FIRST TERM E NOTES

SUBJECT: PHYSICS CLASS: SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL 2

SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
1. Position, distance and displacement.
2. Scalar and vector Quantities-Concept of scalar and vector quantities, vector representation etc.
3. Derivation of equationof linear motion, Motion under gravity, calculation using these
equations.
4. Projectiles and its application.
5. Newton Laws of Motion-Conservation of Linear momentum and collision energy.
6. Equilibrium if Forces-principle of moment, conditions for equilibrium of a Rigid Bodies etc.
7. Equilibrium if Forces -centre of gravity and stability, couple
MID-TERM PROJECT

8. Simple Harmonic Motion-definition, speed, amplitude, displacement, acceleration,etc.

9. Simple Harmonic Motion- Energy of simple harmonic motion and forced vibration, Resonance.
10. Machines - Types and Examples
11. Machines - Calculation.
12. Revision
13. Examination
WEEK 1
POSITION, DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
CONTENTS
 Position
 Distance
 Displacement
POSITION: The position of an object in space or on a plane is the point at which the object can be located with
reference to a given point(the origin).
DISTANCE: This is a measure of the separation between two points. It has magnitude but no direction. Hence, it
is a scalar quantity
DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
If two points A and B located in a plane are defined by two ordered pair of values(X 1 Y1) and (X2 Y2) or assumed
to be in space where they are defined by (X1, Y1, Z1) and (X2, Y2, Z2) the distance between them can be determined
by applying this relation.
S=√ [(X 2− X 1)+ ( Y 2−Y ) ]
OR
S=√ [(X 2− X 1)+ ( Y 2−Y ) +(Z 2−Z 1)]

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DISPLACEMENT: Displacement is the distance covered in a specified direction. It is a vector quantity, which
has the same unit as distance.

WEEK 2
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
CONTENTS
 Concept of scalar and vector quantities
 Vector representation, addition of vectors
 Resolution of vectors and resultant
CONCEPT OF SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
Physical quantities are divided into scalar and vector quantities.
A scalar is one which has only magnitude (size) e.g. distance, speed, temperature, volume, work, energy, power,
mass etc.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction e.g. force, weight, magnetic flux, electric fields, gravitational
fields etc.
VECTOR REPRESENTATION
A vector quantity can be graphically represented by a line drawn so that the length of the line denotes the
magnitude of the quantity. The direction of the vector is shown by the arrow head.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
Two or more vectors acting on a body in a specified direction can be combined to produce a single vector having
the same effect. The single vector is called the resultant.
For example:
(a) Two forces Y and X with magnitude of 3N and 4N respectively acting along the same direction will produce a
resultant of 7N (algebraic sum of the two vectors).
(b) If Y and X act in opposite direction, the resultant will be 1N.
(c) If the two vectors are inclined at 900 to each other, Pythagoras theorem is used.
Y
3N
Y3
N

)θ
4N X O
4N X

R 2 = X2 + Y2 Tan θ = Y/X
R2 = 42 + 32 θ = tan-1(Y /X)
R2 =16 + 9 θ = tan-1(3/4)
R2 = 25 θ = tan-1(0.75)
R = √ 25 θ = 36.90
R = 5N
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(d) If the two vectors are inclined at an angle less than 900 or more than 900, the resultant is obtained by using
Parallelogram law of vector addition.
Parallelogram law of vector addition states that if two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by
adjacent sides of a parallelogram , the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of
the parallelogram drawn from the common point
RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
A single vector can be resolved into two vectors called components. A vector F represented as the diagonal of the
parallelogram can be resolved into its component later taken as the adjacent sides of the parallelogram.

F
Y
Ɵ
)θ
X
Sinθ = y /F
y = f sin θ (vertical component)
Cosθ = x /F
x = F cos θ (horizontal component)
The direction of F is given by
Tan θ = y/x
θ = tan-1 (y/x)
THE RESULATNT OF MORE THAN TWO VECTORS
To find the resultant of more than two vectors, we resolve each vector in two perpendicular direction s add all the
horizontal components X, and all the vertical components, Y.
For example, consider four forces acting on a body as shown below
Figure 1:
F2 F1

Θ2 θ1
Θ3 θ4

F3 F4

Figure 2:
Y R

)∞
X

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 Figure 1:
Add all the resolved horizontal components
X = F1 cos θ1 + (-F2 cosθ2 ) + (-F3 cos θ3 ) + F4 cos θ4
Y= F1 sin θ1 + F2 sinθ2 + (-F3 sinθ3) + (-F4 sinθ4)
Figure 2:
R 2 = X2 + Y2
R = √X2+ Y2
And the direction ∞ is given by
Tan ∞ = y/x

WEEK3
DERIVATION OF EQUATONS OF LINEAR MOTION
CONTENTS
 Basic definitions
 Derivation of equations of linear motion
 Motion under gravity

BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. Displacement: This is the distance traveled in a specified direction. It is a vector quantity. Its unit is
metres
2. Distance: This is the space or separation between two points. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is metres
3. Speed: this is the rate of change of distance with time. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is metre per seconds
(m/s)
Speed= distance
Time
4. Velocity: this is the rate of change of distance with displacement with time. It is a vector quantity. Its unit
is metre per seconds (m/s)
Velocity= displacement
Time
5. Acceleration: this is the increasing rate of change of distance with time. It is a vector quantity. Its unit is
metre per seconds-square (m/s2). Retardation or deceleration is a negative acceleration.
Acceleration= velocity
Time
EVALUATION I

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 Sketch the velocity-time graph for a body that starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a certain
velocity. If it maintains this for a given period before its eventual deceleration. Indicate the following:
1 Uniform acceleration, retardation
2 Total distance travelled

DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION

v= final velocity
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
s = distance
Average speed = total distance
Time
Total distance= average speed x time
s= (u + v) x t -------------- (1)
2
From the definition of acceleration
a = (v-u) -------------- (2)
t
From equation (2) substitutefor ‘t’ into equation (1)
v2 = u2 + 2as -------------- (3)
From equation (2) substitute for ‘v’ into equation (1)
s = ut + ½(at2) -------------- (4)

Calculations Using the Equation of Motion

1. A car moves from rest with an Solution
acceleration of 0.2 m/s2. Find its v=108km/hr; t= ½ minutes; Distance=?
velocity when it has covered distance v = 108 km/hr = 108 x1000
of 50m 3600
u= 0m/s; a= 0.2m/s2; s= 50m; v =? v= 30m/s
2 2
v =u + 2as t= ½ 60 = 30secs
2
v = (0)2 + 2 (0.2 x 50) Speed = distance
v2 = 20 time
v= √20 Distance = speed x time
v = 2√5m/s s = 30 x 30
2. A car travels with a uniform velocity s = 900 m
of 108km/hr .How far does it travels in
½ a minute?

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CLASS ACTIVITY
(1) A train slows from 108 km/hr with a uniform retardation of 5 m/s2. How long will it take to reach 18 km/hr
and what is the distance covered?
(2) An orange fruit drops to the ground from the top of a tree 45m tall .How long does it take to reach the
ground? (g= 10m/s2)
(3) A car moving with a speed of 90 km/h was brought uniformly to rest by the application of brake in 10s. How
far did the car travel after the far did the car travel after the brakes were applied .calculate the distance it covers in
the last one second its motion.
FURTHER ACTIVITY
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity of 30m/s after 5secs. It travels with this
uniform velocity for 15secs and it is then brought to rest in 10secs with a uniform acceleration. Determine:
(a) The acceleration of the car
(b) The retardation
(c) The distance covered after 5secs
(d) The total distance covered.
Solution s=½bh
s = ½ (5) 30
(a) Acceleration = AE = 30 s = 75m
EO 5 (d) The total distance covered =
= 6m/s2 area of the trapezium OABC
(b) Retardation = CB = 0-30 s = ½ (AB + OC) x h
DC 10 s = ½ (15 + 30) x 30
= -3m/s2 s = 45 x 15
(c) The distance covered after 5secs s = 675 m
= thearea isgiven byarea of the triangle
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
A body moving with a uniform acceleration in space does so under the influence of gravity with a
constant acceleration . (g = 10 m/s2). In dealing with vertical motion under gravity, it must be noted that:
 a= g is positive for a downward motion
 a= -gfor anupward motion
 the velocity v= 0 at maximum height for a vertically projected object
 The initial velocity u=0 for a body dropped from rest above theground
 For a re-bouncing body the heights above the ground is zero
 The time of fall of two objects of different masses has nothing to do with their masses but is
dependent on the distance andacceleration due to gravity as shown below

s = ut + ½ gt2
s = ½ gt2 (u=0; initial velocity of an object dropping from a height)

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 t = √ [(2s)/g]
The above relationship can also be used to determine the value of acceleration due to gravity. If we plot
s against t, it will give us a parabolic curve.
S(m)

Parabola

t(s)
But the graph of s against t2 will give us a straight line through the origin with slope ½ g from which g can
be computed
S(m)

Slope = ½ g

O t2 (s2)
CALCULATIONS
1. A ball is thrown vertically into the a= +g
air with an initial velocity, u. What u=0
isthe greatestheight reached? s =20m
Solution t =?
v2 = u2+ 2as t = √2s/g
u = u; a = -g; v = 0
02 = u2 + 2(-g) s t = √ (2 x20 /10)
2gs = u2 t = 2secs
s = u2 /2g v = u + gt
2. A ball is released from a height of v= gt
20m. Calculate: v = 10 x2
(i) the time it takes to fall v = 20 m/s
(ii) the velocity with which it hits the
ground

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 WEEK 4
PROJECTILES AND ITS APPLICATION
CONTENTS
 Meaning of projectile
 Terms associated with projectiles
 Uses of projectile
MEANING OF PROJECTILE
A projectile motion is one that follows a curved or parabolic path .It is due to two independent motions at
right angle to each other .These motions are
i. a horizontal constant velocity
ii. a vertical free fall due to gravity
Examples of projectile motion are the motion of;
i. a thrown rubber ball re-bouncing from a wall
ii. An athlete doing the high jump
iii. A stone released from a catapult
iv. A bullet fired from a gum
v. A cricket ball thrown against a vertical wall.

Uy

Hmax
t t

)θ
P Ux Q
Uy = U sin θ (vertical component) ------------------- 1
Ux = U cos θ (horizontal component) ------------------- 2

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH PROJECTILE

1. Time of flight (T) - The time of flight of a projectile is the time required for it to return to the same
level from which it projected.
t= time to reach the greatest height
V = u + at (but, v =o, a = -g)
θ= u sin – gt
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 t = U sin θ ------------------- 3
g
T=2t = 2U sin θ ------------------- 4
g
2. The maximum height (H) - is defined as the highest vertical distance reached measured from the
horizontal projection plane.
For maximum height H,
V2 = U2 sin2θ - 2g H
At maximum height H, V=0
2gH = U2 ------------------- 5
2g
3. The range (R) - is the horizontal distance from the point of projection of a particle to the point
where the particle hit the projection plane again.
Horizontally, considering the range covered
Using S= ut + ½at2 (where a=0 for the horizontal motion)
OR
S = R = U cosθ x t (distance = velocity x time; there time is the time of flight)

R = U cos θ (2 U sin θ)
g
2
R = 2U sin θ cos θ
g
From Trigonometry function
2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ
R= U2 sin 2θ
g
For maximum range θ = 450
Sin2θ = sin 2 (45) = sin 900 = 1
R= U2
g
Rmax = U2
g

USE OF PROJECTILES
1. To launch missiles in modern warfare
2. To give athletes maximum takeoff speed at meets
In artillery warfare, in order to strike a specified target, the bomb must be released when the target appears at the
angle of depression φ given by:
Tan φ =1/u √gh/2

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EXAMPLES
1. A bomber on a military mission is flying horizontally at a height of zoom above the ground at 60kmmin -1. lt
drops a bomb on a target on the ground. Determine the acute angle between the vertical and the line joining the
bomber and the tangent at the instant. The bomb is released

Ux 60m/ min

3,000m

Horizontal velocity of bomber = 60km/min= 103 ms-1

Bomb falls with a vertical acceleration of g = 10m/s
At the release of the bomb, it moves with a horizontal velocity equals that of the aircraft i.e. 1000m/s
Considering the vertical motion of the bomb we have
h =ut+1/2 gt2(u=o)
h =1/2gt2
Where: t is the time the bomb takes to reach the ground: 300=1/2gt2
t2= 600
t=10√6 sec
Considering the horizontal motion we have that horizontal distance moved by the bomb in time t is given
by
s =horizontal velocity x time
s = 1000 x10√6
s = 2.449x104 m
But tanθ = s = 2.449 x 104
3,000 3,000
θ =83.020
2. A stone is shot out from a catapult with an initial velocity of 30m at an elevation of 600. Find
a. the time of flight
b. the maximum height attained
c. the range
a. The time of flight
T = 2U sin θ
g
T= 2 x 30 sin 600
10
T= 5.2s
b. The maximum height,

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 H=U2 sin2 θ
2g
H = 302 sin2 (60)
20
H = 33.75 m

c. The range,
R =U2sin 2θ
g
R = 30 sin 2 (60)
2

10
R = 90 sin 120
R = 77.9 m

3. A body is projected horizontally with a velocity of 60m/s from the top of a mast 120m above the
grand, calculate
(i) Time of flight, and (ii) Range

60 m/s

120

R
a. s =ut+1/2gt2
a=g, u=0
120= ½ (10)t2
t2 = 24
t = 24
t =4.9s
b. Range =u cosθx T.
But in this case θ = 0
Cos 0 =1
R =ut
R = 60x 4.9
R =294m
4. A stone is projected horizontally with a speed of 10m/s from the top of a tower 50m high and
with what speed does the stone strike the ground?

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 Solution
v2=u2 + 2gh
v2=102+ (2x10x50)
v2=100+1000
v2=1100
v2=33.17m/s

1. A projectile is fired at an angle of 60 with the horizontal with an initial velocity of 80m/s. Calculate:
i. the time of flight
ii. the maximum height attained and the time taken to reach the height
iii. the velocity of projection 2 seconds after being fired (g = 10m/s)
θ =60; u =80m/s
i. T = 2 U sin θ
g
T = 2x80 sin 60
10
T = 13 .86 s
ii. A. H = u2 sin 2θ
2g
H = 80 x 80 x sin60
20
H = 240 m
B. t = U sin θ
g
t = 80 sin 60
10
t = 6.93 s

R =U2 sin 2 θ
g
R = 802sin2 (60)
10
R = 640 sin 120
R = 554.3m
iii. Vy = U sin θ – gt
Vy = 80 sin 60 – 20
Vy= 49.28m/s
Ux = U cos θ
Ux = 80 cos 60

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 Ux = 40 m/s
U2 = U2y + U2x
U2 = 49.282 + 402
U = √ (1600+ 2420)
U = 63.41 m/s
WEEK 5
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

CONTENTS
 Newton’s laws of motion
 Conservation of linear momentum
 Collision
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s first law of motion states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in straight
line unless it is acted upon by a force.The tendency of a body to remain at rest or, if moving, to continue its
motion in a straight line is called the inertia. That is why Newton’s first law is otherwise referred to as the law of
inertia.
Newton’s second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction in of the force.
F αmv –mu
t
F α m (v –u)
t
F α ma
F= kma
Where k =1
F =ma
MOMENTUM
Momentum of a body is the product of the mass and velocity of the body. The S.I.unit of momentum is
kgm/s.
IMPULSE
Impulseis the product of a force and time. It is also defined as the change in momentum. Thus both
momentum and impulse have ‘Ns’ as unit
F = m (v-u)/t
Ft = mv – mu (where ‘mv-mu’ is the change of momentum)
F x t = I (Ns)
Newton’s third law of motion states that to every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction. A practical
demonstration of this law can be observed when a bullet is fired from a gun, the person holding it experiences the
backward recoil force of the gun (reaction) which is equal to the propulsive force (action) acting on the bullet.

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According to Newton second law of motion, force is proportional to change in momentum
Therefore the momentum of the bullet is equal and opposite to the momentum of the gun i.e.
Mass of bullet x muzzle velocity = mass of gun x recoil velocity
Hence, if: m= mass of bullet, v= velocity of bullet, M=mass of gun, V= velocity of the recoil of the gun.
Then, the velocity, V, of the recoil of the gun is given by:
MV = mv
V = mv/M
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that when two or more bodies collide, their momentum
remain constant provided there is no external force acting on the system. This implies that in a closed or
isolated system where there is no external force, the total momentum aftercollision remains constant.The principle
is true for both elastic and inelastic collision.
COLLISION
There are two types of collision- elastic and inelastic.
In elastic collisionthe two bodies collide and then move with different velocities. Both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved e.g. collision between gaseous particles, a ball which rebounds to its original height etc.
If the two colliding bodies have masses m1and m2 initial velocities u1 and u2 and final velocities v1 and v2. The
conservation principle can be mathematically expressed as:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
In an inelastic collision, the two bodies join together after the collision and with the same velocity.
Here,momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved because part of it has been converted to heat or
sound energy, leading to deformation.
Thus, the conversation principle can be re-written as:
m1u1 + m2u2 = v (m1 +m2)
Since momentum is a vector quantity, all the velocities must be measured in the same direction, assigning positive
signs to the forward velocities and negative signs to the backward or opposite velocities
TWO BODIES MOVING IN THE SAME DIRECTION BEFORE COLLISION
VA VB

MA MB MA MB
BEFORE COLLISION AFTER COLLISION
MAVA + MBVB = V (MA + MB)
V= common velocity
V= MAVA + MBVB
(MA + MB)

TWO BODIES TRAVELLING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION

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 MA MB MAMB
MAVA - MBVB = V (MA + MB)
V= MAVA + MBVB
MA + MB

COLLISION BETWEEN A STATIONARY AND MOVING BODY

VA = VA
MA MB MA MB

The momentum of a stationary body is zero because velocity is zero

MAVA + 0 = V (MA + MB)
V= MAVA
MA + MB
EXAMPLE
1. Two moving toys of masses 50kg and 30kg are traveling on the same plane with speeds of 5 m/s and 3
m/s respectively in the same direction. If they collide and stick together, calculate their common velocity.
MAVA + MBVB = V (MA + MB)
V= MAVA + MBVB
(MA + MB)
V = (50 x 5) + (30 x 3)
50 + 30
V = 250 + 90
80
V = 340
80
V= 4.05 m/s
2. Two balls of masses 0.5 kg and 0.3kg move towards each other in the same line at speeds of 3 m/s and 4
m/s respectively. After the collision, the first ball has a speed of 1m/s in the opposite direction. What is
the speed of the second ball after collision
3m/s 4m/s 1m/s V

0.5 0.3 0.5 0.3

Before After
3x0.5 + (0.3 x-4) = 0.5 (-1) + 0.3v

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 1.5 - 1.2 = -0.5 + 0.3v
0.3v = 2.0 - 1.2
V = 0.8 / 0.3
V = 2.7m/s
3. A gun of mass 100kg fires a bullet of mass 20g at a speed of 400m/s. What is the recoil velocity of the
gun?
Solution
Momentum gun = momentum of bullet
MV = m v
10 x V = 0.002 x 400
V = 0.002 x 400
10
V= 0.8 m/s

WEEKS 6&7
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
CONTENTS
 Conditions for equilibrium
 Principles of moment
 Conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
A body is said to be in equilibrium if under the action of several forces, it does accelerate or rotate.
1.The sum of the upward forces must be equal to the sum of the downward forces.
2.The sum of the clockwise moment above a point must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moment about the
same point
F1 F2

X1 X2
A B
X3 X4
F3 F4
F1 + F2 = F3 + F4
(F1+F2) - (F3+F4)=0
Clockwise moment = F2X2 + F4X4
Anticlockwise moment = F1X1+ F3X3
(F1X1+ F3X3) - (F2X2 + F4X4) = 0
Sum of clockwise moment =sum of anticlockwise moment
MOMENT OF A FORCE
The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance

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 d

F
M = F x distance
Unit =Nm

COUPLE
A couple is a system of two parallel, equal and opposite forces acting along the same line
F
d

The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of the two forces
M = f x 2r
M=fxd
The distance between the two equal forces is called the arm of the couple
The moment of a couple is also called a torque
Application of the Effect of Couples
1. It is easier to turn a tap on or off by applying couple
2. It is easier to turn a steering wheel of a vehicle by applying a couple with our two hands instead of a
single force with one arm.
EXAMPLES
1. A light beam AB sits on two pivots C and D. A load of 10N hangs at 0; 2m from the support at C. Find
the value of the reaction forces P and Q at C and D respectively.
P Q

4m 2m 6m
A C D B

10N
P + Q = 10N
X 2 = Q (2 + 6)
20 = 8Q
Q = 20/8 =2.5 N
OR
Taking moment about D
P x8 = 10 x6

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 P = 60/8
P =7.5N
Q = 10 -7.5
Q = 2.5 N
2. A pole AB of length 10m and weight 600N has its center of gravity 4m from the end A, and lies on horizontal ground.
Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the pole when the end B is lift this end. Prove that this force applied
at the end A will not be sufficient to lift the end A from the ground.

R 6m

4m

600N

Clockwise moment =600 x 4 =2400Nm

Anticlockwise moment =p x 10 = 10pNm
P =240Nm
If this force of 240Nm is applied at A, we have
P= 240Nm
P
4m 6m

A 600N

Taking moment about B, we have

Clockwise moment =240 x 10 =2400Nm
Anticlockwise moment =600 x 6 =3600 Nm
The anticlockwise moment is greater than the clockwise moment.
Therefore, the 240N force A will not be sufficient to lift the end A because the turning effect due to the
600N force far exceeds that due to the 240N force

3 A.

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 3m B 60

20N
Find the moment of the force of 20N in the diagram above about A and B
Taking moment about A
Cos 60 =d/3m
D= 3 cos 60
D = 1.5m
Moment about A =F x d
M = 20 x 1.5
= 30 Nm
The Moment about B= 0
3. A uniform rod lm long weighing 100N is supported horizontally on two knife edges placed 10cm from
its ends. What will be the reaction at the support when a 40N load is suspended 10cm from the midpoint
of the rod.

R1 + R2 = 140N
Taking moment about R1
R2 x 80 = (100 x 40 ) + (40 x 50 )
80R2 = 4000 + 2000
R2 = 6000/80
R2=75N
R1 = 140 – 75
=65N
4. A metre rule is found to balance horizontally at the 50cm mark. When a body of mass 60kg is
suspended at the 6cm mark, the balance point is found to be at the 30cm mark, calculate:
-The weight of the metre rule
-The distances of the balance point to the 60kg mass if the mass is moved to the 13cm mark

6cm 24cm 50cm

600N W
w x 20 = 24 x 600
w = 14400/20
= 720N

13cm xcm 37cm 50cm

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 600N 720N
600x(X)=720(37-X)
600x = 6640 – 720x
600x+ 720x = 6640
x = 6640/1320
x = 20. 18cm

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the line of action of the weight of the body always
passes irrespective of the position of the body. It is also the point at which the entire weight of the body appears to
be concentrated.
The centre of mass of a body is the point at which the total mass of the body appears to be concentrated.
Sometimes, the center of mass may coincides with the centre of gravity for small objects.
STABILITY OF OBJECTS
There are three types of equilibrium- stable equilibrium, unstable equilibrium, and neutral equilibrium.
1. Stable equilibrium: a body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it tends to return to its original position when
slightly displaced. A low centre of gravity and wide base will put objects in stable equilibrium e.g. a cone
resting on its base ; a racing car with low C.G and wide base; a ball or a sphere in the middle of a bowl.
2. Unstable equilibrium: a body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium if when slightly displaced it tends to
move further away from its original position e.g. a cone or an egg resting on its apex. High C.G. and a narrow
base usually causes unstable equilibrium.
3. Neutral equilibrium: a body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if when slightly displaced, it tends to come to
rest in its new position e.g a cone or cylinder or an egg resting on its side.

MIDTERM PROJECT

Make paper model of the three types of equilibrium

WEEKS 8& 9
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
CONTENT
 Definition  Displacem  Period
 Speed ent  Frequency
 Amplitude  Accelerati
on

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 DEFINITION
Simple harmonic motion is the periodic motion of a body or particle along a straight line such that the
acceleration of the body is directed towards a fixed point .
A particle undergoing simple harmonic motion will move to and fro in a straight line under the influence of
aforce. This influential force is called a restoring force as it always directs the particle back to its equilibrium
position.
Examples of simple harmonic motions are
i. Loaded test tube in a liquid
ii Mass on a string
iii The simple pendulum

A
B θ
Pq s C Q
Y A Z

As the particle P moves round the circle once, it sweeps through an angle θ = 360 (or 2π radians) in the time T the
period of motion. The rate of change of the angle θ with time (t) is known as the angular velocity ω
Angular velocity (ω) is defined by
ω = angle turned through by the body
Time taken
ω = θ /t (rad /sec)
θ = ωt
This is similar to the relation distance = uniform velocity x time (s= =vt ) for motion in a straight line
As the angle is changing with time so is the arc length
S=zp
Changing with time. By definition θ in radians = s/r and hence
S= rθ
A = r = radius of the circle
s/t = rθ /t = s/r /t
s/t = s/t x 1/r = r θ /t
v =r ω
The linearvelocity v at any point ,Q whose distance from C the central point is x is given by
V = ω √ A2 – X2
The minimum velocity ,Vm corresponds to the point at X = 0 that is the velocity at the central point or centre of
motion .

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Hence, Vm =ω A
Thus the maximum velocity of the SHM occurs at the centre of the motion (X=0) while the minimum
velocity occurs at the extreme position of motion (x=A ).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LINEAR ACCELERATION AND ANGULAR VELOCITY
X = A COS θ
θ = ωt
X = A cos ω t
dx = -ωA sin ω t
dt

dv =-ω2 A cos ω t
dt
=-ω2X
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is always inwards towards C while the displacement is measured
outwards from C.

 Energy of simple harmonic motion

 Forced vibration and resonance
ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

R Q
PE = mgh PE is max
(PE is max) (v=0 ,k.e=0 )
C
h=0, PE =0; KE = ½ MV2; KE is max
Since force and displacement are involved, it follows that work and energy are involved in simple harmonic
motion.
At any instant of the motion , the system may contain some energy as kinetic energy (KE ) or potential
energy(PE) .The total energy (KE + PE ) for a body performing SHM is always conserved although it may
change form between PE and KE .
When a mass is suspended from the end of a spring stretched vertically downwards and released , it oscillates
in a simple harmonic motion .During this motion , the force tending to restore the spring to its elastic
restoring force is simply the elastic restoring force which is given by
F= - ky
K is the force constant of the spring

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 Mg y
The total work done in stretching the spring at distance y is given by
W = average force x displacement
W = ½ ky x y = ½ ky2
Thus the maximum energy total energy stored in the spring is given by
W = ½ KA2
A = amplitude (maximumdisplacement fromequilibrium position).
This maximum energy is conserved throughout the motion of the system.
At any stage of the oscillation,the total energy is
W = ½ KA2
W= ½ mv2 + ½ ky2
½ mv2 = ½ KA2 – ½ ky2
v2 = k/m (A2 –y2)
V = √k/m(A2-y2)
The constant K is obtained from
Hooke’s law in which
F= mg = ke
Where e is the extension produced in the spring by a mass m
But V= ω√A2-X2
Therefore ω =√k/m
Hence the period, T = 2π/ω
T = 2π√m/k
EXAMPLE
A body of mass 20g is suspended from the end of a spiral spring whose force constant is 0.4Nm-1.The body is set
into a simple harmonic motion with amplitude 0.2m. Calculate:
a. The period of the motion
b. The frequency of the motion
c. The angular speed
d. The total energy
e. The maximum velocity of the motion
f. The maximum acceleration
SOLUTION
a. T = 2π √m/k= 2π √ 0.02/0.4 = 0.447 π sec= 1.41 sec

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 b. f=1/T = 1/1.41 = 0.71Hz
c. ω =2πf = 2π x 0.71= 4.46 rad. S-1
d. Total energy = ½ KA2= ½ (0.4) (0.2)2= 0.008 J
e. ½ mv2 = /12 KA2
Vm2 = 0.008 x 2
0.02
= 0.8
Vm= 0.89 m/s
Or V= ω A
= 4.462 x 0.2
= 3.98m/s2
FORCED VIBRATION AND RESONANCE
Vibrations resulting from the action of an external periodic force on an oscillating body are called forced
vibrations. Every vibrating object possesses a natural frequency (fo) of vibration. This is the frequency with which
the object will oscillate when it is left undisturbed after being set into vibration. The principle of the sounding
board of a piano or the diaphragm of a loudspeaker is based on the phenomenon of forced vibrations.
Whenever the frequency of vibrating body acting on a system coincides with the natural frequency of the system,
then the system is set into vibration with relatively large amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance.

WEEKS 10& 11
MACHINES
CONTENT
 Definition
 Terminologies used in machines
 Types and examples

Machines make our work simpler. It is a force producing device by which a large force called load can be
overcome by a small applied force called effort
Terminologies Used In Machines
1. FORCE RATIO (MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE )
2. VELOCITY RATIO
3. EFFICIENCY
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
We define effort as the force applied to a machine and load as the resistance overcome by the machine. The
ability of a machine to overcome a large load through a small effort is known as its mechanical advantage .It is
given by
M.A = Load/ Effort
The mechanical advantage of a machine is influenced by friction in parts
VELOCITY RATIO (V.R)
The velocity ratio is the ratio of distance moved by theeffort andload in the same interval
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V.R = Distance moved by effort
Distance moved by the load
The velocity ratio depends on the geometry ofthe machine
EFFICIENCY (E)
The efficiency of a machine is defined as
Ef =Useful work done by the machineX 100
Work put into the machine
Work = force x distance
Ef= load x distance moved by load x 100
Effort x distance moved by effort
Then V.R =M.A

TYPES OF MACHINES
1. LEVER
This is the simplest form of machine. It consist of a rigid rod pivoted about a point called the fulcrum F with a
small effort applied at one end of the lever to overcome a large load L at the other end . There are various
types of lever depending on the relative positions of the load, effort and fulcrum.

Taking moment about F

E x a = L x b which is given
L = a =M.A
E b
a/b = V.R

Examples of first class lever are the crowbar,pair of scissors or pincers, clawhammer, see-saw ,pliersetc

In second order lever , the load is between the fulcrum and effort
E

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Examples are wheel barrow, nut cracker trap door, an oar etc .
In the third order lever, the effort is between the fulcrum and the load .Human forearm ,laboratory tong etc.
E
F
L

2. WHEEL AND AXLE

It consists of a large wheel to which a rope or string is attached and an axle or small wheel with the rope or
string wound round it in opposite direction . The load to be lifted is hung at the free end of the rope on the axle
while the effort is applied at the end of the rope on the wheel . For each complete rotation the load and the effort
move through distance equal tothe circumference of the wheel and axle respectively.

wheel
R r axle

E L

V.R = R/r

The principle of wheel and axle is used in brace screw driver but spanner windless and gear-boxes
3. GEAR WHEELS
In gear boxes , there are toothed wheels of different diameter interlocked to give turning force at low
speed depending on which gear is the driver and which is the driven
V.R = No of teeth on driven wheel ( A)
No of teeth on driving wheel (B)
belt
A
shafts
B

4. THE HYDRAULIC PRESS

The machine is widely used for compressing waste paper and cotton into compact bales forging different
alloys into desirable shape etc .It s work is based on Pascal’s principle which states that pressure is transmitted
equally in fluid Oil is the liquid normally used in hydraulic press

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 E L

V.R = R2/r2

5. THE WEDGE
The wedge is a combination of two inclined planes. It is used to separate bodies which are held together by large
force .Examples of wedge type of machines are axes chisels knives etc.
x0

x1
θ

M.A = X1 = Slant height of wedge

X0 Thickness of wedge
6. PULLEY
A simple pulley is a fixed wheel hung on a suitable support with a rope passing round its groove.

E L
BLOCK AND TACKLE (PULLEY)
This is the more practical system of pulleys in which one or more pulley are mounted on the same axle with
one continuous rope passing all-round the pulleys

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 V.R = 4 V.R =5

EFFECTS OF FRICTION ON MACHINE

Work is always wasted in machines to overcome the frictional forces present between the moving parts and also
tolift to part of the machine. The greater thefriction,the greater the effort required and the smaller the M.A. M.A
dependon frictionbut depend on the geometry of moving parts.
The efficiency of nearly all the machines varies with the load and the load and effort are related by : E = al + b ( a
and b are constant ).This is called linear law for a machine .It follows that E is proportional to L .The value to
give us the effort required to operate the machine moving part only if no load is present while A gives us the
measure of the friction present
= M.A x 100
V.R
In practicalmachines the efficiency is usually less than 100% because of friction in the moving parts of the
machine.
(1)INCLINED PLANE:This is in form of a sloping plank commonly used to raise heavy load such as barrels of
oil with little applied effort than by lifting it vertically .
x

V.R = Distance moved by effort

Distance moved by load
= x /h ;V.R = 1/ sin θ
THE SCREW
Geometrically speaking the screw is an inclined plane wrapped round a cylinder to form athread. The distance
between successive threads on a screw is called its pitch. For one complete revolution of screw through an
effort , the load moves a distance equal to its pitch e.g. screw jack nut and bolt
In a screw jack where length of the operating handle isa, the effort moved a distance equal to the pitch P.
Thus V.R= -2πa
P
= 2πr

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 P
If frictional forces are negligible

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