sCIENCE M1

Alfred Wegener, an Austrian climatologist, who first noted

THEORIES ON THE MOVEMENT OF THE LITHOSPHERE
the theory on the movement of the Earth’s land masses and
is known today as the modern Plate Tectonic Theory (Oskin, CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
2017). This theory states that the Earth’s crust is composed A Theory states that earth was one composed of only 1
of several broken plates that continuously move either supercontinent (PANGAEA). Split into 2 sub-continents
away, past, or towards each other. LAURASIA and GONDWANALAND. Laurasia split into a few
smaller continents forming the continents in the northern
hemisphere. ASIA,EUROPE,NORTH AMERICA,SOUTH
AMERICA AND AFRICA. The continents of the
southern hemisphere, AUSTRALIA and ANTARCTICA
In the early 1900s, Alfred observed that the coastal areas are the two continents divided from Gondwanaland.
of the continents today seemed to look like jigsaw puzzle
pieces that fit to each other. With this observation, he SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY
- Proposed by Harry Hess of Princeton University
inferred that the Earth could have once been composed of
- States that the seafloor is continuously spreading and the
only one continent and was split into several smaller extra crust gets recycled into the mantle
continents due to lithospheric processes through time.
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
States that the crust is composed of different plates which
move either towards, away or past each other. Modern
version of Continental Drift Theory

VOLCANO In the PhilippineS, There are 24 active volcanoeS

liSted by DELOS REYES (2018)
Those that erupt regularly are called active,
In the PhilippineS, There are 24 active oeS
while those that have erupted in historical
livolcan Sted by DELOS REYES (2018)
times but are now quiet are called
dormant (or inactive)

Cinder Cone Volcano

-Steep slope
-Emits ash during eruption

Shield Volcano
-Wide base
-Emits lava
-Looks like a shield hence the name
Composite Volcano
-Or Stratovolcano
-Half way of having steep slope and wide
base
-Emits both ash and lava
 sCIENCE M2
How would the sorroundings be affected during
Seismic waves are vibrations that are generated by an
an earthquake? As an earthquake occurs, energy
earthquake, explosion, or other geological processes
moves out in all directions from the focus. The
and propagate through the Earth's layers.
energy that is released is carried by a vibration
called
waves.seismic
There are 4 main types of earthquake waves.

BO D Y SULROVFE WAACVESE Seismologists can locate the epicenter of an

P W AVE S ( earthquake by using triangulation. This is a way
WAVES
S WAVES (SECONDARY WAVES) RAYLEIGH WAVES

- P waves (primary waves) are compressional waves that travel

of determining something’s location using the
locations of other things. When seismic data is
through solids, liquids, and gases, and they are the fastest seismic
waves. They cause rock particles to vibrate in the same direction as
collected from at least three (3) different locations,
the wave's propagation. it can be used to determine the epicenter of an
- S waves (secondary waves) are shear waves that can only earthquake. Hence, scientists need at least three (3)
propagate through solids. They are slower than P waves and cause seismic stations to clearly identify the location.
particles to move perpendicular to the wave's propagation.
- Love waves are surface waves that cause a side-to-side motion,
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, similar to
the motion of a snake slithering on the ground. They are What causes an earthquake?
slower than body waves. An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The
- Rayleigh waves are also surface waves and cause both vertical tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at
and horizontal motions in an elliptical pattern. They have a rolling their edges due to friction. For example, the photo below shows
or ocean wave-like motion and are slower than P and S an earthquake that took place in the Philippines. The area where
waves. an earthquake occurs is called a fault, or where the surface
slipped. In addition, the location below the earth’s surface where

What toa fire extinguisher;

Must prepare do before an the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location
directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the
First aid kit; epicenter.
Battery powered radio; The magnitude of an earthquake is based on the measurement of
Emergency light/flashlights with extra battery; the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. The most
Must learn to turn off gas, electicity and water; commonly used are the Local Magnitude (ML) or known as the
Heavy objects must not be placed above the head level; and Richter magnitude, the surface wave magnitude (Ms), body -wave
Make a plan where to meet with your family magnitude (Mb), and moment magnitude (Mw).

What to do during an Earthquake

Stay calm.

THE THICKNESS OF DIFFERENT

LAYERS OF THE EARTH.
LAYER
CRUST - 40
MANTLE - 2900
OUTER CORE 2200
INNER CORE 1278
sCIENCE M 3/4/5
Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Theory Causes of plate
The coastlines of the continents fit together like puzzle pieces. movement
Identical fossils of organisms were found on different trenches
continents,suggesting a past land connection. Arc islands
Certain continents share common geological features, such as mid-ocean
mountain ranges, rock types, minerals, and resources. ridge
mountains

Continental Drift Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) Plate Tectonics

He proposed the Continental Drift Hypothesis. Plate boundaries are the places where two or more tectonic
plates meet and interact. Tectonic plates are large sections
A German meteorologist and geophysicist, he observed the of Earth’s crust and upper mantle that move slowly over
time. Plate boundaries are important because they are
puzzle-like fit of the continents. often associated with earthquakes, volcanoes,
mountains, and ocean trenches.

Example of plate Movements

SAN ANDRES FAULT
ICELAND FISSURE

MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES Plate Tectonics

seismic and volcanic activity.

DIV E R G E N T
Ar ea rea sw he re t wo plates are moving
apart from each other,creating new seafloor as magma rises
from the mantle. An example of a divergent boundary is the

CONVERGENT
Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Are areas where two plates are moving towards each other,
resulting in one plate diving underneath another or both plates
crumpling up.
An example of Convergent Boundaries is the Himalayas.

TRANSFORM
Are areas where two plates are sliding past each other
horizontally,causing friction and earthquakes.
An example of Transform fault boundaries is the San
Andreas Fault.

Principles of Plate Tectonics:

Formulated in the 1960s.
According to this theory, Earth's rigid outer layer, known as the
lithosphere, floats on the partially molten asthenosphere.
Interactions at plate boundaries, including convergence,
divergence, and transform faulting, are responsible for
The concept of "Plate tectonics" revolutionized the understanding
of Earth's surface, revealing it to be a dynamic structure composed
of several tectonic plates.

2 TYPES OF PLATE
Oceanic Plate
Found beneath the ocean, it is thin and dense, mainly composed of
basalt.

Continental Plate
Thicker than oceanic plates but less dense, mainly composed of
granite.

3 Types of Transform Plate Boundaries

1. Ridge-Ridge Boundaries – A mid-ocean ridge or mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater
mountain range, formed by plate tectonics. This uplifting of the ocean floor occurs
when convection currents rise in the mantle beneath the oceanic crust and create
magma where two tectonic plates meet at a divergent boundary.
2. Ridge-Trench Boundaries - trench is a deep elongated cavity bordering a continent or
an island arc; it forms when one tectonic plate slides beneath another. Ridge is
underwater mountain range that criss-crosses the oceans and is formed by rising magma
in a zone where two plates are moving apart.
3. Trench-Trench Boundaries – trenches are formed by a subduction, a geophysical
processes in which two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates converge and the older, denser
plate is pushed beneath the lighter plate and deep into the mantle, causing the seafloor
and outermost crust (the lithosphere) to bend and form a steep, V-shaped depression.
sCIENCE M6
P AN G E
Consequences of Plate Movement
When the plates move, they will eventually collide. These
collisions cause earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes. In
is als o cal led as “ all land s” the case of earthquakes, they usually happen when two
drifted into their current
plates slide past each other. Meanwhile, volcanoes form

A
distribution.
when one plate sinks under the other plate allowing

How Fast Do Plates Move? lava/magma to seep through and build up to form a
volcano
According to some scientists, a plate moves between 1 to
a 5 centimeters
nd theseper
lands,
year.over time,
ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST AND
THERE PERCENTAGE
OXYGEN - 46.60
SILICON - 27.72
ALUMINUM - 8.13
IRON - 5.00
CALCIUM - 3.63
SODIUM - 2.83
POTASSIUM - 2.59
MAGNESIUM - 2.09
TITANIUM - 0.40
HYDROGEN - 0.14

PL A T E B O U N D
Seis mic a nd vo lcanic activ ities in dicat e plat e
Plate margins were initially determined by mapping earthquake and volcanic activity
worldwide.
Plate boundaries are active regions where most seismic and volcanic activities occur.
Earthquakes result from the friction between moving plates.
Tsunamis are generated by the displacement of a large volume of ocean water due to
fault movement.
Volcanic activity occurs when energy is released by near-surface or surface magma
movement.

NOTEs NI ARAGAsI