EVIDENCES  direct evidence supports the truth of an assertion directly—i.e.

,
without need for any additional evidence or inference
Definition
 Types of Direct Evidence
 application of chemistry to law enforcement or the failure of
products or processes □ Physical
 the branch of chemistry which deals with the application of chemical
□ Testimonial
principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with
the administration of justice. Circumstantial Evidence
Scope of Chemistry  evidence that relies on an inference to connect it to a conclusion of
fact—like a fingerprint at the scene of a crime
 not just the chemical side but also the analysis of any material the
quality of which may give rise to legal proceedings.  seeks to establish conviction if there are more than one
 also invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal circumstances
medicine, ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy and
 the facts from which inferences are proven
photography
 Example: Paco testifies that he saw people walking into a shopping
Roles of the Chemist in Scientific Crime Scene Investigation
mall with wet hair and wearing raincoats. This is inferential proof
 called upon to solve problems of extremely varied and unusual that it was raining.
nature
~ Circumstantial Evidence vs Direct Evidence ~
 may be requested for the purpose of developing investigative leads,
establishing aggravating or mitigating circumstances Direct evidence is direct proof of a fact, such as testimony by a
 determining the degree of physical injury witness about what that witness personally saw or heard or did.
 distinguishing murder from homicide and suicide Circumstantial evidence is indirect evidence, that is, it is proof
 establishing facts constituting a criminal violation of one or more facts from which one can find another fact. You
are to consider both direct and circumstantial evidence.
Scientific Evidence
Hearsay Evidence
 is a proof allegation
 It is a means, sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial  statement made by the witness on the authority of another and not
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific from his own personal knowledge or observation
knowledge is necessary.
 admissible except with certain well defined exception
 must be relevant and correspond to the substance of the issue and
must not be excluded by the Rules of the Court. □ declaration against interest
Direct Evidence □ dying declaration
 what the senses perceived □ res gestae

□ reputation

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 □ public records □ The perception gathered by his organ of sense can
be imparted to others
□ statements made by prior time
□ He does not fall in any exception provided by law
Forms of Evidence
(Rules of Court)
 Real/ Autoptic Evidence
 Expert Witness
 addressed to the senses of the court
 the opinion of the witness regarding a question of science,
 not limited to the sense of vision, also by sense of hearing, art or trade where he is skilled, therein may be received in
taste, smell and touch evidence

 is any material object, that play some actual role in the Ordinary Witness VS Expert Witness
matter that gave rise to the litigation, introduced in  An ordinary witness can only state what his senses perceived while
a trial, intended to prove a fact in issue based on its an expert witness may state what he has perceived and also give
demonstrable physical characteristics. his own opinion, deductions and conclusions to his perception.
 Testimonial Evidence –  An ordinary may not be skilled in the line in which he is testifying
 an expert may be placed on a witness stand and answer all while an expert witness must be skilled in the art, science or trade
the questions to be propounded by both parties in a case that he is testifying

 Experimental Evidence  An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts that he has not
perceived except those provided by law while an expert witness
 an expert witness may be required to perform experiments may testify on things which he has not seen by giving his opinion,
to prove a certain matter of fact deductions or conclusions on the statement of facts

 the court may/ may not allow this kind of evidence Probative Value of an Expert Testimonies

 Documentary Evidence  The court is/ is not bounded by the conclusion of the expert
depending upon the nature of subject of inquiry
 any written evidence presented by an expert in court which
is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded  subject comes within the general knowledge of the judge,
by the Rules of the Court (i.e. formal written report, expert the latter will not be bounded by the conclusion of the expert
opinion, certificates and disposition (ex. genuiness of the letter)

Types of Witnesses  the subject of inquiry is such of a nature that a layman can
have no knowledge thereof. (ex. determination of parentage
 Ordinary Witness by blood testing)
 Qualifications  In weighing the testimony of the expert witness, the following
□ He must have the organ and the power to perceive circumstances are considered:

2
  degree of learning Labelling and Sealing

 basis and logic of his conclusions  all articles must be properly labeled

 proof of the case  small fragments must be enclosed in a box, sealed

(preferably in a sealing wax and thumbmark is imprinted
Practice of Forensic Chemistry while the wax is hot
1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined  Labels may be placed on the box however string tags
2. The Actual Examination are recommended. Labels must have ff. details

3. The communication of results of the examination  Nature and source of the sample

4. Court Appearance  Date and time collected

1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined  Case Number, if any

 The chemist should personally collect all the specimens  Name of the person collecting the sample
necessary for the examination
 The collection, preservation, and the transportation of the Receiving the Articles from other Sources
specimen are very essential in the investigation  the reception of the articles should be immediately
 if not personally collected by the chemist, the specimen may be registered in the book including the ff
taken, handled, packaged in such a way as to render them
almost useless for purpose of examination  Date received
 the chemist must know, not only the condition but even the
 From whom received
precise position in which the object was found
 Can only be done if he is called at the  Nature of the articles
commencement of the investigation and before
anything is removed or disturbed  Details of the identifying marks
 The chemist should go to the scene of the crime, make detailed  Articles as a rule should not be opened except when the
examination, take notes and measurements, make sketches chemist assigned is present
and if possible take photographs
 The chemist should equip himself with all the necessary  If the articles received are badly packed/ inadequately
containers for the collection of the sample marked and insufficiently secured, proper notations must
be recorded and the attention of requesting party must
Principles in Collection, Transportation be called
 Sufficiency of the Samples
2. The Actual Examination
 Standard for Comparison
 Scrutinize the article carefully and write the ff carefully
 Maintenance of Individuality
 Labelling and Sealing a. Complete description of its external appearance including
the manner in which it is secured

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 b. take a photograph of the specimen  detailed nature of the evidence forwarded
c. if opened, any inner wrappings should be described  kind of examination desired
d. all wrappers should be kept and sealing preserved  pertinent information
e. Measure and weigh the object and all the measurements  One letter must be enclosed in the package and the other sent
and weights must be recorded. by mail
f. The specimen is divided and one portion must be kept  Bulky specimen must be sent under separate cover
g. Chemical, microscopical, Physical testing  In cases of poisoning, a copy of the autopsy report and
h. After the examination, the remaining portion of the article/ complete clinical history
the article itself must be sealed securely
3. Communication of the results of the examination PHYSICAL EVIDENCES
 Written report
Locard’s Exchange Principle
a. enumeration of the articles received for examination
"Every Contact Leaves a Trace"
i. detailed description of packing sealing and labelling
The value of trace (or contact) forensic evidence was first
ii. the purpose of the examination recognized by Edmund Locard in 1910. He was the director of the
iii. findings and conclusion very first crime laboratory in existence, located in Lyon, France.

b. brief but sufficient record of all significant facts during the The Locard’s Exchange Principle states that "with contact between
examination two items, there will be an exchange." For example, burglars will
leave traces of their presence behind and will also take traces with
c. quantitative may not be necessary to reports the result to them. They may leave hairs from their body or fibers from their
more than one decimal point except in cases of poisoning clothing behind and they may take carpet fibers away with them.
d. The reports must be concise and clear Evidence Examples
e. copies of photographs must be attached Paint
Guide for Collection, Identification Preservation and Submission • Physical and chemical analysis of paint evidence (chips or residue)
of Specimens to the NBI Chemical Lab can indicate it’s class, such as automobile paint, house paint, nail
polish, etc. The evidence can be compared to 40,000 different types
 The evidences must be packed and sealed securely
of paint classified in a database, which can be used to identify a
 The articles must have cover letter addressed to the Director, particular make or model of car or brand of tool.
National Bureau Investigation, be prepared in duplicate. The
• Paint evidence can also indicate individual characteristics if an
letter must have the ff:
investigator is able to find similarities between two samples, such

4
 as the color, number of layers, chemical composition, or a physical • Police are able to search the Integrated Ballistics Identification
match between the edges of two paint chips – one from a tool and System (IBIS) database to compare markings from bullets,
one from a crime scene. cartridge cases, and shotgun shells to ballistic evidence.
Glass Dust & Dirt
• Glass particles can be found at various crime scenes, such as • Dust, dirt, or sand evidence can reveal where a person has
breaking and entering, hit and run, vandalism, or murder. traveled and may be picked up at a crime scene or left behind.
• Glass at a crime scene is analyzed to determine its color, surface • Investigators examine the samples for chemical composition,
characteristics, tint, thickness, density, chemical composition, and pollen, plant material, and other organic matter to find links to a
refractive index (RI). specific crime scene.
• The results of the tests provide clues about the crime and help Fingerprints
investigators connect the evidence to a suspect or other object
• There are 3 types of fingerprint patterns: arches, loops, and whorls.
used in a crime, such as matching glass from a crime scene to a
Investigators also identify unique ridge characteristics in a fingerprint
headlight to a suspect’s car.
that can be used to identify a suspect or victim.
Explosives
• AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System) is a database
• Explosive substances can be examined to determine its chemical used by investigators at local, state, and national levels to search for
composition to identify the type of explosive used and its origin. matches to fingerprints found at a crime scene.
• Traces of explosives found on a suspect’s clothing, skin, hair, or other Impression Evidence
objects may be matched to explosives from the crime scene.
Shoeprints & Tire Tracks
• Materials used to make an explosive device will be compared to
• Impression evidence can be photographed, lifted with tape, or cast
evidence found in the suspect’s possession to confirm a match.
with
Ballistics
plaster to compare to a suspect’s shoes or tires.
• Characteristics of ammunition, firearms, and residue are examined to
• Investigators will examine the evidence to identify the brand of
find matches between suspects and the evidence found at a crime
shoe or tire based on its tread pattern and other physical features to
scene.
provide leads in the case.
• Chemical tests can reveal gunshot residue (GSR) on the hands,
• Shoes and tires will also show wear patterns after being used for a
face, or clothing of a victim or suspect to indicate how close a person
period of time as well as other features (scratches, nicks, and cuts)
was to a fired gun.
that can be used to match evidence to specific items. For example,
• Rifling (grooves) in a gun barrel causes distinctive grooves, shoeprints can be matched to a suspect based on how the treads
indentations and scratches upon fired bullets, which can be on the shoes that are worn down due to that person’s walking style.
matched to the weapon that fired them.
Bite Marks

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• Each of the 32 teeth in humans is unique due to age and wear. analyze the type of paper used, printing method or handwriting
style, and type of ink.
• Impressions and photographs of bite marks left on a victim,
assailant, or other object at a crime scene can often be matched to • Other unique features, such as watermarks on stationary or
dental records. indentations made as someone wrote on a page in a notebook, may
provide useful clues.
Tool Marks
Insects
• Tiny nicks and chips form on the edges of a tool as it is used,
which can be used to identify matches between evidence and • Flies, beetles, and other insects can provide useful clues about a
suspects. corpse.
• Tools may also pick up traces of blood or other substances that • Forensic entomologists use factors such as weather conditions, the
can be tested or have fingerprints that can be lifted. location and condition of the body, and their knowledge of the life cycles of
insects to help them estimate the postmortem interval or PMI (the time
Fracture Matches
between death and the discovery of the body).
• When an object broken, torn, or cut, two unique edges are formed,
DNA
which are referred to as fracture lines.
• Investigators can extract DNA from almost any tissue, including
• These edges can be compared by the naked eye or with
hair, fingernails, bones, teeth and body fluids. The DNA is used to
microscopes to see if they fit together , which indicates that they
create a profile that can be compared to profiles from suspects or
may have been part of the same object at one time.
victims.
• Investigators may compare the edges on pieces of tape, glass
• CODIS (Combined DNA Index System) is a database maintained
fragments, paint chips, pieces of a car from an accident, paper bag,
by the FBI that is used to find matches to unknown DNA samples
etc. to find possible matches.
from a crime scene.
Wounds
Skeletal Remains
• Wounds can often be matched to weapons or tool marks on the
• Forensic anthropologists analyze skeletal remains to determine
weapon. Investigators may also be able to determine the weapon's
four characteristics for a victim: age, sex, race, and stature
size, shape, and length.
(height/build).
• Analysis of a wound may provides clues to a victim’s injuries,
 Sex - Determined by examining the pelvis, humerus, and
characteristics of the suspect (left-handed, right-handed, height,
etc.), and positions of the victim and suspect at the time of the femur
incident.
 Age and stature – Determined by analyzing the development
Questioned Documents
of the teeth, bone growth, and the length of specific bones,
• Examiners will analyze a ransom note or other document to find
such as the femur.
clues to link it to a crime scene or a specific suspect. They will

6
  Race – Determined by analyzing the skull for characteristics  • Blood, semen, saliva, sweat, and urine can be analyzed to
give investigators information about the crime as well as its
that are common among people of different races.
victim or the suspect.
• DNA samples can be collected from bone, teeth, and hair to
 • Chemicals and ultra violet light can be used at a crime
provide clues to a person’s identity. Scientists may also be able to
scene to find body fluid evidence. Areas with potential
gain clues as to a person’s past, recent injuries, or the cause of
evidence are swabbed, bagged and collected in vials, which
death based on bone fractures and other signs of trauma.
are air tight and have a low risk of cross contamination.
What do forensic anthropologists do?
 Examples:
Generally, forensic anthropologists DO NOT do any of the
• Vomit and urine can be used to test for alcohol,
following:
drugs, and poisons.
 Collect trace evidence (hair, fibers) • Cigarette butts may contain dried saliva.
• Semen containing sperm is valuable for DNA
 Run DNA tests analysis.
 Analyze ballistics or weapon evidence • Blood can provide DNA evidence and blood spatter
can provide clues about the crime.
 Analyze blood spatter
Hairs & Fibers
 Conduct autopsies
 Hairs and fibers may be transferred from the suspect or the
What a forensic anthropologist does DO to aid in a case: suspect’s clothes to the victims’ and vice versa. For
example, a suspect may pick up carpet fibers on his shoes
 Goes to a crime scene to assist in the collection of human
or leave hairs behind at a crime scene.
remains
 Hairs can be examined to identify their origin, such as
 Cleans up the bones so that they may be looked at
human or animal. Hairs with roots intact can be tested for
 Analyzes skeletal remains to establish the profile of the DNA.
individual
 Fibers are used to make clothing, carpeting, furniture, beds,
 Looks at trauma evident on the bones to establish the and blankets. They may be natural fibers from plants or
pathway of a bullet or the number of stab wounds animals or synthetic fibers that are man-made.

 Works with a forensic odontologist (dentist) to match dental Six (6) Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry
records
 Go slowly
 Testifies in court about the identity of the individual and/or
 Be thorough
the injuries that might be evident in the skeleton
 Take notes
Body Fluids
 Consult others

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  Use imagination Spatter – Bloodstains created from the application of force to the area
where the blood originated.
 Avoid complicated theories
Origin/Source – The place from where the blood spatter came from or
originated.
BLOOD PATTERN ANALYSIS Bloodstain transfer—when a bloody object comes into contact with a
 is the examination of the shapes, locations, and distribution patterns surface and leaves a patterned blood image on the surface. The image is
of bloodstains, in order to provide an interpretation of the physical recognizable.
events which gave rise to their origin. Backspatter—blood that is directed back toward the source of energy
 Blood Spatter Analysis - The use of physics and math to interpret
bloodstain patterns to solve a crime.
What are some Basic Rules governing falling blood?
 Is a technique that seeks to piece together the events that caused
bleeding.  A free falling drop of blood forms a sphere or ball.

 Bloodstain patterns are considered circumstantial evidence in a  A blood droplet remains spherical in space until it collides with a
courtroom. Experts can argue many points, including direction of surface.
travel, height of the perpetrator, position of the victim, left/right
 A spherical drop will break
hand, whether the body was moved, etc.
 When it hits another object
What are some of the important crime scene facts which may be
determined using blood spatter analysis?  When acted upon by some force
1. The number of blows, shots, etc., causing the bloodshed and/or the n Parent Drop – The droplet from which a satellite spatter originates.
dispersal of blood
n Satellite Spatters – Small drops of blood that break of from the parent
2. The position of the victim and/or object during bloodshed spatter when the blood droplet hits a surface
3. Movement of the victim and/or object after bloodshed n Spines – The pointed edges of a stain that radiate out from the spatter;
can help determine the direction from which the blood traveled
4. What the weapon was like
5. The distance between the target surface and the origin of the blood
Factors affecting the shape of blood: TEXTURE OF THE TARGETS
6. The point(s) of origin of the blood
SURFACE
7. Movement and direction of a person or an object
1. TEXTURE OF THE TARGETS SURFACE
8. Type and direction of impact that produced the bloodshed • On clean glass or plastic - droplet will have smooth outside
edges.
Angle of Impact – The angle at which a blood droplet strikes a surface. • On a rough surface—will produce scalloping on the edges
(spines)

8
 • When a droplet hits the surface, which is hard as well as
smooth, the blood actually breaks apart upon impact. This in
turn creates smaller droplets (satellites). The smaller droplets
will continue to move in the same direction as the original
droplet
2. HEIGHT
• The shape does not change as long as the angle remains the
same.
• The size (diameter) of the drops increases with increasing
height.
• The number of satellites increases with increasing height

LOW VELOCITY
 Low Velocity (Passive) Impact Bloodstains -Blood that falls at the
speed or force of normal gravity.
 These spatters usually fall from an open wound, or from a surface
that is saturated with blood.
 Drop, drip, clots and pools are types of passive blood.
 The majority of the Low Force Impact Spatters are large, circular,
spatters with diameters of 4mm or more.
 Low Force Impact Spatters will increase in size as the
distance fallen increases.

3. VELOCITY
• NOTE: It is important to note that the term "Velocity" does not
measure the speed at which the blood is traveling, but rather is
used to describe or measure amount of force applied to the
blood, to cause it to spatter
• The smaller the size of spatter, the greater energy required to
produce spatter

9
  High Force Impact Spatter takes on a "mist like" appearance

MEDIUM VELOCITY
 Medium Velocity Bloodstains - Produced with more energy or
force than gravity (more than 25 feet/sec)
 The force of the impact causes the blood to break into smaller size
spatters relative to the amount of force applied
 This type of spatter is usually seen in blunt force, stabbings, and
secondary spatters produced when the majority of larger drops of
blood are broken into smaller spatters with diameters of 2 – 4 mm

Factors affecting the shape of blood: TRANSFER BLOOD STAIN

HIGH VELOCITY
 Impact spatter that measures less than 2mm in diameter
 The force necessary to produce this size spatter is greater than 100
ft per second
Factors affecting the shape of blood: ARTERIAL SPURT / GUSH
 This type of spatter is usually associated with gunshots, explosions,
and high speed collisions

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 ● Bloodstain pattern(s) resulting from blood exiting the body  The shape of the stain tends to change depending upon the angle
under pressure from a breached artery: of impact, which caused the stain.

Factors affecting the shape of blood: PROJECTED BLOOD STAINS

● Projected bloodstains are created when an exposed blood source is
subjected to an action or force, greater than the force of gravity.
(Internally or Externally produced)
● The size, shape, and number of resulting stains will depend,
primarily, on the amount of force utilized to strike the blood source.

 The steeper the impact, the more elliptical or elongated, the blood
drop.
 Round—if it falls straight down at a 90-degree angle
 Elliptical—blood droplets elongate as the angle decreases from 90
to 0 degrees;
AREA OF INTERSECTION AND CONVERGENCE
• The location of the blood source can be determined by drawing
lines from the various blood droplets to the point where they  Arcsin (opposite side/hypotenuse)
intersect.  Measure the length and width of the splatter.
• The area of convergence is the point of origin—the spot where the  Divide the width of the splatter by its length.
“blow” occurred. It may be established at the scene by  Determine the arcsin of that number, typically using a calculator
measurement of angles with the use of strings.
with an arcsin function.
ANGLE OF IMPACT
Angle of impact = arcsin (W/L)

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  width = 9mm

 Length = 18 mm

Angle of impact = arcsin (W/L)

• DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT

 As the angle of impact increases, the drop of blood gets  ANGLE OF IMPACT CALCULATIONS
longer and develops a "tail." This tail points in the direction
Measure the width and the length of stain/spatter
that the drop traveled, but its length isn't part of the
1. The width is 6mm and the length is 17mm
measurements.

2. The width is 1.5 cm and the length of the blood stain is 3.0cm

3. The width is 1.73cm and the length is 2cm

POINT OF ORIGIN
Tangent of angle = opposite/adjacent
= Height/distance
HEIGHT = TANGENT OF ANGLE X DISTANCE
Tangent of 27 degrees = (Height/5.75 feet)
ANGLE OF IMPACT CALCULATIONS
0.575 = Height/5.75 feet
Measure the width and the length of stain/spatter 0.575 x 5.75 feet = Height

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 CAUSE OF DEATH
• The cause of death is the disease or injury that produces the
physiological disruption inside the body resulting in death, for
example, a gunshot wound to the chest
MECHANISM OF DEATH
• The mechanism of death is the physiological derangement that
results in the death. An example of a mechanism of death due to
the gunshot wound described is exsanguination (extreme blood
loss).
Manner of death can be classified in six ways:
• Natural-occurs ass a result of aging, illness, or disease
TIME OF DEATH • Accident- injury or poisoning causes death, but it is unintentional.
361, 480 = Number Of Registered Deaths In Ncr (Jan-June, 2021) • Suicide -act committed to harm or cause death to oneself
INTRODUCTION • Homicide -occurs when death is caused by another person
• Death of individual body cells is a slow process that does not occur • Undetermined - when the information pointing toward one manner
at the exact moment the heart or brain stops. of death is no more compelling than any others.
• A single definition of death is something experts still debate. • Pending - death is one that is waiting on more evidence or analysis
before the examiner can make a determination.
• Establishing a postmortem interval (PMI), which is the time between
death and body discovery, has great forensic importance. HOW OLD IS THE BODY?
MANNER OF DEATH • Reconstruction of sequence events
Official terms for the manner of death include • Biological, chemical and circumstantial evidence
• Natural death
• Accidental death
• Suicidal death
• Homicidal death
• Undetermined
• Pending

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 FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT THE ONSET OF RIGOR MORTIS
Rigor Mortis: Stiffening of Muscles
Becomes apparent 2-4 hrs. after death and to persist until decomposition
comes on in from 1-3 days.
? Lactic acid in muscles
? Small group muscle first (the eye lids, the muscles of neck, lower
jaw, the muscles of face, Chest, Upper extremities, Trunk, Lower
extremities.)

Livor Mortis: Post mortem lividity

• Lividity first becomes noticeable about 2 hours after death.
• The DISCOLORATION becomes permanent after 8 hours
• Heart stops after death
• Red blood cells settle towards the ground.
Algor Mortis: Body starts to cool down
Rate of cooling down depends on
○ Size of body- thin or fat

14
 ○ Clothing- naked or heavily clothed • Gases & volatile chemicals
○ Weather- cold or warm weather • Putrefaction rate
○ Location- open or closed environment
Rate of cooling
○ Skin cool in the first 12 hours
○ Different parts cool at different rates
 Weather- cold or warm weather
○ General rate- body cools down 1 – 1.5 ºF (5/9 – 5/6 ºC) per
hour
○ Body may warm up after 2 day (Putrefaction)
Algor Mortis: calculation of death
Calculations
First 12 hours after death:
Body cools 0.78 °C (1.4 °F) per hour
• Depends on environment (temperature and drug use)
After 12 hours after death:
Body cools 0.39 °C (0.7 °F) per hour
Example
What is the temperature loss for someone who has been dead for
12 hours?
0.78 ° C x 12 hours = 9.36 ° C

Putrefaction
• Microorganisms start eating you.
• Chemically break down your tissues
• By-product

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STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION

SEMINAL AND OTHER STAINS OF INTEREST

TESTING FOR SEMINAL STAIN
 Many of the cases sent to a forensic laboratory involve sexual
offenses, making it necessary to examine exhibits for the presence
of seminal stains.

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WHAT IS SEMEN? TESTING FOR SEMINAL STAIN
 •Semen = Spermatozoa (cellular component) + Seminal fluid (fluid  Stain must be located and collected
component)
 Acid Phosphatase Color Test
 An average male ejaculate measures around 3.5 millimeters
 Purple color indicates the presence of semen
containing 10-50 million sperm cells per millimeter. This number
varies with the age, medical conditions, genetic background, and  Spermatozoa Test
habits such as smoking and use of drugs.
 Semen is diluted with water and dried on filter paper
 Fluids contributed by the seminal vesicles are approximately 60
percent of the total semen volume; these fluids contain fructose,  Microscopic examination looks for spermatozoa
amino acids, citric acid, phosphorus, potassium,
and hormones known as prostaglandins.
 The prostate gland contributes about 30 percent of the seminal
fluid; the constituents of its secretions are mainly citric acid, acid
phosphatase, calcium, sodium, zinc, potassium, protein-splitting
enzymes, and fibrolysin (an enzyme that reduces blood and tissue
fibres).
 A small amount of fluid is secreted by the bulbourethral and urethral
glands; this is a thick, clear, lubricating protein commonly known
as mucus.

RAPE EVIDENCE
 Presence of seminal fluid
 Physical injuries such as bruising or bleeding confirms a violent
sexual assault took place

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  Transfer of physical evidence—blood, semen, fibers, and hair—are  Blood sample or buccal swab
usually present
COLLECTION OF RAPE EVIDENCE
OTHER STAINS OF INTEREST
 All outer and undergarments are collected and packaged separately
1. URINE
in paper bags
 The urine that is produced by the kidney is a by-product of some of
 Trace evidence is collected by standing on a clean sheet while
the kidney’s primary functions, which include:
removing clothing
 Waste excretion (urea, creatinine, drug metabolites,
 Bedding may be recovered if seminal stains are present
sulfates, uric acid).
 Medical Examination of the victim
 Maintaining electrolyte balance (such as sodium, chloride,
MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF VICTIM potassium, and magnesium). For example, with normal
kidney function 630 grams of sodium are filtered each day,
 Pubic Combings
626.8 grams are reabsorbed, and 3.2 grams (0.5%)
 Pubic Reference Samples from victim excreted in the urine.

 Vaginal swabs and smear  Acid excretion (products of protein breakdown),

 Rectal swabs  Water excretion/reabsorption, depending on fluid balance.

 Oral swabs  Urine comprises primarily:

 Head hairs • Water (95%).

 Blood sample • Urea.

 Fingernail scrapings • Chloride.

 All clothing • Sodium.

 Urine specimen • Potassium.

MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF SUSPECT • Creatinine.

 All clothing • Trace amounts of other ions, inorganic compounds, and

organic compounds.
 Pubic hair combings
2. SALIVA
 Pulled head and pubic hairs for reference samples  Saliva is the watery and usually somewhat frothy substance
 Penile swab produced in the mouths of some animals, including humans.

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 Produced in salivary glands, saliva is 98% water, but it contains
many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus,
antibacterial compounds and various enzymes.

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