and SSSA publications. For style and formatting, ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals for
the most part follow Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA,
2020). Other style manuals supplement this manual, including Scientific Style and Format
(CSE, 2006), the ACS Style Guide (Coghill & Garson, 2006), and the US Government
Printing Office Style Manual, 2008 (USGPO, 2008). Authors are also encouraged to look at
recent articles in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals for the general style and format used.
Except as new terminology itself forms the content of a paper (as in reports on gene
names for a given crop, or proposals for new evaluation scales), authors should avoid mak-
ing up new terms. If new developments seem to call for new terms, authors should still
consult others who work in the field in question before trying to devise a new terminol-
ogy. It is also wise to do a literature search for related materials published by the Societies
and elsewhere to see if a consensus on terminology exists or is emerging. In some cases,
simply consulting a good dictionary, or the chapters on specialized terms in the major
scientific style manuals, is enough to resolve a terminology question.
A number of committees of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA have studied terminology in
specialized fields and in many cases have indicated a preference.
CROP SCIENCE GLOSSARY
The Glossary of Crop Science Terms is available on the CSSA website (www.crops.
org/publications/crops-glossary).
Earlier lists of terms compiled by various committees on crop terminology were pub-
lished in Crop Science (Leonard et al., 1968; Shibles, 1976). These reports cite relevant
articles and lists published in related fields and include previously published reports issued
by earlier committees. In addition, letters in the journal may comment on various aspects
of terminology (e.g., Dybing, 1977).
SOIL SCIENCE GLOSSARY
The Glossary of Soil Science Terms is available both in hard copy (SSSA, 2008) and
on the SSSA website (www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary). It contains definitions of
more than 1800 terms, a procedural guide for tillage terminology, an outline of the US soil
classification system, and the designations for soil horizons and layers. Obsolete terms are
noted as such.
SPECIALIZED TERMINOLOGY
Crop Growth Staging Scales
The CSSA Ad Hoc Committee on Growth Staging for CSSA Publications (C392.1)
in 1996 developed a list of growth staging scales for society publications. The committee
recommends that staging scales be used in all ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications when
referring to the morphological development stage of plants. References for crop-specific
scales recommended by the committee for some major crops are listed in Table 3–1. This
list is not intended to include all scales in the literature, but rather the most recent versions
for some major crops. If no staging scale exists for a crop, it is recommended that the
BBCH (BASF–Bayer–Ciba-Geigy–Hoechst) scale be used (Lancashire et al., 1991).

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 3-01
 Soil Identification
All soils discussed in publications of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA should be identified
according to the US soil taxonomic system or World Reference Base for Soil Resources the
first time each soil is mentioned. Taxonomic identification given in the abstract need not
be repeated in the text. If possible, give the series name in addition to the family name. If
the series name is not known, give the family name. If the family name is not known, give
the subgroup or a higher category name. At a minimum, specify the great group (the one-
word name that is the third-highest taxon, beneath suborder and order; e.g., Dystroxerepts,
Fragiudalfs, Medisaprists, Natrargids).
The descriptive name may be in the singular or plural, according to meaning. Use
the singular form if the reference is to a single pedon or polypedon or to a single class.
Examples:
• The soil material used in this study was collected from the A horizon of a Brookston
pedon (a fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Argiaquoll).
• A Cisne soil, fine, smectitic, mesic Vertic Albaqualf, was described and sampled at
this site.
• Criteria for the Typic Hapludult subgroup were examined.
• Ontario soils, in the fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Glossoboric Hapludalf family, were
studied in greater detail.
Use the plural form in reference to several or all of the soils (polypedons) of a class.
Examples:
• Soils of the Ramona series (fine-loamy, mixed, thermic Typic Haploxeralfs) were
treated.
• All soils used in the experiments are Typic Dystrochrepts.

TABLE 3–1 Some recommended staging scales and sources for ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications.
Recommendations are as developed by the Ad Hoc Committee on Growth Staging for CSSA publications
(C392.1) in 1996.
Crop Citation
Alfalfa Kalu & Fick (1981)
Fick & Mueller (1989) a
Corn Ritchie et al. (1996)
Cool-season forage grasses Haun (1973)
Moore et al. (1991)
Cotton Elsner et al. (1979)
Red clover Ohlsson & Wedin (1989)
Small-grain cereals Haun (1973)
Zadoks et al. (1974)
Tottman (1987) b
Sorghum Vanderlip & Reeves (1972)
Soybean Fehr & Caviness (1977)
Ritchie et al. (1994) c
Stoloniferous grasses West (1990)
Sunflower Schneiter & Miller (1981)
Warm-season forage grasses Moore et al. (1991)
Sanderson (1992)
All crops and weeds Lancashire et al. (1991) d
a Enhancement of Kalu & Fick (1981). b Enhancement of Zadoks et al. (1974). c Enhancement of Fehr &
Caviness (1977). d The BBCH (BASF–Bayer–Ciba-Geigy–Hoechst) scale as presented by Lancashire et al.
(1991) can be used for all other crops and weeds.

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3-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 For field experiments, the soil present in the plots or fields should be identified,
preferably as phases of soil series so that surface texture and slope are known in addition
to profile properties. Any dissimilar inclusions that are present also should be named and
their extent suggested. It also may be appropriate to name and briefly describe the common
soils of the area surrounding the study site. Use the present tense if the soil still exists or
reasonably is thought to still exist. Example:
The 5-ha study area is mapped as Yolo silt loam, 0%–2% slopes. The Yolo soils are
fine-silty, mixed, nonacid, thermic Typic Xerorthents. Small areas of Cortina very
gravelly sandy loam soils (loamy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, nonacid, thermic
Typic Xerofluvents) occupy about 10% of the study area.
The US taxonomic system should be identified as the US soil taxonomy at first use,
after which it may be referred to as Soil Taxonomy. Amendments to Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 1999) have been issued in the National Soil Survey Handbook (https://www.
nrcs.usda.gov/resources/guides-and-instructions/national-soil-survey-handbook) and in
Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). Additional issues of the handbook and
new versions of the keys manual can be expected. Updated versions of these and other
resources are available online at the Soil Survey home page (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/survey/).
If possible, consult with members of the National Cooperative Soil Survey
(NCSS) and check the current USDA-NRCS official soil series descriptions (https://soil-
series.sc.egov.usda.gov/osdname.aspx) for proper identification of soil designations and
nomenclature for soil horizons.
For soils outside the United States, authors are encouraged to give soil identifica-
tion according to Soil Taxonomy in addition to the identification in their national system.
Example:
Soil at the site is a Hythe clay loam, classified as a fine, montmorillonitic, frigid
Mollic Cryoboralf in the USDA classification (Soil Survey Staff, 1994) and a Gray
Luvisol in the Canadian classification (Canada Soil Survey Committee, 1978).
Munsell Color Notation
Munsell color notations may be used alone in text, tables, or figures. First mention
in the abstract or text may be accompanied by the appropriate word descriptions in paren-
theses, thus: 10YR 5/4 (yellowish brown).
Light Measurements and Photosynthesis
Publications of the ASA, CSSA, and SSSA use the radiometric system with SI units
denoting the energy or the quantum content of the radiation used by plants. (See also
Chapter 7.)
Terms recommended by the Committee on Crop Terminology for the expression of
photosynthetic energy and photosynthetic capacity are as defined by Shibles (1976). These
terms, with their suggested abbreviations and units, are as follows.1
• Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR): radiation in the 400-to-700-nm wave-
band.
1Since 1976, the Societies have abandoned the einstein (a name for 1 mole of photons) in favor of the mole.
Note that in the original Shibles (1976) article, the typographic errors “nE” and “nmol” are to be read as µE
and µmol.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 3-03
 • Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD): the number of photons in the 400-to-
700-nm waveband incident per unit time on a unit surface. Suggested units:
µmol m−2 s−1.
• Photosynthetic irradiance (PI): the radiant energy in the 400-to-700-nm waveband
incident per unit time on a unit surface. Suggested units: W m−2.
• Apparent photosynthesis (AP): photosynthesis estimated indirectly and uncor-
rected for respiratory activity. The term apparent photosynthesis is preferred to net
photosynthesis or net assimilation because the latter terms imply measurement of
a photosynthetic product.
• CO2 exchange rate (CER): The net rate of carbon dioxide diffusion from (−) or to
(+) an entity, such as a plant tissue, organ or canopy, a soil surface, etc. Suggested
units: µmol cm−2 s−1. (Use this term instead of net CO2 exchange except in the rare
instance when the measurement does not involve a rate.)
Reporting PAR in photon units (PPFD) is preferred to energy units (PI), but both are
acceptable. Because irradiance is specifically defined in energy units (W), the term cannot
be applied to photon flux density.
Abandoned as a term is light intensity to denote the amount of light incident on a
surface (Dybing, 1977). The Crop Science editorial board has discontinued the use of the
photometric system and units scaled to the response of the human eye.
SPECIALIZED TERMINOLOGY IN RELATED FIELDS
Biology
Identify all organisms at first mention. For plants, pathogens, and insects and related
pests, give both a common name and the scientific name. For plants, include the authority.
Example:
Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] was. . . .
The scientific name, also known as the Latin name, is the two-part genus–species bino-
mial—or, for subspecies and varieties, the trinomial. For abbreviations of authorities, the
primary source is Authors of Plant Names by Brummitt and Powell (1992). Common
names, if they exist and are not in dispute, are used in titles of articles, chapters, and books.
For the names of crops, use the singular. Although the ordinary English preference
is for terms such as oats, beans, and peas, the formal name of a crop defined by a single
genus or species is given in the singular: oat, bean, pea, soybean, and so forth. This rule
applies even when discussing multiple types of a crop.
For common names that are taxonomically inaccurate, join the parts into a single
word. For example, writing "pigeonpea" and "chickpea" as one word indicates that these
are not Pisum species; similarly, the use of a hyphen in the common name indicates that
Douglas-fir is not an Abies species.
Correct scientific names are in accordance with published rules. For plants, the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (McNeill et al., 2006; http://ibot.sav.
sk/icbn/main.htm) governs; updates appear in Regnum Vegetabile as mandated by the
International Botanical Congress, which meets every six years. For cultivated plants,
the rules of nomenclature are published as the International Code of Nomenclature for
Cultivated Plants (Brickell et al., 2016). A practical guide to these codes and to the stan-
dards for animals, bacteria, and viruses is published in Scientific Style and Format (CSE,
2006, Chapters 21–24).

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3-04 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 The scientific names for larger animals (e.g., sheep) do not need to be given unless
germane to the article and/or there may be confusion as to what animal is being discussed.
Virus species do not have Latin names, but the name of the virus (as approved by the
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses) should be written in italics, with the
first word capitalized (e.g., Tomato spotted wilt virus).
To find up-to-date scientific names, consult one of the major online databases:
• https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx for plants,
especially economic plants (USDA National Plant Germplasm System, Germplasm
Resources Information Network [GRIN] database)
• https://plants.usda.gov for plants, especially noncrop plants (USDA-NRCS)
• https://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ for fungi (USDA Systematic Botany and
Mycology Laboratory; Farr & Rossman, 2017)
• https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/resources/commonnames/Pages/default.aspx for
plant disease names (American Phytopathological Society)
• http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/ for insect scientific names (Texas A&M University)
• https://ictv.global/taxonomy (International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)
The International Plant Names Index, a product of a collaboration between the Royal
Gardens, Kew, the Harvard University Herbaria, and Australian National Herbarium, is
available online (https://www.ipni.org/). (This replaces the Kew Index.)
Standard printed reference works for nomenclature include Hortus III (Bailey, 1976)
and World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference (Wiersema & León, 1999) for plants;
Farr et al. (1989) for fungi; Bergey’s manual (Garrity et al., 2001–2011) for bacteria; and,
for viruses, Büchen-Osmond (2003).
The terms cultivar and variety are synonymous as applied to names of cultivated
plants, but cultivar is strongly preferred to avoid confusing cultivated variety (a term of
convenience) with botanical variety (a subtaxon to species).
Crop cultivars must be identified as such at first mention in abstract or text. This
identification may be given in one of the following two ways:
1. By single quotation marks inside punctuation. Example: ‘Vernal’ al­falfa or
Medicago sativa L. ‘Vernal’.
2. By use of the word cultivar. Example: the cultivar Vernal.
Journal of Plant Registrations publishes articles on registered cultivars, germplasms,
parental lines, genetic stocks, and mapping populations. Information on these registrations
is also available from the GRIN database (https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/search.
aspx), usually with some additional narrative. The database entries include pending regis-
trations and are linked to plant variety protection status.
Citing Genetic Material
Authors of CSSA publications must cite plant introductions, as well as registered cul-
tivars, germplasm, parental lines, and genetic stocks when they are mentioned in the text
of the Introduction, Discussion, or Characteristics section of research papers. Such genetic
materials must also be cited when they are used to develop unreleased genetic populations
that are the focus of the research paper, unless the development of the population can be
cited more directly. Authors are encouraged to cite the Journal of Plant Registrations if
possible. Other sources for citation information include GRIN, maintained by the USDA.
Registrations published in Crop Science and the Journal of Plant Registrations are indexed

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 3-05
on the GRIN website at https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/query/query.aspx. A gen-
eral search in GRIN is available at https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/search.aspx.
Reference Examples
Lewis, J. M., Siler, L., Souza, E., Ng, P. K. W., Dong, Y., Brown-Guedira, G., Jiang,
G.-L., & Ward, R. W. (2010). Registration of ‘Ambassador’ wheat. Journal of Plant
Registrations 4, 195–204. https://doi.org/10.3198/jpr2009.05.0243crc
Germplasm Resources Information Network. (1993). Germplasm Resources
Information Network (GRIN) database. Festuca arundinacea Schreb. POACEAE
‘Maximize’. USDA-ARS. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/accessiondetail.
aspx?id=1444051
Genetics and Molecular and Cell Biology
Genes are named according to established conventions, which vary in part among
crops. As an example, a standard for cotton is Kohel (1973). Many of these are summa-
rized in Scientific Style and Format (CSE, 2006, p. 298–312); see also the entries for gene
and genotype in the New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors (Martin,
2009). Check with an expert in your field to find the appropriate published standards,
including updates. Accepted names of genes are set in italics and may be modified with
letters or numbers (with or without superscripts, with or without italics). Proposed names
follow the conventions for the crop in question but are set in roman type.
Use italics for the variables in ploidy formulas (e.g., 2n = 2x = 42).
Spell out amino acids in text, without capitalization. In formulas and sequences, use
the abbreviations shown in Table 3–2.
For enzymes, follow nomenclature for name and number (Webb, 1992).
For genetics, the CSE manual (CSE, 2006) is an excellent guide to style for special-
ized terms and usages in molecular and cell biology, as is the New Oxford Dictionary for
Scientific Writers and Editors (Martin, 2009). The Oxford book gives, for example, com-
plete rules for names of restriction enzymes: three letters in italics to identify the source
bacterium (e.g., Hin for Haemophilus influenzae, or Bam for Bacillus amyloliquefaciens),
then letters in roman type to indicate the strain (e.g., d or H), then capital roman numerals
to indicate the type of enzyme (e.g., I, II, or III), all leading to characteristic names such
as HindIII (for enzyme III from strain d of H. influenzae) or BamHI (for enzyme I from
strain H of B. amyloliquefaciens).
Chemistry
You may use chemical symbols instead of words for elements, ions, or compounds,
except at the beginning of a sentence. These symbols do not have to be defined the first
time they are used. Where the representation is general and the chemical species is not
specified, do not indicate the ionic charge (e.g., Ca, Fe, K, NH4, NO3, SO4, and PO4).
Whenever a specific ion of known valence state is described in a manuscript, indicate
the charge in superscripts as the charge number followed by a plus (+) or minus (−) sign;
where the charge number is 1, use only the sign (e.g., Ca2+, NH4+, NO3−). Where the oxida-
tion state is not obvious in a formula or where the oxidation state is known and is impor-
tant, it should be designated by a roman numeral in parentheses; for example, Fe(II).
The amounts and proportions of fertilizer nutrient elements must be expressed in
terms of the elements or in other ways as needed for theoretical purposes. The amounts or
proportions of the oxide forms (P2O5, K2O, etc.) may also be included, in parentheses.

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3-06 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 You may use the common or generic name of a chemical (e.g., atrazine, 2,4-D, etc.).
If germane to the article, give the full chemical names for compounds at first mention in
the text. (If many names need mention, they may be listed in a table instead of parentheti-
cally throughout the text.) Examples:
atrazine [6-chloro-N-ethyl-N′-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine]
cyanazine {2-[[4-chloro-6-(ethylamino)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl] amino]-2-methyl­pro­
panenitrile}
Use the most up to date chemical names available. Trade names should be avoided when-
ever possible. If it is necessary to use a trade name, it should be capitalized and spelled
out as specified by the trademark owner. Omit the various trademark symbols, such as ®
and ™.
In the United States and Canada, the authority for names of chemical compounds is
Chemical Abstracts and its indexes. The American Chemical Society’s ACS Style Guide
(Coghill & Garson, 2006) and the Council of Science Editors’ Scientific Style and Format
(CSE, 2006) contain additional details on nomenclature in chemistry and biochemistry.
Publications of the American Chemical Society’s committee on nomenclature and the
nomenclature commissions of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) are available through Chemical Abstracts Service, Columbus, OH.
Chapter 7 of this manual has further information regarding SI units and concentration.
Information on pesticides and adjuvants is found in the Herbicide Handbook of the
Weed Science Society of America (Ahrens, 1994), the Crop Protection Handbook (Meister,
current edition), and the British Crop Protection Society’s Pesticide Manual: A Worldwide
Compendium (Tomlin, 2011). See also the Merck Index (O'Neil, 2006, or current edition).
The chemical names of the organic substances used for pesticides may include
locants and descriptors consisting of numerals, letters (italic, roman, small-capital, or
TABLE 3–2 Amino acids and their abbreviations.
Amino acid Long abbreviation Short abbreviation
Alanine Ala A
Arginine Arg R
Asparagine Asn N
Aspartic acid Asp D
Cysteine Cys C
Glutamic acid Glu E
Glutamine Gln Q
Glycine Gly G
Histidine His H
Isoleucine Ile I
Leucine Leu L
Lysine Lys K
Methionine Met M
Phenylalanine Phe F
Proline Pro P
Serine Ser S
Threonine Thr T
Tryptophan Trp W
Tyrosine Tyr Y
Valine Val V

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 3-07
Greek letters), symbols, and words in various combinations. Below is a selection of com-
mon usages:
• Use italics for the prefixes anti, asym, c, cis, cyclo, d, endo, exo, l, m, n, o, p, r, s,
sec, t, tert, and trans. Do not capitalize these prefixes, even at the beginning of a
sentence or in a title.
• Use italics for the capitalized prefixes R, R*, S, S*, E, and Z and enclose them in
parentheses.
• Use italics for symbols of chemical elements indicating ligation or attachment to
an atom (e.g., O, P, N, S) or when indicating added hydrogen (H).
• Use Greek letters to denote position or stereochemistry (e.g., a-amino acids).
• Enclose the stereochemistry prefixes for plus and minus in parentheses: (+), (−),
and (±).
• Use roman (regular) type for multiplying prefixes (e.g., hemi, mono, di, tri, deca;
semi, uni, sesqui, bi, ter, deci; bis, tris, decakis).
For a full treatment with examples, including details of punctuation and capitalization in
various contexts, see the ACS Style Guide (Coghill & Garson, 2006, Chapter 12).

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3-08 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Chapter 4. Statistical Design and Analysis
Readers of scientific publications must be able to understand how the authors designed
and conducted their studies so that the results can be judged for validity and also serve
as a basis for the design of future research. Research studies include both controlled
experimentation and observational studies. Analogous design issues arise for both types
of studies. Research design may involve a design for imposing different treatments. It may
also be a design for describing and improving our knowledge of how different physical,
chemical, and biological processes occur within the landscape. Such studies may be obser-
vational in nature without imposed treatments.
The selection of a particular statistical method and its appropriateness depend on the
questions or information sought, the validity of theoretical assumptions, the adequacy of
the sampling design, and the type, quantity, and quality of the observations. The report-
ing of the results from each analysis should include a brief description of the statistical
method and a literature citation providing its full detail, verification of the degree to which
assumptions have been met, and complete descriptions of sampling design and experimen-
tal observations in relation to the efficacy of the statistical analysis. In all cases, a measure
of the statistical confidence should be reported and interpreted in relation to the question
answered or conclusion reached by the authors.
TREATMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Designing a controlled experiment requires two components: treatment design and
experimental design. Treatment design includes the factors of interest, the levels of each
factor, the relationship among the factors (e.g., a factorial treatment structure), and the
selection of blocking variables and covariates. Experimental design refers to the method
of arranging the experimental units and the method of assigning treatments to the units.
Included should be any information about blocking, multiple experimental unit sizes (e.g.,
in split and strip plots), the number of sites and years or independent runs of the experi-
ment, the number of replicates, a description of conditions at field sites and in greenhouse
or controlled environmental chambers, and how measurements were made for specific
traits. In studies where the experimental units and observational or sampling units were
not the same, each should be clearly identified. The number of experimental units used and
the number of samples taken from each unit should be clear to the reader.
The treatment and experimental designs dictate the proper method of statistical
analysis and the basis for assessing the precision of the treatment means. A measure of the
precision achieved, either as a standard error or a confidence interval, should be reported
for all data on which conclusions are drawn.
SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL STATISTICAL ANALYSES
Data observed at different points in space and/or time on the same experimental
material are often correlated. Many methods of statistical analysis are available for exam-
ining such data. For observations that are temporarily or spatially independent, parametric
and nonparametric statistical methods are available. For those that manifest temporal or
spatial dependence, methods derived from regionalized variable analysis and applied time
series may be selected.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 4-01
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
There are a number of widely used and accepted abbreviations in statistics. Those
given in Table 4–1 do not require definition in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications.
However, the use of a particular symbol without definition may lead to confusion or mis-
understanding. For example, in statistical methods and experimental design textbooks,
symbols used for the number of blocks in a randomized complete block design include r, b,
J, and n. In some cases, the same symbol may be used for more than one purpose. In such
cases, the meaning can usually be understood from the context. For example, β is used
almost universally to represent the probability of a Type II error in hypothesis testing and
is commonly used to represent population regression coefficients. If there is any doubt as
to whether a symbol's meaning will be clear to the reader, it is best to define the symbol.

TABLE 4–1 Some widely used statistical abbreviations and symbols.

Abbreviation or
symbol a Explanation
ANOVA Analysis of variance
b (β) Regression coefficient
CV Coefficient of variation
df Degrees of freedom
F Snedecor's F statistic
LSD Fisher's least significant difference
n Sample size
P, p probability
r (ρ) Correlation coefficient
r2 Coefficient of determination
R2 Coefficient of multiple determination
RMSD Root mean square deviation
RMSE Root mean square error
s, σ, SD Standard deviation
s2 (σ2) Variance
SE Standard error
sx– (σx–), SEM Standard error of the mean
t Student distribution (Student t test)
x– (µ) Arithmetic mean
α Probability of a Type I error
β Probability of a Type II error
χ2 Chi-square statistic
Note: In addition, the symbols *, **, and *** are used to show significance at the α = 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 lev-
els, respectively. Significance at other levels is designated by additional footnotes, using other symbols (e.g.,
†, ‡, §, ¶, etc.).
a Symbols in parentheses are for the population analog of the corresponding sample quantity.

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4-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Chapter 5. Tables and Figures
Tables and figures are an integral part of a well-written scientific paper. The bulk of the
detailed information in a paper is typically presented in its tables. Many of the descriptions
and basic concepts, key natural trends, key discoveries, and some of the conclusions are
presented in figures. As you prepare your article, consider whether a figure or a table is
more appropriate.
• If the text is crowded with detail, especially quantitative detail, consider creating
a table. Do not overload the text with information that could be presented better
in a table.
• Consolidate similar information into one table to let the reader compare easily so
that the reader does not have to search for related information.
• If a table has only a few rows and columns, try stating the findings in a few sen-
tences. Information in small tables can often be presented better in the text.
• Decide whether a difficult prose explanation could be better described with a
figure.
• Does your figure show more than could be said in a few well-chosen words? A
figure is not always better.
Both tables and figures are used to support conclusions or illustrate concepts, but
they have essential differences in purpose. Tables present numbers for comparison with
other numbers or summarize or define concepts, terms, or other details of a study. Graphs
reveal trends or delineate selected features. Sometimes the two purposes overlap, but they
rarely substitute for one another. Data presented in tables should not be duplicated in
graphs, and vice versa.
Readers often study tables and figures before they read the text. Therefore, each table
and figure should stand alone, complete and informative in itself.
TABLES
Tables are often used for reporting extensive numerical data in an organized manner.
They should be self-explanatory. Number the tables in the order in which they are cited in
the text.
Guidelines for Preparing Tables
Follow these guidelines to ensure that your tables will be prepared efficiently and
accurately for typesetting, with little chance of introduced errors.
• Use Microsoft Word's table feature when creating a table. That is, the table that you
create should have defined cells. DO NOT create tables by using the space bar and/
or tab keys. Do not submit tables in Microsoft Excel.
• Do not use the enter key within the body of the table. Instead, separate data hori-
zontally with a new row.
• Do not insert blank columns or rows.
• Asterisks or letters next to values indicating statistical significance should appear
in the same cell as the value, not an adjacent cell (i.e., they should not have their
own column).
• Spell out abbreviations at first mention in tables, even if they have already been
defined in the text. The reader should be able to understand the table content with-
out referring back to the text.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 5-1
 • To highlight individual values in tables, you may use boldface type, italic type, or
underlining. Any highlighting must have a supplemental note of explanation; attach
the note symbol to the first value that is so highlighted. Do not use color or shading.
Structure of a Table
The principal parts of a table are shown in Table 5–1. The remaining tables in this
chapter show the basic structure as adapted for different types of information: a typical
table (Table 5–2), a table with units varying row to row (Table 5–3), a table with both
measured values and analysis of variance (Table 5–4), and a table without numeric data
(Table 5–5). The examples are drawn from published papers; commentary for this manual
is added in italics.
Keep table titles brief but sufficiently detailed to explain the data included. Typically,
specify the crop or soil involved, the major variables presented, and the place and year.
Do not include units of measurement; these belong in a row of their own, just beneath the
column headings, or in row headings.
Each column should have a heading describing the material below it. Give units in
the first row below the headings. When the same units apply to adjacent columns, state the
unit only once and use em dashes on each side of the unit to indicate how many columns
are included. (See Tables 5–2 and 5–4 for examples.)
The column headings should reflect the type of data shown. That is, it is not enough
to state “Yield of corn.” in the table title and then label columns only with 1994, 1995,
and 1996, with a units row showing Mg ha−1. Add a spanner heading, "Yield," above the
year headings.
When the type of data varies row to row, put the units at the end of the stub entry
describing the row. Separate the units from the row descriptor with a comma or parenthe-
ses. The column headings in this kind of table do not reflect the values shown but indicate
some other grouping, such as time or place or experimental conditions.

TABLE 5–1 Table titles should be understandable to someone who has not read the text. The table below
shows the main components of a typical table in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications.
Spanner head b
Column heading for stub a Subspanner head c
Column Column Column Column
heading heading heading d heading e
unit f unit ————————— unit ————————
(Stub) (Field)
Independent line g
Stub heading
Row heading value 1 value 2* value 3*** value 4*
   Row subheading h value 5 value 6** value 7** value 8*
Row heading value 9 value 10* value 11** value 12*
Independent line i
Stub heading
Row heading value 13 value 14 value15** value 16

Note: General note (applies to the table as a whole).

Abbreviations: List of abbreviations used in the table.
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, etc. Specific notes (on one line or each starting on a new line if that improves readability).

*Significant at the 0.05 probability level. **Significant at the 0.01 probability level. ***Significant at the
0.001 probability level.

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5-2 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Table 5–2 is an example of a typical table that shows the consistent relation of the uppermost spanner heading
to the units and the data values. Adapted from Saseendran et al. (1998; Agronomy Journal 90, pp. 185–190).
TABLE 5–2 Grain and straw yield in 1993 for ‘Jaya’ rice under rainfed conditions at Kerala Agricultural
University in India, as measured and as calculated using CERES-Rice v3.0.
Grain yield Straw yield
Date
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
————————————— kg ha−1 —————————————
June 8 6100 5689 4600 7785
June 15 300 312 100 184
June 22 2300 2160 14,500 16,213
June 29 3200 3207 4200 6743

Table Notes
As shown in Table 5–1, four types of notes are used with tables: a general note that
applies to the entire table, a note for abbreviations, notes that show statistical significance,
and notes that give specific information. The asterisks *, **, and *** are always used in
this order to show statistical significance at the 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 probability levels,
respectively, and cannot be used for other notes. Significance at other levels is designated
by an alternate symbol (e.g., a dagger; see also Table 4–1). Lack of significance is usually
indicated by "ns" and needs a note only if the lowest level of significance shown is higher
than the nonsignificance level. Example:
** Significant at the 0.01 probability level.
*** Significant at the 0.001 probability level.
† ns, nonsignificant at the 0.05 probability level.

Table 5–3 is an example of a table with units varying row to row (unlike the usual pattern seen in Table 5–2).
Adapted from Bordovsky et al. (1998; Agronomy Journal 90, pp. 638–643).
TABLE 5–3 Surface soil (0–15 cm) properties of Miles fine sandy loam soil at Munday, TX.
Property Value Qualifier
Physical
Soil texture, g kg−1
   Sand 800
   Silt 130
   Clay 70
Slope, % a 1
Erosion factor K 0.24 medium
Mean permeability, m × 10−6 s−1 28 moderately rapid
Mean available water capacity, m3 m−3 0.12 very low
Mean liquid limit† 22
Mean plasticity index 5
Chemical
Mean pH 7.8 mildly alkaline
Organic matter, g kg−1 3.3 low
Available N, mg kg−1 1 very low
Available P, mg kg−1 52 high high
Available K, mg kg−1 240 high
Available Ca, mg kg−1 1237 high
Available Mg, mg kg−1 500 high
Available Na, mg kg−1 111 low
Available S, mg kg−1 high
a Source: Soil Survey of Knox County, Texas (1979).

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 5-3
Table 5–4 shows how to incorporate ANOVA results. The centered independent heading is used, together with
the new main entry line in the stub, to alert the reader to a change in the type of data for the rows that follow.
Adapted from Porter et al. (1996; Agronomy Journal 88, pp. 750–757).
TABLE 5–4 Wheat N uptake (1988) as affected by fertilizer N and indigenous soil N.
Fertilizer N rate df Fertilizer N uptake df Soil N uptake
kg ha−1 kg ha−1 kg ha−1
0 – 85a
56 28a 67ab
112 47b 63b
ANOVA
Source of variation
N rate (N) 1 *** 2 *
Microplot (M) 3 NS† 3 NS
N×M 3 NS 6 NS
CV, % 22 16
Note: Within columns, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to LSD
(.05).
*Significant at the .05 probability level. ***Significant at the .001 probability level. †NS, nonsignificant.

As shown in Table 5–5, sometimes a table is the best way to organize words. Adapted from Einhellig (1996;
Agronomy Journal 88, pp. 886–893).
TABLE 5–5 Studies reporting stress enhancement of the action of allelopathic chemicals.
Stress Bioassay Species Allelochemical Reference
High temperature SG soybean; grain sorghum ferulic acid Einhellig and Eckrich
(1984)
High temperature plantlets barley gramine Hanson et al. (1983)
Low nutrients RE barley phenolic acids Glass (1976)
Low N or P RE barley p-coumaric acid; Stowe and Osborn
vanillic acid (1980)
Low N or K SG Schizachyrium hydrocinnamic acid Williamson et al.
scoparium (1992)
Moisture stress G, SG grain sorghum ferulic acid Einhellig (1987, 1989)
Abbreviations: G, germination; RE, root elongation; SG, seedling growth.

For specific notes, use superscript letters. Cite the letters just as you would read a table—
from left to right and then from top to bottom, and reading across all spanner and subhead-
ings for one column before moving on to the next. Regardless of where the asterisks first
appear in a table, asterisked significance notes come after any specific notes keyed to the
letters.
If individual values in a table are highlighted using italic or bold type or underlining,
attach the note symbol to the first value that is so highlighted. If standard errors or standard
deviations are included, either in parentheses or with ±, attach the note symbol to the first
value that includes this addition.

FIGURES
Figures are often the best means of presenting scientific data. Poorly rendered figures
or figures that merely repeat information given in the text, however, can confuse the reader
or clutter the manuscript; thus, each figure should serve its purpose well or be omitted.
Figures encompass at least four substantially different kinds of illustrations in black and
white, shades of gray, color, or some combination:

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5-4 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 • Graphs (line, bar, pie, etc.).
• Line drawings or maps.
• Photographs and micrographs.
• Animated illustrations, which are shown in stop-motion frames.
Line or bar graphs are the most common figures in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals, fol-
lowed by line drawings, micrographs, and standard photographs. Color may be used at no
extra charge for online publications. Consult the editor of the publication to which you are
submitting for information on requirements and costs for color figures for print publications.
See section below regarding accessibility and color figures.
Graphs and charts improve the general presentation of a technical publication by
reporting data in an easily comprehensible manner. They are generally used to show trends
rather than the detailed information in a table.
The style of the graphs and charts and the size and appearance of letters and numbers
should be consistent within a paper.
Whenever possible, figures should be horizontal. This format takes up less space
in the article. Do not draw a box around line-art figures. Multipanel figures should be
labeled (uppercase, A, B, C, etc.; or lowercase a, b, c, etc.) and combined into one file.
Color Figure Policy
To allow greater accessibility to our sciences by color-blinded individuals, we
require the following guidelines be implemented when generating color figures. This
policy is effective as of April 1, 2022.
• Avoid unnecessary color: Grayscale generally provides a more faithful representa-
tion when a single quantity is being displayed.
• Avoid troublesome color combinations: greens, reds, browns, and oranges.
• Use green/magenta color combinations instead of green/red combinations.
• Use separate monochrome images for the different color channels if no suitable color
combination can be found.
• For line drawings that require color, use redundant coding by adding different tex-
tures, shapes, or line types to the colors across figures.
See the online "ACA, CSSA, SSSA Editorial Policies" page for additional resources for-
creating illustrations.

File Formats
For ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications, high-resolution JPEG, PDF, EPS, or TIF
(TIFF) files are the preferred file types. Images should have a minimum resolution of 300
dpi. For EPS files, be sure all fonts are embedded; all lines must be at least 0.5 point.
Figure art submitted as PDFs should be distilled using Adobe Acrobat Distiller's "Press
Quality" setting. For photographs, use high-resolution TIF or JPEG files.
Figure Quality
Because authors are the only ones working with the original graphics file, correc-
tions are the sole responsibility of the author. Authors should not submit figures under the
assumption that minor errors will be corrected by someone else at a later stage.
Clearly label all figures in the file name (e.g., Figure1.pdf). (If the paper is submitted
for double-blind review, be sure to omit the author’s name within the file name.)

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 5-5
 Figure Size
The final size of the published figure depends to some extent on where it will
appear. For journals, a single column is approximately 8.5 cm (3.5 inches, or 20 picas)
wide, and full-page width is approximately 17.8 cm (7 inches, or 42 picas). For books,
check with the book editor for the optimum size. Figures can be placed lengthwise on a
page, but this is not the ideal layout.
Figures that fit within a single journal column’s width are an economical use of
space. Avoid creating figures that have unnecessary white space. Figures do not have to
fill the allotted one or two columns; that is, reduction is based on content, not on a width
of exactly one or two columns.
Font Size and Type
Use these recommended fonts where possible: Arial, Helvetica, Calibri, Times New
Roman, Symbol.
All figure elements, including letters, numbers, and symbols, must be legible at their
final size. In general, authors should make the figure type size large enough so that it is
at least 8 points after reduction. No type should be less than 6 points. As an example, for
a 16-cm-wide figure, choose 16-point type, so that when the figure is reduced to fit in a
single journal column, the type is reduced to 8-point size.

Style
For text within a figure, we suggest using either sentence-style capitalization (only
the first word has an initial capital) or title capitalization (each major word has an initial
capital). Use only lowercase for units of measure.
Position decimal points correctly, at the base of the numbers and in a size large
enough to stand reduction. Decimal points should be in proportion to the numbers they
accompany. Do not use commas in place of decimal points.
Be sure that the overall style in the figures follows journal standards. For example,
if you use Mg ha−1 in the text, do not use Mg/ha in the figures.
In addition:
• Define all abbreviations in the caption, even if they appear in the overall abbrevia-
tions list.
• Italicize variables.
• Check the spelling of all text in each figure.
The Graphic Elements
Axis scale. Do not crowd the interval marks on axis scales. Fewer may be better.
Rarely, if ever, rule in the coordinates grid—not even in light lines or dots. (Light lines
may break up, and light dotted lines may disappear entirely.)
In-figure legend. Include a legend to identify symbols, lines, and patterns. (A legend
is a list of correspondence between the patterns and symbols and their meaning.) Put the
legend inside the figure box, preferably above or to the right of the figure.
Fill patterns and shading. If you need to shade parts of your figure, keep in mind
that the spaces between the elements of that shading will be reduced when the figure is
reduced. Many patterns built into computer programs become solid black when reduced

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5-6 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
to 50% of the original size. Search for patterns, or create your own, that will not condense
to black.
For bar graph patterns, use solid black, solid white, black diagonal lines, sharp cross-
hatching, a sharp dot screen, or a random dot pattern. Dot patterns must be fairly coarse to
reproduce well. Light grays and fine, light dots are likely to become muddy or blotchy or
even disappear altogether in reproduction. Shades of gray may turn into indistinguishable
muddy blacks.
Choose symbols and patterns of similar weight and tone to avoid making one set of
data look inherently more important than another.
Lines. Every line in a figure should have meaning and purpose, so authors should
avoid using decorative borders, shadows, and other three-dimensional effects. Lines
should be of consistent weight and sufficiently heavy (at least 0.5 point) to ensure a high-
quality reproduction.
Three-Dimensional Graphs. Use three-dimensional graphs only to represent
three dimensions of data. If there are no data for the z axis, do not use three-dimensional
formatting.

Photographs
Submit photographs as high-resolution TIF or JPEG files. Indicate the scale, or at
least provide a reference point to indicate relative size. For micrographs, indicate the
power at which the image was taken, either in the caption or on the figure itself.
If photographs are taken in a series, maintain the same height and angle of the cam-
era, the same distance from the subject, and the same angle of the sun. (A picture taken 3 m
from the subject at 0800 h will appear quite different from one taken of the same subject
from 6 m at 1700 h.)
Selection
Make sure that the photograph shows something unique, interesting, and clearly
identifiable. Use photographs only if they show something essential to your point.

Combinations
When two or more photographs are to be combined into one figure, each part of a
composite figure should be clearly identified on the figure by uppercase (A, B, C, etc.) or
lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). Use the same letters to identify the parts in the caption and
in text citations.
Letters, numbers, arrows, scales, and other marks that appear in a light area of the photo
should be black. If they appear in a dark area, they should be white, or placed on a white circular
or square background. Sufficient contrast is also essential for size bars used in micrographs.

Permissions
If a person or named product is shown in the photograph, the author is responsible
for obtaining written permission for use of the photograph from the person or the manu-
facturer of the product. A copy of the release must be forwarded to headquarters after
acceptance; ASA, CSSA, and SSSA are not responsible for any claims that may result
from using the figure. For more information on permissions, see Chapter 10.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 5-7
 Captions
Number figures in the order they are cited in the text. For submission, it is good to
include the caption with the actual figures as well as in the manuscript so that reviewers
do not have to hunt through the manuscript to understand the figures. See Chapter 1 and
individual journal instructions for details on figure and table placement.
A figure caption should be brief but sufficiently detailed to stand on its own. Identify
curves or symbols in a legend within the figure itself, not in the caption. Define abbrevia-
tions in the caption. Do not write separate captions for the parts of a compound figure. Use
sentence-style capitalization for figure captions, capitalizing the first word and all proper
nouns.
In both captions and in-text citations, spell out the full word "Figure." Use upper-
case or lowercase labels for figure citations ("Figure 1A, Figure 1A–C, Figure 2B,D" OR
"Figure 1a, Figure 1a–c, Figure 2b,d") to match the case used in the figure.
Do not be too brief in your caption. A caption that states only “Analysis of data” or
“Results of Experiment 2,” for example, is not sufficient.
Further Resources
Further information on preparing figures is available in Seddigh and Jolliff (1988). A
book-length analysis of graph design for scientific publications is available in Cleveland’s
(1994) The Elements of Graphing Data.

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5-8 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Chapter 6. Mathematics and Numbers
EQUATIONS
Mathematical equations can present difficult and costly problems of type composi-
tion. Because equations often must be retyped and reformatted during composition, errors
can be introduced. Keep in mind that typesetters will reproduce what they see rather than
what the equation should look like. Therefore, preparation of the manuscript copy and all
directions and identification of letters and symbols must be clear, so that those lacking in
mathematical expertise can follow the copy.
Use keyboard formatting where possible (i.e., bold, super-/subscripts, simple vari-
ables, Greek font, etc.), and use MathType (preferred) or Microsoft Word Equation Editor
(only if MathType is not available) for display equations. If your equations are drawn
from calculations in a computer language, translate the equation syntax of the computer
language into standard mathematical syntax. Likewise, translate variables into standard
mathematical format. If you need to present computer code, do that in an appendix.
Position and Spacing
The position and spacing of all elements of an equation must be exactly as they are
to appear in printed form.
Place superscript and subscript letters and symbols in the correct positions.
Put a space before and after most mathematical operators (the main exception is the soli-
dus sign for division). For example, plus and minus signs have a space on both sides when they
indicate a mathematical operation but have no space between the sign and the number when
used to indicate positive or negative position on the number line (e.g., 5 - 2 = 3; a range from
-15 to 25 kg).
No space is left between variables and their quantities or between multiplied quan-
tities when the multiplication sign is not explicitly shown. No space is left between an
expression and its power (or any superscripted or subscripted modifier). No space is left
after trigonometric functions.
See the CSE (2006) style manual for further rules, examples, and exceptions.
Special Characters
Letters, including Greek letters, that denote mathematical constants, variables, and
unknown quantities in text and in equations are set in italic. Vectors and matrices are set
in boldface roman type.
Special characters should be treated the same in the text, equations, tables, and figures.
Call attention to unusual symbols and modification of symbols that may be lost or
distorted during file conversion or exchange. Carefully distinguish be­tween primes and
apostrophes; the uppercase letter O and the numeral zero; the lowercase letter l, uppercase
letter I, and the numeral 1; the degree symbol and a superscripted zero or letter o; and rho
(ρ) and the letter p.
Simplifying Equations
Use in-line fractions (i.e., with a solidus rule, as in x/y) as much as possible, especial-
ly in the text. Show the necessary aggregation by using fences (i.e., parentheses, brackets,
and braces). Use the sequence {[( )]}.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 6-01
 In display fractions, align the rules with the main signs of the equation or formula. In
complex equations, use horizontal rules for the main fractions and slant rules in numera-
tors, denominators, and exponents. Some display equations can be reformatted as in-line
equations. Thus, a/(bcd) and a/(b - c) and (a/b) - (c/d) can easily substitute for
a a æ aö æ c ö
and and çç ÷÷÷-çç ÷÷÷
bcd b- c èbø è d ø

Use the same techniques to simplify a complex display equation.

For large numbers in text, tables, or figures, standard scientific notation is preferred
instead of computer exponentials (e.g., 7.0 × 10-3 instead of 7.0 E-03). Computer expo-
nentials may be used for presentation of software-generated data in tables and figures. SI
prefixes are usually preferable to scientific notation when expressing units.
Integrals, Summations, and Limits
With single integral signs, the upper and lower limits should always be placed to
the right of the integral sign, never above and below. In text, this can be accomplished by
0
stacking supers and subs ( ò¥ ). For summations, the limits above and below are customary
in display equations; in text, however, and in the numerator and/or denominator of display
equations, the right-side position is required.
Roots
As practical, use negative exponents or the solidus instead of display fractions and
fractional powers instead of the radical sign. For example,

1
cos
x
b
a+
x
is better written as
cos (1/x)
___________
[a + (b/x)]1/2

Nonetheless, considerations of space should not override clarity. The previous equation
can be further condensed to fit within the text line as [cos(1/x)]/{[a + (b/x)]1/2}, but this is
not necessarily the best presentation. Consider your readers.
Numbering Equations
It is not necessary to number all displayed equations, but they are usually numbered
in articles that have a substantial number of equations or if more than one is referred
to within the text. If equations are numbered, place the numbers in parentheses at the
right margin. Cite equations in text in the form Equation (1), Equations (4) and (5), and
Equations (7–19), but (Equation 1).
Exponential Functions
For lengthy or complex exponents, the symbol exp is preferred, particularly if such
exponentials appear in the body of the text. Thus, exp(a2 + b2)1/2 is preferable to e (a2 + b2)1/2.
The larger size of symbols permitted by this usage also makes reading easier.

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6-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 NUMBERS
Reported data should include no more significant digits than the precision of the
experimental methods warrants. Often, more than three significant digits of data from
agronomic research cannot be justified. An acceptable rule is to round treatment means to
one-tenth of their estimated standard error. For example, if the estimated standard error is
1.43, the means should be rounded to the nearest 0.1, and if the standard error is 18.4, the
means should be rounded to the nearest 1.0.
The decimal separator in ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications is a comma, used for
five-digit numbers and higher (e.g., 10,000).
Dates, page numbers, percentages, time, numbers preceded by capitalized nouns, and
numbers followed by units of measure are expressed as numerals (e.g., Table 1, Chapter 1,
2%, Journal Article no. 1, Treatment 3, 1 g, 5 s).
A numeral is used for a single number of 10 or more, except when the number is the
first word of the sentence. Numerals are used to designate the numbers nine and below
when two or more numbers are used and any of them are greater than nine: “. . . 2, 5, and
20 pots were planted,” but “a group of 12 plants was incubated at three temperatures.”
Ordinal numbers are treated like cardinal numbers: third, fourth, 33rd, 100th, except
in references, where digits are used (e.g., 5th ed., 7th Congress).
For large numbers ending in zeros, use a word or prefix for part of the number (e.g.,
1.6 million, not 1,600,000; 23 µg, not 0.000023 g).
A zero is used before the decimal point with numbers that are less than 1 when the
unit can exceed 1, such as 0.23 cm, Cohen’s d = 0.70, 0.48 s.
A zero does not need to be used before a decimal fraction when the statistic cannot
be greater than 1 (e.g., correlations, proportions, and levels of statistical significance: p,
beta, alpha), such as r(24) = –.43, p = .028.
Use an en-dash in a range of numbers.
We suggest avoiding the ambiguous term billion, which means “thousand million” in
some nations and “million million” in other nations.
Further Resources
More information on rules and suggestions in preparing mathematical copy can be
found in Scientific Style and Format (CSE, 2006), including that manual’s annotated bib-
liography, and in this manual's bibliography.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 6-03
Chapter 7. Units and Measurements
The SI system (Système International d’Unités) of reporting measurements is required in
the majority of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publications. Other units may be reported paren-
thetically if this will clarify interpretation of the data.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology maintains online resources for
SI (http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/) and has published a comprehensive guide (Thompson &
Taylor, 2008) that includes a concise checklist of style requirements. Table 7–6 at the end
of this chapter gives selected conversion factors.
BASE AND DERIVED UNITS
The SI system is based on seven base units (Table 7–1). Derived units (Table 7–2) are
expressed algebraically in terms of the base units. Some of these have been given special
names and symbols, which may be used to express still other derived units. An example of
a derived unit with a special name is the newton (N) for force; the newton is expressed in
basic units as m kg s−1. Another unit with a special name is the pascal (Pa), which is one
newton per square meter.
Using SI Units
Publications of ASA, CSSA, and SSSA impose less-stringent requirements in style
than the full formal SI system as published by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (Thompson & Taylor, 2008; Taylor & Thompson, 2008), and new develop-
ments in SI may take time to win adoption by the editorial boards. For example, this style
manual allows molar concentration but disallows normal concentration, whereas strict SI
usage declares both to be obsolete (Thompson & Taylor, 2008, 8.6.5). For certain papers
or publications, traditional English counterparts may be used along with the SI units. (If in
doubt, check with the editor to whom you are submitting your work.)
The prefixes and their symbols listed in Table 7–3 are used to indicate orders of mag-
nitude in SI units. They reduce the use of nonsignificant digits and decimals and provide
a convenient substitute for writing powers of 10. With some exceptions (notably tonne,
liter, and hectare; see the discussion of non-SI units, below), for ease of understanding,
base units (kg, m, s) should be used in the denominator of com­binations of units, while
appropriate prefixes for multiples (or submultiples) are selected for the numerator so that
the numerical value of the term lies between 0.1 and 1000. Values outside this range may
be used instead of changing the prefix to keep units consistent across a single presentation
or discussion.
A digit is significant if it is required to express the numerical value of the quantity.
In the expression l = 1200 m, it is not possible to tell if the last two zeros are significant or
only indicate the magnitude of the numerical value of l. In the expression l = 1.200 km, the
TABLE 7–1 Base SI units.
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 7-01
TABLE 7–2 Derived SI units with special names.
Expression in Expression in
terms of other terms of SI
Derived quantity Name Symbol SI units base units
Absorbed dose, specific energy gray Gy J kg−1 m2 s−1
   imparted, kerma
Activity (of a radionuclide) becquerel Bq s−1
Capacitance farad F C V−1 m−2 kg−1 s4 A2
Celsius temperature degree Celsius °C K
Dose equivalent sievert Sv J kg−1 m2 s−2
Electric charge, quantity of coulomb C sA
   electricity
Electric conductance siemens S A V−1 m−2 kg−1 s3 A2
Electric potential, potential volt V W A−1 m2 kg s−3 A−1
   difference, electromotive force
Electric resistance ohm Ω V A−1 m2 kg s−3 A−2
Energy, work, quantity of heat joule J Nm m2 kg s−2
Force newton N m kg s−2
Frequency hertz Hz s−1
Illuminance a lux lx cd sr cd sr
Inductance henry H Wb A−1 m2 kg s−2 A−2
Luminous flux a
Magnetic flux weber Wb Vs m2 kg s−2 A−1
Magnetic flux density tesla T Wb m−2 kg s−2 A−1
Plane angle b radian rad m m−1 = 1
Power, radiant flux watt W J s−1 m2 kg s−3
Pressure, stress pascal Pa N m−2 kg s−2
Solid angle b steradian sr m2 m−2 = 1
a Photometricunits are not allowed in ASA–CSSA–SSSA publications. b The class of supplemental units was
eliminated and the radian and steradian were reclassified as derived units in 1995 (Thompson & Taylor,
2008).

two zeros are assumed to be significant; otherwise, the value of l would have been written
l = 1.2 km.
An exponent attached to a symbol containing a prefix indicates that the unit with its
prefix is raised to the power expressed by the exponent. Example: 1 mm3 = (10−3 m)3 =
10−9 m3.
Use a space to show multiplication of units and a negative exponent to show divi-
sion; these are preferred to the otherwise acceptable center dot (•) and solidus (/). Thus,
m s−1 is preferred to m/s, but be consistent. Only one solidus may be used in combi-

TABLE 7–3 SI prefixes.

Order of magnitude Prefix Symbol Order of magnitude Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10−1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10−2 centi c
1018 exa E 10−3 milli m
1015 peta P 10−6 micro µ
1012 tera T 10−9 nano n
109 giga G 10−12 pico p
106 mega M 10−15 femto f
103 kilo k 10−18 atto a
102 hecto h 10−21 zepto z
101 deka da 10−24 yocto y

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7-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
nations of units, unless parentheses are used to avoid ambiguity. Thus, µmol m−2 s−1
is preferred, and µmol/(m2 s) is acceptable, but µmol/m2/s is not allowed. Where the
denominator unit is modified by a quantity, the negative exponent goes after the unit,
not the number. Example: g 1000 seed−1.
When reporting the value of a quantity, under strict SI usage, the information defin-
ing that quantity should be presented so that it is not associated with the unit (Thompson &
Taylor, 2008, 7.5). Example: “the water content is 20 mL kg−1” not “20 mL H2O kg−1”;
however, such expressions are acceptable in ASA, CSSA, SSSA publications.
Punctuation with SI units is only as required by the English context. In particular, SI
unit symbols take a period only at the end of a sentence.
Non-SI Units
Some non-SI units may be used in ASA, CSSA, SSSA publications, but these units
are limited to those that are convenient for crop and soil scientists. The quantity of area can
be expressed as hectare (1 ha = 104 m2). The use of liter (1 L = 10−3 m3) in the denomi-
nator of derived units is permitted, but cubic meters is encouraged. Soil bulk density
can be expressed as g cm−3, but Mg m−3 is encouraged and t m−3 is allowed (see below).
Angstroms are allowed for atomic spacing, and wave number can be reported as reciprocal
centimeter (cm−1).
The SI base unit for thermodynamic temperature is kelvin (K); however, the Celsius
scale is usually used to express temperature. The degree sign is used with Celsius tempera-
ture (°C) but not with the kelvin scale.
The base unit second (s) is the preferred unit of time. Other units (e.g., minute, min;
hour, h; week; month; year) are acceptable. Spell out week, month, and year. Periods of
time shorter than 182 days (26 weeks) should not be expressed in months without a quali-
fying word such as "about" or "approximately." The unit "month" may be used for periods
of 6 months or greater in text, tables, or figures; the word "month" may be used to mean
calendar month. Named units (e.g., July rainfall) are also acceptable.
In SI, a tonne (t) equals 103 kg, or 1 Mg and is understood to mean metric ton. When
expressing yields or application rates, the term Mg ha−1 is preferred; t ha−1, widely used
outside the United States, is acceptable. For a million tonnes, use Tg (not Mt).
Radian (rad) is the derived unit for measurement of plane angles, but degree is also
acceptable. Other acceptable non-SI units are dalton (Da), electron volt (eV), poise (P),
Svedberg units (S), degree (°), minute (′), and second (″). Use decimal values for minutes,
degrees, and seconds (both are allowed for geographic coordinates; see Chapter 2).
SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
Special attention is required for reporting concentration, exchange composition and
capacity, energy of soil water (or water potential), and light. Table 7–4 summarizes the
appropriate units for society publications. Prefixes (Table 7–3) should be used to modify
units in Table 7–4 so that numerical values fall between 0.1 and 1000.
Concentration
SI defines a mole (mol) as the amount of a substance of a system that contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of 12C (Taylor & Thompson, 2008,
2,1,1,6). With this definition, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles. The sub-
stance may be a mixture, such as air.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 7-03
TABLE 7–4 Preferred (P) and acceptable (A) units for quantities most likely to be used in ASA, CSSA,
SSSA publications (concentration, exchange parameters, light, and water potential).
Quantity Application Unit Symbol
Concentra­tion known molar mass mole per cubic meter (P) mol m−3
   (liquid or solid) mole per kilogram (P) mol kg−1
mole per liter (A) mol L−1
gram per liter (A) g L−1
unknown molar mass gram per cubic meter (P) g m−3
   (liquid or solid) gram per kilogram (P) g kg−1
gram per liter (A) g L−1
known ionic charge mole charge per cubic meter (P) molc m—3
mole charge per liter (A) molc L−1
gas mole per cubic meter (P) mol m−3
gram per cubic meter (A) g m−3
gram per liter (A) g L−1
liter per liter (A) L L−1
microliter per liter (A) µL L−1
mole per liter (A) mol L−1
mole fraction (A) mol mol−1
Exchange exchange capacity mole charge of saturating ion molc kg−1
   parameters    per kilogram (P)
centimole charge of saturating cmolc kg−1
   ion per kilogram (A)
exchangeable ion mole charge of specific ion molc kg−1
   composition    per kilogram
sum of exchangeable mole charge of ion per kilogram molc kg−1
   ions
Light irradiance watt per square meter W m−2
photosynthetic photon micromole per square meter µmol m−2 s−1
   flux density (400–700 nm)    per second
Water potential driving force for flow joule per kilogram (P) J kg−1
kilopascal (A) kPa
meter of water in a gravitational m
   field (A)

Express concentrations on a molar basis (mol L−1). Using M is acceptable although

not preferred. Equivalencies include
1 mol L−1 = 1 M = 1 mmol mL−1
1 mmol L−1 = 1 mM = 10−3 M = 1 µmol mL−1
1 µmol L−1 = 1 µM = 10−6 M = 1 nmol mL−1
1 nmol L−1 = 1 nM = 10−9 M = 1 pmol mL−1
Solutions containing ions of mixed valence should also be given on the molar basis of each
ion. Molality (mol kg−1 of solvent) is an acceptable term and unit; it is the preferred unit
for precise, nonisothermal conditions. Moles of charge per liter (molc L−1) is also accept-
able in some ionic situations. Do not use normality, N, the amount of substance concentra-
tion based on the concept of equivalent concentration. The relationship between normality
and molarity is expressed by
N = nM
where n is the number of replaceable H+ or OH− per molecule (acids and bases) or the
number of electrons lost or gained per molecule (oxidizing and reducing agents). A useful
reference is Segel (1976).

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7-04 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 In some instances, it is convenient to report concentrations in terms of their compo-
nents—either weight to volume or volume to volume. Do not use percentage.
Gas concentration can be expressed as mol m−3, g m−3 partial pressure, or mole frac-
tion. The denominator of the mole fraction needs no summation sign, because the mole is
defined as Avogadro’s number of any defined substance, including a mixture such as air.
An O2 concentration of 210 ml L−1 is therefore 21 × 10−2 mol mol−1 or 0.21 mol fraction.
A CO2 concentration of 335 µmol mol−1 equals 335 µmol fraction.
Nutrient concentration in plants, soil, or fertilizer can be expressed on the basis of
mass as well as the amount of substance. For example, plant P concentration could be
reported as 180 mmol kg−1 P or 5.58 g kg−1 P. Extractable nutrients in soil should be
expressed as mg kg−1 when soil is measured on a mass basis, or g m−3 when soil is mea-
sured on a volumetric basis. Exchangeable ions determined by the usual acetate procedure
on weighed samples should be expressed as mmolc kg−1 or cmolc kg−1.
Water content of plant tissue or plant parts can be expressed in terms of water mass
per unit mass of plant material (e.g., g kg−1 H2O). State whether reported plant mass is on
a dry or wet basis.
Exchange Composition and Capacity
Exchange capacity and exchangeable ion composition should be expressed as moles
of charge per kilogram (e.g., 5 cmolc kg−1). Omit the sign of the charge (+ or −); it should
be apparent from the text. If the cation exchange capacity is determined by the single-ion
saturation technique, the ion used should be specified in the text as it can affect the cation
exchange ­capacity measured. If Mg2+ were used for the soil, and specific ion effects were
nonsignificant, the cation exchange capacity would be expressed as 8 cmolc (½‑Mg­2+) kg−1.
Milliequivalents (meq) per 100 g is not an acceptable unit in the SI system and should not
be used in ASA, CSSA, SSSA publications.
Energy of Soil Water or Water Potential
Soil water potential refers to its equivalent potential energy; it can be expressed on
either a mass or a volume basis. Energy per unit mass has units of joules per kilogram
(J kg−1) in SI. Energy per unit volume is dimensionally equivalent to pressure, and the SI
pressure unit is the pascal (Pa). One joule per kilogram is 1 kPa if the density of water is
1 Mg m−1 and, since 1 bar is equal to 100 kPa, 1 J kg−1 is equal to 0.01 bar at this same
density. Energy per unit mass (J kg−1) is preferred to the pressure unit (Pa). The use of the
non-SI unit bar is accepted for use with SI, although it is not preferred.
The height of a water column in the Earth’s gravitational field, energy per unit
of weight, can be used as an index of water potential or energy. The potential in joules
per kilogram (J kg−1) is the gravitational constant multiplied by the height of the water
column. Since the gravitational constant (9.81 m s−1) is essentially 10, hydraulic head in
meters of water is approximately 10 times the water potential expressed in joules per kilo-
gram or kilopascals.
Light
Accepted SI notation for total radiant energy per unit area is joule per square meter
(J m−2).Energy per unit time or irradiance is expressed in watts per square meter (W m−2).
Alternative units, based on calories or ergs for energy and square centimeter for area, are
not acceptable. Also, photometric units, including lux, are not acceptable.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 7-05
 Plant scientists studying photochemically triggered responses (e.g., photosynthe-
sis, photomorphogenesis, and phototropism) may quantify radiation in terms of num-
ber of photons rather than energy content. Express photon flux density per unit area
in moles of photons per square meter per second (mol m−2 s−1). The photosynthetic
photon flux density (PPFD) is photon flux density in the waveband 400–700 nm. For
studies involving other wavebands, the waveband should be specified. See Shibles
(1976) and the summary under Light Measurements and Photosynthesis in Chapter 3
of this manual.
Use of Percentage in SI
Whenever the composition of some mixture is being described and it is possible to
express elements of the mixture in SI base or derived units, the use of percentage is unac-
ceptable. In such cases the percentage should be replaced by appropriate SI units. For
example, plant nutrient concentration must be expressed in SI units based on either amount
of substance or mass.
The use of percentage is acceptable when the elements of an event cannot be described
in SI base or derived units, or when a well-known fractional comparison of an event is being
described. The following are examples where use of percentage is acceptable.

• Coefficient of variation.
• Botanical composition, plant stand, and cover estimates.
• Percentage of leaves (or plants) infected.
• Percentage increase (or decrease) in yield.
• Percentage of applied element(s) that are recovered by plants, extractants, etc.
• Fertilizer grades.
• Relative humidity.
• As an alternative unit of soil texture. This is allowed because each component is
well defined and is a fraction on a mass basis.
• As an alternative unit to express fractional base saturation. This is permissible
because each component is a fraction on a chemical basis.
• Atom percent abundance of a stable isotope (e.g., 15N, 18O). This is determined on
a mass basis.
Parts per Thousand
The term parts per thousand, used in some mineralogy and oceanography references,
is acceptable. This term is widely accepted for reporting isotope ratios relative to a stan-
dard and is dimensionless. Its symbol is ‰.
Parts per Million
Parts per million (ppm) is an ambiguous term. To avoid ambiguity, authors are
required to use preferred or acceptable SI units. Depending on the type of data, authors
could use µL L−1, mg L−1, or mg kg−1 in place of parts per million. The exception to the
use of ppm is when associated with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements.
Parts per million is the official term used to express the relative shift of a NMR line of
a given nucleus from the line associated with the standard for that nucleus. The term is
dimensionless.

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7-06 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
 Cotton Fiber
Official standards for cotton staple length are given in terms of inches and frac-
tions of an inch, generally in gradations of thirty-seconds of an inch. Stapling is done
by a classer in comparison with staple standards. Measurement by instrument has shown
unequal increments between consecutive staples in these standards. Because the classer
is the authority on length, these unequal increments have been maintained. When staple
length is determined by a classer, it may be reported as a code number, with the code being
the number of thirty-seconds of an inch called by the classer.
Instrument measurements are preferable in experimental work because of equal
incremental differences between successive fiber lengths. Report these values using appro-
priate SI units (Table 7–5). Fiber fineness determined by the micronaire instrument should
be reported as micronaire reading.
Recommended Units and Conversion Factors
Tables of recommended units (Table 7–5) and conversion factors (Table 7–6) are
included to aid in the use of SI units. See also Thompson and Taylor (2008, Appendix B).
TIME AND DATES

Clock Time
Use the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. to distinguish between the halves of the day, e.g.,
12:02 a.m. Time zones may be used if needed to avoid ambiguity. Do not capitalize the
names of times zones when spelled out. Capitalize the abbrevations of time zones, without
periods, when they directly following the time (e.g., 11:30 a.m. CST). The 24-h system,
which is indicated by four digits—the first two for hours and the last two for minutes—
may be used if needed to avoid ambiguity. In this system, the day begins at midnight, 0000
h, and the last minute is 2359 h. Thus, 2400 h on December 31, 2022, is the same as 0000 h
on January 1, 2023.
Dates
In running text, capitalize and spell out the names of days and months. For complete
dates, give the month, day (one or two digits), and year (four digits), e.g., August 1, 2023.
Abbreviate names of months and days of the week in tables and references. Standard
abbreviations for months are Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec.; May,
June, and July are not abbreviated.
Dates may also be identified as day of the year (i.e., in the year’s sequence of 365 or
366 days), thus: Day of Year 235. Its typical abbrevation (DOY) should be defined at first
use. Note that Julian day does not mean day of the year. A Julian day describes a date in
terms of days elapsed since Greenwich noon on January 1, 4713 BC. Julian dates are used
primarily in astronomy, information science, and space science.
MONETARY UNITS
For monetary values, use the appropriate currency symbol. You may use the full
numeric form (e.g., $1,500,000) or a combination of numbers and words ($1.5 million).
Because many nations use the dollar as the unit of currency, it is generally advisable to
include the country prefix (e.g., US$500, Can$350, NZ$300) at first use and at every use
if more than one country currency is used.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 7-07
TABLE 7–5 Preferred (P) and acceptable (A) units for other quantities.
Quantity or rate Application Unit Abbreviation
Angle X-ray diffraction radian (P) θ
   pattern degree (A) °
Area land area square meter (P) m2
hectare (A) ha
leaf area square meter m2
surface area of soil square meter per kilogram m2 kg−1
Interatomic spacing crystal structure nanometer (P) nm
Angstrom (A) Å
Bulk density soil bulk density megagram per cubic meter (P) Mg m−3
gram per cubic centimeter (A) g cm−3
Electrical conductivity a salt tolerance siemen per meter S m−1
Elongation rate plant millimeter per second (P) mm s−1
millimeter per day (A) mm day−1
Ethylene production N2–fixing activity nanomole per plant per second nmol plant−1 s−1
Extractable ion soil, mass basis centimole per kilogram (P) cmol kg−1
milligram per kilogram (A) mg kg−1
soil, volume basis mole per cubic meter (P) mol m−3
gram per cubic meter (P) g m−3
centimole per liter (A) cmol L−1
milligram per liter (A) mg L−1
Fertilizer rate soil gram per square meter (P) g m−2
kilogram per hectare (A) kg ha−1
Fiber strength cotton fiber kilonewton meter per kilogram kN m kg−1
Flux density heat flow watt per square meter W m−2
gas diffusion mole per square meter per second (P) mol m−2 s−1
gram per square meter per second (A) g m−2 s−1
water flow kilogram per square meter per kg m−2 s−1
   second (P)
cubic meter per square meter per m3 m−2 s−1
   second (A)
Gas diffusivity gas diffusion square meter per second m2 s−1
Grain test weight grain kilogram per cubic meter kg m−3
Growth rate plant growth gram per square meter per day g m−2 day−1
Hydraulic conductivity water flow kilogram second per cubic meter (P) kg s m−3
cubic meter per second per m3 s−1 kg−1
   kilogram (A)

meter per second (A) m s−1

Ion transport ion uptake mole per kilogram (of dry plant mol kg−1 s−1
   tissue) per second
mole of charge per kilogram (of dry molc kg−1 s−1
   plant tissue) per second
Leaf area ratio plant square meter per kilogram m2 kg−1
Length depth, width, meter (P) m
   and height centimeter (A) cm
millimeter (A) mm
Magnetic flux density electronic spin tesla T
   resonance (ESR)
Nutrient concentration plant millimole per kilogram (P) mmol kg−1
gram per kilogram (A) g kg−1
Photosynthetic rate CO2 amount of micromole per square meter per µmol m−2 s−1
   substance flux    second (P)
   density (P)
CO2 mass flux milligram per square meter per mg m−2 s−1
   density (A)    second (A)
Precipitation rainfall millimeter mm
Radioactivity nuclear decay becquerel (P) Bq
curie (A) Ci
(continued on next page)

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7-08 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
TABLE 7–5 Continued
Quantity or rate Application Unit Abbreviation
Resistance stomatal second per meter s m−1
Soil texture soil gram per kilogram (P) g kg−1
   composition percent (A) %
Specific heat heat storage joule per kilogram per kelvin J kg−1 K−1
Thermal conductivity heat flow watt per meter per kelvin W m−l K−1
Transpiration rate H2O flux density gram per square meter per second (P) g m−2 s−1
cubic meter per square meter per m3 m−2 s−1
   second (A)
meter per second (A) m s−1
Volume field or laboratory cubic meter (A) m3
liter (A) L
Water content plant gram water per kilogram wet or g kg−1
   dry tissue (P)

soil (acceptable kilogram water per kilogram dry kg kg−1

   forplants)    soil [or plant matter] (P)
cubic meter water per cubic meter m3 m−3
   soil [or plant matter] (A)
Wave number infrared (IR) reciprocal centimeter cm−1
   spectroscopy
Yield grain or forage gram per square meter (P) g m−2
   yield
mass of plant or kilogram per hectare (A) kg ha−1
   plant part megagram per hectare (A) Mg ha−1
tonne per hectare (A) t ha−1
gram (gram per plant or plant part, g (g plant−1 or
   such as kernel)    g kernel−1)
a The term electrolytic conductivity has been substituted for electrical conductivity by the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Use of the SI term electrolytic conductivity is permissible but not
mandatory in ASA, CSSA, SSSA publications.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 7-09
TABLE 7–6 Conversion Factors for SI and non-SI Units
To convert To convert
Column 1 into Column 2 into
Column 2, Column 1,
multiply by Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 non-SI Units multiply by
Length

0.621 kilometer, km (103 m) mile, mi 1.609

1.094 meter, m yard, yd 0.914
3.28 meter, m foot, ft 0.304
1.0 micrometer, µm (10−6 m) micron, µ 1.0
3.94 × 10−2 millimeter, mm (10−3 m) inch, in 25.4
10 nanometer, nm (10−9 m) Angstrom, Å 0.1

Area

2.47 hectare, ha acre 0.405

247 square kilometer, km2 (103 m)2 acre 4.05 × 10−3
0.386 square kilometer, km2 (103 m)2 square mile, mi2 2.590
2.47 × 10−4 square meter, m2 acre 4.05 × 103
10.76 square meter, m2 square foot, ft2 9.29 × 10−2
1.55 × 10−3 square millimeter, mm2 (10−3 m)2 square inch, in2 645

Volume

9.73 × 10−3 cubic meter, m3 acre-inch 102.8

35.3 cubic meter, m3 cubic foot, ft3 2.83 × 10−2
6.10 × 104 cubic meter, m3 cubic inch, in3 1.64 × 10−5
2.84 × 10−2 liter, L (10−3 m3) bushel, bu 35.24
1.057 liter, L (10−3 m3) quart (liquid), qt 0.946
3.53 × 10−2 liter, L (10−3 m3) cubic foot, ft3 28.3
0.265 liter, L (10−3 m3) gallon 3.78
33.78 liter, L (10−3 m3) ounce (fluid), oz 2.96 × 10−2
2.11 liter, L (10−3 m3) pint (fluid), pt 0.473
Mass

2.20 × 10−3 gram, g (10−3 kg) pound, lb 454

3.52 × 10−2 gram, g (10−3 kg) ounce (avdp), oz 28.4
2.205 kilogram, kg pound, lb 0.454
0.01 kilogram, kg quintal (metric), q 100
1.10 × 10−3 kilogram, kg ton (2000 lb), ton 907
1.102 megagram, Mg (tonne) ton (US), ton 0.907
1.102 tonne, t ton (US), ton 0.907

Yield and Rate

0.893 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 pound per acre, lb acre−1 1.12
7.77 × 10−2 kilogram per cubic meter, kg m−3 pound per bushel, lb bu−1 12.87
1.49 × 10−2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 bushel per acre, 60 lb 67.19
1.59 × 10−2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 bushel per acre, 56 lb 62.71
1.86 × 10−2 kilogram per hectare, kg ha−1 bushel per acre, 48 lb 53.75
0.107 liter per hectare, L ha−1 gallon per acre 9.35
893 tonne per hectare, t ha−1 pound per acre, lb acre−1 1.12 × 10−3
893 megagram per hectare, Mg ha−1 pound per acre, lb acre−1 1.12 × 10−3
0.446 megagram per hectare, Mg ha−1 ton (2000 lb) per acre, ton acre−1 2.24
2.24 meter per second, m s−1 mile per hour 0.447

(continued on next page)

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7-10 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
TABLE 7–6 Continued
To convert To convert
Column 1 into Column 2 into
Column 2, Column 1,
multiply by Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 non-SI Units multiply by

Specific Surface

10 square meter per kilogram, m2 kg−1 square centimeter per gram, 0.1
cm2 g−1
1,000 square meter per kilogram, m2 kg−1 square millimeter per gram, 0.001
mm2 g−1

Density

1.00 megagram per cubic meter, Mg m−3 gram per cubic centimeter, g cm−3 1.00

Pressure

9.90 megapascal, MPa (106 Pa) atmosphere 0.101

10 megapascal, MPa (106 Pa) bar 0.1
2.09 × 10−2 pascal, Pa pound per square foot, lb ft−2 47.9
1.45 × 10−4 pascal, Pa pound per square inch, lb in−2 6.90 × 103

Temperature

1.00 (K − 273) kelvin, K Celsius, °C 1.00 (°C + 273)

(9/5 °C) + 32 Celsius, °C Fahrenheit, °F 5/9 (°F − 32)

Energy, Work, Quantity of Heat

9.52 × 10−4 joule, J British thermal unit, Btu 1.05 × 103

0.239 joule, J calorie, cal 4.19
107 joule, J erg 10−7
0.735 joule, J foot-pound 1.36
2.387 × 10−5 joule per square meter, J m−2 calorie per square centimeter 4.19 × 104
(langley)
105 newton, N dyne 10−5
1.43 × 10−3 watt per square meter, W m−2 calorie per square centimeter 698
minute (irradiance),
cal cm−2 min−1

Transpiration and Photosynthesis

3.60 × 10−2 milligram per square meter second, gram per square decimeter hour, 27.8
mg m−2 s−1 g dm−2 h−1
5.56 × 10−3 milligram (H2O) per square meter micromole (H2O) per square centi- 180
second, mg m−2 s−1 meter second, µmol cm−2 s−1
10−4 milligram per square meter second, milligram per square centimeter 104
mg m−2 s−1 second, mg cm−2 s−1
35.97 milligram per square meter second, milligram per square decimeter 2.78 × 10−2
mg m−2 s−1 hour, mg dm−2 h−1

Plane Angle

57.3 radian, rad degrees (angle), ° 1.75 × 10−2

(continued on next page)

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 7-11
TABLE 7–6 Continued
To convert To convert
Column 1 into Column 2 into
Column 2, Column 1,
multiply by Column 1 SI Unit Column 2 non-SI Units multiply by
Electrical Conductivity, Electricity, and Magnetism

10 siemen per meter, S m−1 millimho per centimeter, 0.1

mmho cm−1
104 tesla, T gauss, G 10−4

Water Measurement

9.73 × 10−3 cubic meter, m3 acre-inch, acre-in 102.8

9.81 × 10−3 cubic meter per hour, m3 h−1 cubic foot per second, ft3 s−1 101.9
4.40 cubic meter per hour, m3 h−1 US gallon per minute, gal min−1 0.227
8.11 hectare meter, ha m acre-foot, acre-ft 0.123
97.28 hectare meter, ha m acre-inch, acre-in 1.03 × 10−2
8.1 × 10−2 hectare centimeter, ha cm acre-foot, acre-ft 12.33

Concentrations

1 centimole per kilogram, cmolc kg−1 milliequivalent per 100 grams, 1

meq 100 g−1
0.1 gram per kilogram, g kg−1 percent, % 10
1 milligram per kilogram, mg kg−1 parts per million, ppm 1

Radioactivity

2.7 × 10−11 becquerel, Bq curie, Ci 3.7 × 1010

2.7 × 10−2 becquerel per kilogram, Bq kg−1 picocurie per gram, pCi g−1 37
100 gray, Gy (absorbed dose) rad, rd 0.01
100 sievert, Sv (equivalent dose) rem (roentgen equivalent man) 0.01

Plant Nutrient Conversion

Elemental Oxide
2.29 P P2O5 0.437
1.20 K K2O 0.830
1.39 Ca CaO 0.715
1.66 Mg MgO 0.602

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7-12 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Chapter 8. Journal Procedures
GENERAL PROCEDURES
All Society journals are submitted via an online submission service and undergo peer
review. All papers, whether invited or volunteered, are subject to review. Once a paper is
accepted, headquarters staff oversee its copyediting, typesetting, administration, produc-
tion, and distribution.
The journal's managing editor oversees the steps in copyediting papers, typesetting,
sending proofs to authors, preparing papers for publication, and producing journal issues.
See the section "Anonymous Review" in Chapter 1 for information on special prepa-
rations required for submitting papers to ASA, CSSA, and SSSA journals. Papers not
prepared according to this format will be returned to authors for revision before the paper
will be reviewed.
Manuscripts that are released from a journal may be resubmitted after revision to the
same or another ASA, CSSA, or SSSA journal.
See the document "ASA-CSSA-SSSA Editorial Policies" online for information on
the decision appeals process.
AGRONOMY JOURNAL
Agronomy Journal (AJ) is published six times a year by ASA and is the official pub-
lication of ASA. Papers submitted to AJ undergo a double-blind review process.
Scope
Agronomy Journal publishes articles reporting research findings in soil–plant relation-
ships; crop science; soil science; biometry; crop, soil, pasture, and range management; crop,
forage, and pasture production and utilization; turfgrass; agroclimatology; agronomic mod-
eling; statistics; integrated pest management; production agriculture; and integrated agricul-
tural systems. See a recent issue of AJ for the specific Table of Contents topics.
Notes & Unique Phenomena are published about apparatus, observations, and experi-
mental techniques. Observations usually are limited to studies and reports of unrepeatable
phenomena or other unique circumstances. Review and Interpretation papers may be pub-
lished subject to review. Reviews invited by the editor may have publication fees waived.
Contributions to the Forum section deal with current agronomic issues and questions in brief,
thought-provoking form. Such papers are reviewed by the editor in consultation with the
editorial board.
Articles should make a significant contribution to the advancement of knowledge or
toward a better understanding of existing agronomic concepts. The study reported must be
of potential interest to a significant number of scientists and, if specific to a local situation,
must be relevant to a wide body of knowledge in agronomy. Papers dealing with produc-
tion may necessarily be specific to a region or state.
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted to AJ via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/agron. For further details, see Chapter 1 and the online
instructions to authors. The editor assigns the manuscript to a technical editor on the
basis of the subject matter. The technical editor, in turn, assigns properly prepared
manuscripts to an associate editor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews. Associate

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 8-01
editors notify authors when a manuscript is accepted; technical editors notify authors
when a manuscript is released.
Authors are given 28 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

CROP SCIENCE
Crop Science (CS) is published six times a year by CSSA and is the official publica-
tion of CSSA. Papers submitted to CS undergo a single-blind review process.
Scope
Crop Science publishes scientific papers in crop breeding, genetics, and cytology;
crop physiology and metabolism; crop ecology, management, and quality; seed physiolo-
gy, production, and technology; forage and grazing lands; plant genetic resources; turf-
grass science; biomedical, health beneficial, and nutritionally enhanced plants; and
genomics, molecular genetics, and biotechnology.
The journal publishes original research, review and interpretation, and perspectives
papers in all the above subject matters, as well as book reviews, notes, and letters to the editor.
Manuscript Handling
Contributions to CS are submitted via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/crop. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to authors for
further details. The editor assigns the manuscript to a technical editor on the basis of the
subject matter. The technical editor, in turn, assigns properly prepared manuscripts to an
associate editor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews. The associate editor recommends
acceptance or release of the paper to the technical editor, who makes the final decision and
notifies the author.
Authors are given 28 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA JOURNAL

Soil Science Society of America Journal (SSSAJ) is published six times a year and is
the official publication of SSSA. Papers submitted to SSSAJ undergo a double-blind
review process.
Scope
The journal publishes papers and notes on original research and comments and letters
to the editor containing critical comments on papers published in one of the society outlets
or elsewhere, editorial comments or comments by society officers, or personal comments
on matters having to do with soil science.
Upon invitation of the technical editors, short critical reviews or essays on timely
subjects may be published on a limited basis. Under certain circumstances and with
approval of the technical editors, symposium papers may also be published in SSSAJ.
Ideas for symposia can be submitted to the editor.
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted to SSSAJ via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/sssaj. For further details, see Chapter 1 and the online instruc-
tions to authors. The editor assigns each manuscript to the technical editor supervising the
division in which the paper will be reviewed. The technical editor then assigns the manu-

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script to an associate editor according to field of specialization. The associate editor
obtains a minimum of two reviews. Associate editors have the authority to accept manu-
scripts for publication. Technical editors make the decision to release manuscripts.
Authors are given approximately 30 days for revision, after which time a paper is sub-
ject to release by the editor.
AGRICULTURAL & ENVIRONMENTAL LETTERS
Agricultural & Environmental Letters (A&EL) is an online-only open-access, con-
tinuously published journal copublished by ASA, CSSA, and SSSA. Papers submitted to
A&EL undergo a single-blind review process.
Scope
Papers are communications-length articles (generally 2500 words or fewer). The
journal publishes high-impact, broad-reaching, and timely research on major scientific
advances in the entire range of the agricultural and environmental sciences.
Agricultural & Environmental Letters uses an expedited review and publication pro-
cess. With this goal, the editorial board evaluates manuscripts submitted to A&EL accord-
ing to the following criteria:
• High-impact innovative results with broad implications at the forefront of one or sev-
eral agricultural disciplines.
• Results with immediate impact on the research of others and requiring rapid publication.
• Instrument or methods manuscript introducing an innovative technique that makes
new science advance possible, with immediate applications to agricultural disciplines.
Manuscripts describing cross-disciplinary research or addressing emerging issues are
of particular interest.
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted to A&EL via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ael. For further details, see Chapter 1 and the online instruc-
tions to authors.
All papers, whether invited or volunteered, are subject to review. The editor assigns
the manuscript to a technical editor on the basis of the subject matter. The technical editor,
in turn, assigns properly prepared manuscripts to an associate editor, who obtains a minimum
of two reviews. Technical editors notify authors when a manuscript is accepted or released.
Authors are given 10 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

AGROSYSTEMS, GEOSCIENCES & ENVIRONMENT

Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment (AGE) is an open-access, continuously
published journal copublished by ASA and CSSA. Papers submitted to AGE undergo a
single-blind review process
Scope
Agrosystems, Geosciences & Environment is a multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed journal
focusing on papers in agriculture, plant, environmental, and soil sciences. The journal pro-
vides a venue for full-length articles that are not typically published in other prominent
journals, including (a) experiments that are limited in geography or time (e.g. a single
site-year), (b) soil survey data papers and other significant data sets, (c) confirmatory papers,

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 8-03
and (d) results of experiments that report negative results (nonsignificant data that accept the
null hypothesis) that are nonetheless important.
Manuscript Handling
Contributions to AGE should be submitted via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/agrosystems. For further details, see Chapter 1 and the online
instructions to authors.. The editor assigns each manuscript to a senior editor on the basis of
the subject matter. The senior editor, in turn, assigns properly prepared manuscripts to an
associate editor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews. The associate editor recommends
acceptance or release of the paper to the senior editor, who in turns makes the final deci-
sion and notifies the author.
Authors are given 28 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

CROP, FORAGE, & TURFGRASS MANAGEMENT

Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management (CFTM) is an online-only journal copublished by
ASA and CSSA. Papers submitted to CFTM undergo a single-blind review process.
Scope
Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management covers all aspects of applied crop, forage and
grazinglands, and turfgrass management. The journal serves the professions related to the
management of crops, forages and grazinglands, and turfgrass by publishing research, briefs,
reviews, perspectives, and diagnostic and management guides that are beneficial to research-
ers, practitioners, educators, and industry representatives.
Manuscript Handling
Contributions to CFTM are submitted to the journal via the online submission system
at https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cftm. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to
authors for further details. The editor assigns each manuscript to a technical editor on the
basis of the subject matter. The technical editor, in turn, assigns properly prepared manu-
scripts to an associate editor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews. The associate editor
recommends acceptance or release of the paper to the technical editor, who in turns makes
the final decision and notifies the author.
Authors are given approximately 30 days for revision, after which time a paper is sub-
ject to release by the editor.

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

Journal of Environmental Quality (JEQ) is published six times a year by ASA, CSSA,
and SSSA. Papers submitted to JEQ undergo a single-blind review process.
Scope
The journal publishes contributions under the headings of Technical Reports,
Reviews and Analyses, Perspectives, Technical Notes, Datasets, Special Sections, Letters
to the Editor, and Book Reviews.

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 Papers in JEQ cover various aspects of anthropogenic impacts on the environment,
including terrestrial, atmospheric, and aquatic systems. Emphasis is given to the under-
standing of underlying processes rather than to monitoring.
Technical reports published in JEQ are grouped by subject matter. The subject areas
are periodically reviewed by the JEQ editorial board and are subject to change. The subject
matter areas include atmospheric pollutants and trace gases, biodegradation and bioreme-
diation, ecological risk assessment, ecosystem restoration, emerging contaminants, envi-
ronmental microbiology, environmental models, modules, and datasets, groundwater qual-
ity, landscape and watershed processes, organic compounds in the environment, plant and
environment interactions, resource reuse and recovery, surface water quality, trace ele-
ments in the environment, urban pollutants, vadose zone processes and chemical transport,
and wetland and aquatic processes.
The journal also frequently highlights topics in special sections.
Upon submission, the corresponding author designates the subject matter heading
under which the article could logically appear.
Contributions reporting original research or brief reviews and analyses dealing with
some aspect of environmental quality in natural and agricultural ecosystems are accepted
from all disciplines for consideration by the editorial board. Manuscripts may be volun-
teered, invited, or coordinated as a special section. Book reviews may be invited by the
editor.
Manuscript Handling
Contributions to JEQ are submitted to the journal via the online submission system
at http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jeq. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to
authors for further details. The editor assigns each manuscript to a technical editor on the
basis of the subject matter. The technical editor, in turn, assigns properly prepared manu-
scripts to an associate editor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews. The associate editor
recommends acceptance or release of the paper to the technical editor, who in turns makes
the recommendation to the journal editor. The journal editor makes the final decision and
notifies the author.
Authors are given 30 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.
JOURNAL OF PLANT REGISTRATIONS
Journal of Plant Registrations (JPR) is published three times a year and is the official
registration publication of CSSA. Papers submitted to JPR undergo a single-blind review
process.
Scope
Journal of Plant Registrations publishes cultivar, germplasm, parental line, genetic
stock, and mapping population registration manuscripts. Other paper types include reviews
and intrepretation articles, which describe plant genetic materials that have had a major
impact on agricultural security, and articles that characterize accessions held in a plant
germplasm collection system.­
Manuscript Handling
Contribution to JPR are submitted via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/plantreg. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to authors
for further details.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 8-05
 All papers, whether invited or volunteered, are subject to review. The journal editor assigns
the manuscript to an associate editor on the basis of the subject matter or crop. The associate
editor obtains a minimum of two reviews and recommends to the journal editor acceptance or
release of the paper. The journal editor makes the final decision and notifies the author.
NATURAL SCIENCES EDUCATION
Natural Sciences Education (NSE) is published continuously online by ASA. Papers
submitted to NSE undergo a single-blind review process. All manuscripts published during
a given year are combined into a volume for that year.
Natural Sciences Education is a unique journal that publishes articles from all natural
sciences disciplines and from various educational arenas. This is reflected by the diversity
of the professional societies who are NSE cooperators with ASA.
Scope
The journal accepts reports of original studies pertaining to concepts of resident,
extension, industrial, and K–16 education in the life sciences, natural resources, and agri-
culture. Reviews or digests of a comprehensive and well-defined scope are acceptable. The
journal also accepts notes; articles describing Power Point presentations, computer soft-
ware, and decision case studies; news features; profiles; media reviews; editorials; and
letters to the editor. Articles may confirm and strengthen the findings of others, revise
established ideas or practices, or challenge accepted theory, providing that the evidence
presented is significant and convincing. Manuscripts based mainly on personal philosophy
or opinion are acceptable if they conform to the above criteria.
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted to NSE via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/nse. For further details, see Chapter 1 and the online instruc-
tions to authors. Appendix B contains guidelines for decision case studies, Power Point
presentations, and software papers. The editor assigns the manuscript to an associate edi-
tor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews. Associate editors make their recommenda-
tions for acceptance or release to the journal’s editor. The journal editor notifies the author
of the decision.
Authors are given 28 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

THE PLANT GENOME

The Plant Genome (TPG) is an open-access, electronic journal published three times
per year by CSSA. Papers submitted to TPG undergo a single-blind review process.
Scope
The Plant Genome publishes original research investigating all aspects of plant
genomics. Technical breakthroughs reporting improvements in the efficiency and speed of
acquiring and interpreting plant genomics data are welcome. The editorial board gives
preference to novel reports that use innovative genomic applications that advance our
understanding of plant biology that may have applications to crop improvement. The jour-
nal also publishes invited review articles and perspectives that offer insight and commen-
tary on recent advances in genomics and their potential for agronomic improvement.

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 Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts to TPG are submitted via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/plantgenome. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to
authors for further details. The editor assigns the manuscript to an associate editor on the
basis of the subject matter or crop. The associate editor obtains a minimum of two reviews
and recommends to the journal editor acceptance or release of the paper. The journal editor
makes the final decision and notifies the author.
Authors are given approximately 28 days for revision, after which time a paper is sub-
ject to release by the editor.

THE PLANT PHENOME JOURNAL

The Plant Phenome Journal (TPPJ), copublished by ASA and CSSA, is a continu-
ously published online-only open-access journal. Papers submitted to TPPJ undergo a
single-blind review process.
Scope
The Plant Phenome Journal is a transdisciplinary, open-access journal publishing
original research, interpretations, and data sets investigating all aspects of plant phe-
nomics. Methodological advancements in sensors, devices, vehicles, or technologies for
data collection, data management, algorithms or data analysis should be combined with
impact in at least one application domain of agronomy, genetic discovery, physiology,
pest management, or plant breeding. Articles reporting breakthrough research in applica-
tions domains and new technological advancements will be accepted for review as
papers. Papers may also include critical reviews or interpretive articles. Interpretations
are encouraged to synthesize across crops, disciplines, and institutions. Short articles
(usually four printed pages or less) primarily concerned with specific technological
advancements that improve plant phenomics will be accepted for review as Science
Notes and should describe the application domain. Data briefs (usually two pages or
less) are papers that describe a large phenotypic data set submitted to the journal repos-
itory for community analysis. All data sets should adhere to best metadata and curation
practices at the time of submission. Public comments on all published submissions are
accepted and encouraged.
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tppj. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to authors for
further details.
All papers, whether invited or volunteered, are subject to review. Papers are assigned
by the editor to a technical editor, who obtains a minimum of two reviews, followed by a
recommendation for decision to the editor.
Authors are given 30 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

URBAN AGRICULTURE & REGIONAL FOOD SYSTEMS

Urban Agriculture & Regional Food Systems (UA), copublished by ASA and CSSA,
is a continuously published online-only open-access journal. Papers submitted to UA
undergo a double-blind review process.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 8-07
 Scope
Urban Agriculture & Regional Food Systems is a multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed
journal focusing on urban and peri-urban agriculture and systems of urban and regional
food provisioning in developing, transition, and advanced economies. The journal intends
to be a platform for cutting-edge research on urban and peri-urban agricultural production
for food and nonfood (e.g., flowers, medicine, cosmetics) uses and for social, environmen-
tal, and health services (e.g., tourism, water storage, care, education, waste recycling,
urban greening).
Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/urbanag. See Chapter 1 and the online instructions to authors
for further details. Papers are assigned by the editor to an associate editor, who obtains a
minimum of two reviews, followed by a recommendation for decision to the editor.
Authors are given 28 days for revision, after which time a paper is subject to release by
the editor.

VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL

Vadose Zone Journal (VZJ) is an online-only open-access, continuously published
journal published by SSSA. Geological Society of America is a journal cooperator. Papers
submitted to VZJ undergo a single-blind review process.
Scope
Vadose Zone Journal is a unique publication outlet for interdisciplinary research and
assessment of the Critical Zone, which comprises the Earth’s critical living surface down to
groundwater. It is a peer-reviewed, international journal publishing reviews, original
research, and special sections across a wide range of disciplines. Vadose Zone Journal wel-
comes original contributions, reviews, and opinion papers across a wide range of disciplines
that involve the vadose zone, including those that address broad scientific and societal
issues (e.g., climate change, biofuels, sustainability, nanotechnology). The journal pub-
lishes contributions in the following categories: Original Research, Reviews and Analyses,
Updates (short reviews of recent progress in a particular area), Technical Notes, Comments,
Letters to the Editor, and Book Reviews. Priority Communications highlight research
results that have far-reaching impacts across the vadose zone community. Reproducible
Research publishes code and data alongside an article, thereby enabling readers to analyze
data in a manner similar to that presented in the article and build on the results in future
research and applications.
Vadose Zone Journal frequently highlights topics in special sections. The journal also
gathers together published papers in 12 core trending focus topics: Critical zone research and
observatories, Evapotranspiration, Hydrogeophysics, Permafrost and cold vadose zone,
Preferential flow, Remote sensing of the vadose zone, Soil hydraulic properties, Soil mois-
ture sensor development and calibration, Soil-plant and rhizosphere processes, Spatial-
temporal dynamics of soil moisture, Transport of chemicals in the vadose zone, and Vadose
zone models.

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 Manuscript Handling
Manuscripts are submitted to VZJ via the online submission system at https://
mc.manuscriptcentral.com/vzj. For further details, see Chapter 1 and the online instructions
to authors. The editor or a co-editor assigns the paper to an associate editor, who distributes
the paper for review. The associate editor recommends acceptance or release of the paper
to the editor, but the authority to accept or release the paper rests with the editor.
Authors are given approximately 30 days for revision, after which time a paper is sub-
ject to release by the editor.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 8-09
Chapter 9. Books and Other Publications
In addition to journals, ASA, CSSA, and SSSA publish Agronomy Monographs, the SSSA
Book Series,the ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Special Publication Series, other books, educational
materials, multimedia, glossaries, and miscellaneous publications. Development of new pub-
lications is handled by the ASA, CSSA, SSSA Book and Multimedia Publishing Committee.
SERIES
Agronomy Monographs
A monograph is a detailed, scholarly treatise written by experts on a single topic.
SSSA Book Series
A book in the SSSA Book Series is a detailed, scholarly treatise written by experts on a
single topic.
Methods of Soil Analysis Online
The Methods of Soil Analysis books, published by SSSA, are a staple in labs and
soil science departments. In addition, the Society now publishes Methods of Soil Analysis
online, individual methods articles that address advances in methods techniques or intro-
duce new methods.
Special Publication Series
Special Publications often result from symposia on timely topics but may also be devel-
oped from an idea for a specific topic not associated with a symposium.
OTHER BOOKS
The subject matter of other books published by the Societies includes any topic
within the publishing goals of the Societies. Generally, topics cover a broader aspect of
a particular subject than a Special Publication. Appropriate book projects also include
audience-specific publications such as textbooks and professional guides.
MULTIMEDIA
The Societies encourage proposals for books that include complementary multimedia
materials. The Societies also publish stand-alone multimedia publications, the subject mat-
ter of which includes any topic within the publishing goals of the Societies
DUTIES OF CHAPTER AUTHORS
Authors are responsible for preparing and submitting (a) detailed chapter outlines,
(b) a first draft of the manuscript, and (c) a final draft of the manuscript incorporating all
changes requested by the editor. Authors are also responsible for correcting proofs.
Authors must secure and submit to the editor written permission from the owners
to use any copyrighted material, including figures published elsewhere (see Chapter 10).
Correspondence from publishers granting permission should be forwarded to the book editor.
Manuscripts should be submitted via the online submission system according to
deadlines agreed upon with the editor. The editor may replace authors who do not meet
deadlines or who provide unsatisfactory manuscripts.
Authors should prepare complete, up-to-date, definitive chapters covering the
assigned subject matter. They are responsible for the interpretation they place on the

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 9-01
published literature and should make critical analyses of reported research results. Authors
should obtain in-house institutional or agency reviews of their chapters and institutional
clearance before submitting manuscripts. Chapters are peer reviewed.
Authors are responsible for the costs involved in preparation of their manuscripts,
including illustrations. They must agree that material in the manuscript will be published
first by the Society(ies) and that the Society(ies), as publisher(s), will control its subse-
quent distribution via transfer of copyright (see Chapter 10).
Authors should use this manual as the official guide for preparing the manuscripts.
The editor should inform authors of any special procedures to ensure uniformity in style
of writing for text, units of measurements, scientific names, literature references, illustra-
tions, and other details.
STYLE
The standard journal article format outlined in Chapter 1 is usually not used in other
publications, but certain sections, such as references, follow the same format as for journal
articles. Book editors may determine their own preferences, but manuscripts generally follow
the same scientific and editorial requirements as journal articles, as should tables and figures.
When a project is nearing completion, authors should contact the managing editor for
assistance in submitting the final materials for production. The following is a checklist for
submission:
• Indicate a corresponding author for each chapter, and provide a complete list of
contact information.
• Submit chapter text and tables in Microsoft Word.
• Include all figure captions and tables after the text of each chapter.
• Supply all figures when submitting each chapter. Whenever possible, authors
should supply figures as individual files. Make all type and line thicknesses large
enough to withstand reduction to a final figure size of about 11 by 17 cm (~4 1/4
by 6 1/2 inches). Resolution should be 300 dpi for photos and 600 dpi for line art.
Check the final files to verify the quality and legibility. Contact Headquarters staff
for the latest file preferences.
• Provide scientific names, with authorities, for all crops and other organisms men-
tioned; identify soils; provide chemical names for all pesticides (see Chapter 3);
and supply a list of preferred abbreviations if desired.

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9-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Chapter 10. Copyright and Permission to Publish
To comply with the provisions of the US Copyright Act of 1976 (P.L. 94-553), ASA,
CSSA, and SSSA handle copyright and permissions in the follow­ing ways.
1. A Permission to Publish and Republish statement is used when the Societies do
not intend to copyright an individual article in a publication.
2. A Transfer of Copyright form is used for publications where the in­dividual articles
are copyrighted by ASA, CSSA, and/or SSSA. Details of the transfer agreement
are given on the form.
For journal articles, copyright is addressed at the time of acceptance via a license
agreement form. The permission to publish and republish statement is part of the online
submissions process. The author checks the appropriate box depending on whether they
are a US government employee, an employee of certain non-US governments, or a non-
government author. General­ly, work done by government employees on government time
is in the public domain and cannot be copyrighted; the form certifies how the work was
done. All authors of an article must be US government employees at the time the work was
done for the article to be in the public domain in the United States. Authors of accepted
works receive instructions for signing their article license, which includes a section on
copyright ownership. For more information on understanding copyright and licensing, see
https://authorservices.wiley.com/author-resources/Journal-Authors/licensing/index.html.
The copyright law also requires that permission be obtained to use copyrighted mate-
rial that was published elsewhere. It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission
from the owner of material not in the public domain. Correspondence should be sent to
the appropriate copyright holder requesting permission. The permission statement(s)
should be sent to headquarters to become part of the manuscript documentation.
Many of our journals are open access. For our non-open access (hybrid) journals,
authors may make their articles open access for an additional charge, as noted in the jour-
nal's online instructions to authors.
For more information on permissions, see https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
usage-permissions.

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. 10-01
Appendix A. Online Resources
NOMENCLATURE: PLANTS, PESTS, SOILS, AND CHEMICALS
Animal index by species name
www.animalinfo.org/spec_ind.htm
APS fungal, bacterial, and viral disease search by plant species
https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/resources/commonnames/Pages/default.aspx
Common names of insects database
https://www.entsoc.org/common-names
Chemical name lists and databases
http://chembiofinder.cambridgesoft.com
www.alanwood.net/pesticides
Composite list of weeds
https://wssa.net/wssa/weed/composite-list-of-weeds/
http://www.wssa.net/Weeds/ID/PhotoGallery.htm
Entomological taxa and field guide
https://texasinsects.tamu.edu/
GRIN fungal database site
https://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
https://talk.ictvonline.org/
International Plant Names Index
https://www.ipni.org/
Prokaryotic nomenclature up-to-date
https://www.dsmz.de/bacterial-diversity/prokaryotic-nomenclature-up-to-date.html
USDA National Official Soil Series Descriptions
https://soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/osdname.aspx
USDA National Plant Germplasm System (GRIN)
https://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/index.html#
USDA-NRCS Plants Database
https://plants.usda.gov
USDA plant taxonomy, GRIN database of crop registrations & PVPs
https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
PATENTS AND PLANT VARIETY PROTECTION
U.S. Patents, including plant patents: https://www.uspto.gov/patents
U.S. Plant Variety Protection: https://www.ars-grin.gov/PVP
REFERENCES
Acronyms and abbreviations: www.acronymfinder.com
Merriam-Webster OnLine dictionary: https://www.merriam-webster.com/
SI AND UNIT CONVERSION
Metric Internet links: https://www.nist.gov/pml/weights-and-measures/metric-conversion-
software

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. A-01
National Institute of Standards and Technology reference on constants, units, and uncertainty:
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu
Online conversions: www.onlineconversion.com
SOCIETY AND JOURNAL LINKS
Publication information
https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
https://www.agronomy.org/publications
https://www.crops.org/publications
https://www.soils.org/publications
Manuscript Central online submission and review system
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ael (Agricultural & Environmental Letters)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/agron (Agronomy Journal)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/agrosystems (Agrosystems, Geosciences &
Environment)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/cftm (Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/crop (Crop Science)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/jeq (Journal of Environmental Quality)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/plantreg (Journal of Plant Registrations)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/nse (Natural Sciences Education)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/sssaj (Soil Science Society of America Journal)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/plantgenome (The Plant Genome)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/tppj (The Plant Phenome Journal)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/urbanag (Urban Agriculture and Regional
Food Systems)
https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/vzj (Vadose Zone Journal)
ASA, CSSA, and SSSA International Annual Meetings
https://www.acsmeetings.org/
CSSA Glossary of Crop Science Terms
https://www.crops.org/publications/crops-glossary
SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms
https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary
SOFTWARE
Adobe Acrobat Reader, for viewing PDF files
http://www.adobe.com
TeX conversion to Word
http://www.tex2word.com

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A-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
Appendix B: Software Papers and Case Studies
GUIDELINES FOR SOFTWARE PAPERS IN CROP SCIENCE
Crop Science (CS) publishes papers related to computing in crop science. Papers may
focus on measurement or analysis software, monitoring and control software, visualization,
specialized databases and data structures, computer utilities for agronomists, comparisons
of algorithms or programs, and decision support systems. Software manuscripts may be
submitted as Original Research or Letters to the Editor. CS encourages authors to make
their software available at no or low cost, including source code. Field applications of
existing software, databases, or decision support systems typically belong in the related
subject section. The editor reserves the right to reassign a paper to another section.
As with other manuscripts submitted to CS, software manuscripts must adhere
to accepted scientific standards in terms of a review of relevant literature, testing, and
documentation of methods. The authors must show that the software performs its stated
function, which generally requires testing the methodology and presenting one or more
sample applications. Because the emphasis is on the software, use of previously published
data is acceptable where appropriate. Authors are encouraged to make programs and docu-
mentation available at the beginning of the review process and may be required to do so at
the editor’s discretion.
Manuscripts submitted as software papers to CS should address the following
issues:
1. What are the intended uses and users of the program?
a. W hat does the software do? How well does it do it? Does it do it better
(faster? At lower cost?) than existing methods or products?
b. W hat need does the program address? How is the need currently being
addressed, if at all?
c. Is the program intended for researchers, producers, consultants and exten-
sion agents, or some other group?
d. W hat are the limitations of the program? Are there assumptions in the
program that prohibit its application to apparently related uses?
2. How does the program work?
a. If the program uses a new algorithm, it should be described; if an estab-
lished algorithm is central to it, it should be referenced. New algorithms
can be described using a flowchart, pseudocode, a short segment of actual
code, or a written description.
b. W here helpful to the reader, longer sections of code can be provided as an
appendix. Format code in a monospaced font (e.g., Letter Gothic or Cou-
rier) that clearly distinguishes between 1, l, I, O, and 0. Indent lines only
where code structure requires it. If there can be any doubt about runover
lines vs. new lines, add a marginal or cover note of explanation.
c. If the logical flow of the entire program is of interest, it should be described
via a flowchart, pseudocode, or a written description.
3. What is required to run the program?
a. Is the program commercial or free? If free, is it executable-only, or is
the source code included? If the program is commercial, the seller, price,
and user support agreements should be mentioned; if free, the copying

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. B-01
 policies, programming language, and specific compiler or interpreter
required should be specified.
b. W hat operating systems will it run under?
c. W hat hardware is required to run the program? Include both minimum
and optimal configurations; specify memory and graphics requirements
and any required or useful peripherals.
d. How much disk space is required to store the program and associated
files? How big are the required input and output files?
e. Are there any supporting software requirements? For example, does the
program require an interpreter or a specific spreadsheet program?
f. How can the program be obtained? If possible, give both a URL for down-
loading (or email, for reply with file attachment) and a physical address.
For the physical address, include mailing instructions.
4. How does the program operate from the user's perspective?
a. Is there a manual available? Is it in the form of a book, a file, or online
help? Is any support available from the authors, the seller, or some other
party?
b. How is the program invoked and operated?
c. W here truly informative, screen shots may be provided as figures. Avoid
merely decorative screen shots that largely duplicate the text.
d. W here sample output is useful, provide it as a table (i.e., a text file, not a
graphics file). For publication, this will be formatted as a standard table,
close to but not necessarily identical to the appearance of the output
submitted.
e. W hat inputs are required, and in what format? How are these inputs
obtained?
f. W hat outputs are produced, and in what format? What does the output
mean?

NATURAL SCIENCES EDUCATION CASE STUDIES AND SOFTWARE

PUBLICATION POLICIES
Contemporary interest in providing problem-solving and decision-making experi-
ences in education has prompted the adaptation of decision cases to agricultural, natural
resource, and life science situations. The Natural Sciences Education (NSE) editorial
board reviews decision cases suitable for use in classroom or extension education situa-
tions. The following guidelines describe the format for publication of decision cases.
Prospective authors will find it helpful to consult these guidelines in manuscript prepara-
tion to ensure minimal editorial delay.
Decision Case Guidelines in NSE

Criteria for Evaluation

Primary consideration is given to original cases that describe actual situations (not
simulations) requiring a decision. Decision cases should foster integration of concepts, use
of problem-solving skills, application of technical information, and/or consideration of
human, societal, and ethical factors. Appropriate decision-maker roles for published cases

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B-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
include producers, scientists or other professionals, educators, and policymakers. Criteria
for acceptance of decision cases are:
1. Cases must describe an actual (not simulated) situation that advances understand-
ing or teaching of decision making.
2. Cases must be thorough and well documented (e.g., adequate exhibit support).
3. Cases must address topics and issues of interest to a broad educational audience.
4. Cases must be clearly and concisely written.
Format Specifications
Abstract. Write a clearly worded abstract of the case situation including description
of the decision maker, decision focus, key issues, and case objectives/use. The abstract
should contain a maximum of 250 words.
The case. The case text should be interesting and easy to read. An introductory para-
graph preceding the case should set forth the context of the case, including citation of other
published cases of relevance to the case being presented. The case description should permit
the reader to fully understand the background and specific considerations of the case. The
text should allow the reader to readily identify with the decision maker(s) and the decision.
The objectives of the decision maker should be evident in the case, either by explicit mention
or by inference from other case information. The alternatives or options of the decision
maker in dealing with the issues should also be clear to the reader. The concluding paragraph
of the case should refocus on the major issue(s). It is convention to write cases in past tense.
Exhibits. Effective cases are usually supported by relevant exhibits. Examples of
exhibits include data bearing on the decision, illustrations, background documents, and
correspondence, among others. Exhibits should be drawn from actual, unaltered sources
(exceptions may be made when confidentiality must be protected) and should be refer-
enced in the appropriate places within the case text. Case exhibits should be well organized
and concise and should not contain information that is irrelevant to the case. Exhibit infor-
mation taken directly from published works should be referenced. Exhibits should be
numbered in the same order as they are referenced in the case.
Teaching note. The teaching note describes the objectives of the case and the prin-
ciple issues considered. This section of the manuscript should provide the reader a concise
interpretation of the significance and educational value of the case. The section should also
describe how the case has been or may be used in a classroom or extension education con-
text. If the case has been used, the teaching note may provide a summary of student evalu-
ations of the case. The teaching note may also include the author’s analysis of the case,
although the detail provided in this analysis may be limited to protect the potential use of
the case by readers. Educators interested in teaching the case can usually obtain a full copy
of the author’s analysis by corresponding directly with the author. The teaching note is
particularly important for assisting readers in deciding whether or how to use the case.
References. Citable references in the case text, teaching note, or exhibits should be
listed. Use the author–year system for citing references.
Abridged case format. Some cases cannot be published as complete cases due to
their length or complexity. Such cases may be published in an abridged case format. All
abridged cases submitted for publication, regardless of length or complexity, must be
reviewed in their entirety prior to acceptance. No case will be accepted unless both the
complete case and abridged version have been favorably reviewed by the reviewers and

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. B-03
editors. Text of abridged cases should be identified as “Case (Abridged).” The text of an
abridged case, as well as the teaching note, should be of sufficient length and detail to
permit readers to understand the nature of the decision, the identity of the decision
maker(s), the principal issues of the case, and the educational value of the case. The
abridged text and teaching note should contain sufficient information to allow readers to
assess the potential for use of the case. Important exhibits should also be presented when-
ever possible. As a minimum, abridged cases should contain a complete list and brief
description of all exhibits referenced in the complete case. If readers are interested in
teaching a case published in abridged format, they should request a copy of the complete
case directly from the corresponding author.
Examples of complete and abridged cases are published in NSE (42:186–191,
43:192–200, 44:201–210, 45:211–220) Prospective authors may reference these for guid-
ance on format and style. Refer to the online instructions to authors for contribution guide-
lines and style information.
Computer Software Publication Policy
At the 1983 ASA annual meetings, the Editorial Board approved the following guide-
lines concerning publication of computer software articles. Prospective authors will find it
helpful to consult this checklist early in their manuscript preparation to ensure compliance
and minimize editorial delays. In most cases, it would be useful to provide copies of the
software along with the manuscript for the review process.
Guidelines for Publishing Computer Software in NSE

I. Pedagogy
The primary thrust of computer software manuscripts must be on pedagogical appli-
cations. For papers stressing developmental and/or modeling theory of the software itself,
authors will be asked to adapt the paper to a pedagogical theme or to publish in a more
appropriate journal.
II. Specifications. Reviewers should check manuscripts for inclusion of the following soft-
ware specifications:

Encoding Language. C++, Java, VB, PHP, etc.

Minimum Memory Requirements. For example, 128 K.
Minimum Free Hard Drive Space. For example, 1 GB.
Additional Software Programs Required for Use. Microsoft Word, Microsoft
PowerPoint, etc.
III. Documentation. Manuscripts should indicate the availability of documentation about
the software. Such user aides are frequently printed manuals or instructional files located
on the program.
Reference to start-up and ending procedures should also be included in this docu-
mentation. In addition, the author is expected to adequately describe input requirements as
well as output information and format somewhere in the manuscript.
IV. Availability. In all cases, authors should make a clear statement about the availability
of the software to readers. For example, if the software is declared to be public domain
material, it may be supplied free upon request, or upon receipt of a USB memory stick.
In the case of software offered for sale, the source, proposed fee, and major user-agree-

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B-04 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
ment specifications should be included. Also, note whether multiple copies for classroom
use are allowed.

V. Example. Conforming to these criteria will enable readers to more informatively

evaluate the utility of software for their own systems. Item I should represent the major
message of the author. Items II, III, and IV should be packaged into a minor, unobtrusive
section of the manuscript entitled Software Specifications. An older example follows:

Software Specifications
The final version of the 2000 Arkansas Envirothon educational resource material
CD-ROM contains directions and files totaling approximately 540 Mb. Directions for
accessing the CD-ROM are stored in both in a MS-DOS text file (README.TXT) and in
rich text format (README.RTF). The files may be accessed by any web browser capable
of reading HTML version 3.0 and above and Adobe Acrobat Reader version 3.0 and above
compatible with your operating system. Netscape Communicator version 4.07 and Adobe
Acrobat Reader version 4.0 for Windows 95 or 98 operating system are included on the
CD-ROM with instructions for installing the software. Those wishing to obtain a copy of
the CD may contact the current president of the Arkansas Envirothon Steering Committee.
Current email addresses are provided on the Arkansas Envirothon website (http://www.
uaex.edu/envirothon/).

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Publications Handbook and Style Manual. B-05
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Ref-02 Publications Handbook and Style Manual.
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