INTRODUCTION

An ecosystem is a self-sufficient and self-

regulating unit of the biosphere that consists of
living organisms and their physical
surroundings. These entities interact and
exchange materials, and the environment of an
ecosystem is uniform throughout its area. The
term “ecosystem” was coined by Tansley in
1935 (NEET-I 2016).

Forest

Odum’s view is that biotic communities and the

abiotic environment have a mutual influence on
each other.
An ecosystem that is formed and operates
naturally without human influence or
intervention is referred to as a natural
ecosystem, such as forests or marine
ecosystems
An artificial or man-made ecosystem, known
as an anthropogenic ecosystem, is created and
maintained by human beings. Examples include
cropland (NEET-I 2016), gardens, aquariums,
and spacecraft.
Ecosystem can also be terrestrial or aquatic:
terrestrial (such as forests, deserts, grasslands,
and gardens) and aquatic (such as freshwater
)
 ponds, lakes, streams, estuaries, and oceans).

14.1 ECOSYSTEM-STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
Each ecosystem is composed of both structural
and functional components, and operates as
an open system that receives input in the form
of solar energy.
The flow of energy within an ecosystem is
unidirectional, moving from producers to
consumers i.e, towards the higher trophic level.
The dissipation and loss occur as heat to the
environment.

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
Cycling of matter occurs between the biotic and
abiotic components of the ecosystem.

1. BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Biotic components make up all living members
of an ecosystem and are connected through
food and various other relationships.

(A) Producers/Autotrophs
(B) Consumers/Heterotrophs

(C) Decomposers

2. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
Abiotic component of an ecosystem consists of
non-living substances and factors. The
important ones are as follows: Temperature;
light; wind; humidity; precipitation and water.

ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE
 Interaction of biotic and abiotic components
results in a physical structure that is
characteristic for each type of ecosystem.

SPECIES COMPOSITION:
Ecosystems are studied by identifying and
counting the different plant and animal species
that exist within them.
The species composition varies between
ecosystems and is determined by geographical,
topographical, and climatic factors.
The highest diversity of species can be found in
tropical rainforests and coral reefs, while the
lowest is in deserts and the Arctic.

STRATIFICATION:
Stratification refers to the formation of vertical
layers of vegetation, such as in tropical
rainforests where there are 5-7 strata with tall
trees, canopy trees, and understory trees at the
top, a shrub layer below the tree layer, and a
bottom layer of herbs and grass at the ground
level.

Stratification

TROPHIC STRUCTURE:
 Each ecosystem has specific food chains and
food webs, e.g., grazing food chain in grassland.

Standing Crop:

Standing crops refers to the amount of living

organic material, or the number of living
organisms, in a specific area of an ecosystem.
The dry weight is preferred over fresh weight
because the latter can be affected by seasonal
fluctuations in moisture.

Standing State:

Standing state is the amount of inorganic

nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and
calcium) present at any given time in the soil
and water of an ecosystem, which tends to vary
with the seasons and among different
ecosystems (NEET 2021).

Four important functional aspects of the

ecosystem are:
(i) Productivity (ii) Decomposition (iii) Energy flow
(iv) Nutrient cycling

The biotic and abiotic components of the

ecosystem are seen to function as a unit for
these aspects of ecosystem.
14.2 PRODUCTIVITY
The rate of synthesis of energy containing organic
matter or biomass by any trophic level per unit
area in unit time is described its productivity. It is
measured as weight (e.g., g/m2/yr) or energy
(e.g., Kcal/m2/yr).

PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
The amount of energy accumulation in green
plants as biomass or organic matter per unit
area over a time period through the process of
photosynthesis is known as primary
productivity.

It is of two sub-types.
(i) Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):

It is the amount of organic matter produced by

photosynthetic producers per unit time and
area, including both the organic matter added
to the producer’s body and losses from
respiration, grazing, and other sources.

(ii) Net Primary Productivity (NPP):

It is the amount of organic matter stored by

producers per unit time and area (AIPMT 2010),
calculated as the rate of organic matter
produced through photosynthesis minus the
rate of respiration and other losses. GPP is
always more than NPP (NEET 2020).
 The amount of primary productivity in a
particular area is not solely dependent on the
species of plants present but is also influenced
by various environmental factors, such as light
intensity, temperature, and water availability.
The availability of nutrients, such as nitrogen
and phosphorus, also plays a significant role in
primary productivity.
Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy, with
the greatest availability in the tropics and the
least at the poles (AIPMT 2007). This results in
the highest photosynthesis and net primary
productivity (NPP) in the tropics (more than 20
t/ha/year), compared to the average in
temperate forests (8 t/ha/year).
Moreover, the photosynthetic capacity of plants,
or their ability to convert light energy into
organic matter, varies among species and can
also impact primary productivity.
The level of primary productivity can vary
significantly between different ecosystems and
even within the same ecosystem under varying
environmental conditions
The annual net primary productivity of the whole
biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry
weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite
occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the
productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion
tons. Rest of course, is on land.

SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
Secondary productivity refers to the rate of
formation organic matter by consumer
population (NEET 2013).
It is influenced by the loss of energy-rich organic
matter during transfer from one trophic level to
the next, as well as consumption through
respiration and predation.
Respiration losses can reach up to 20% for
autotrophs, 30% for herbivores, and 60% for
carnivores, causing a decrease in net
productivity with each increasing trophic level.

Table 14.2.1 : Differences between Primary Productivity and

Secondary Productivity
14.3 DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition is the physical and chemical
breakdown of complex organic matter, or
detritus, into simpler inorganic substances such
as carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients.
This process is crucial for the recycling of
biogeochemicals and the creation of space for
new generations of organisms. Earthworms are
often referred to as the farmer’s friend because
they assist in the breakdown of complex organic
matter and in the loosening of soil.
Detritus is made up of dead plant remains like
leaves, barks, flowers, and animal remains
including fecal matter.
The process of decomposition involves several
important steps, including fragmentation,
leaching, catabolism, humification, and
mineralization.
There are two types of detritus: above-ground
detritus, such as leaf litter, dried plant parts, and
animal remains, and below-ground detritus,
which is mainly composed of dead roots and
underground dead animals.

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN
DECOMPOSITION
1. Detritus Fragmentation: Detrivores (e.g.,
termites, carrion beetles, earthworms) consume
larger pieces, leaving smaller fragments behind
(NEET 2013, 2022, 2023). This also occurs when
detritus passes through the digestive tracts of
animals. This process increases the surface area
of the detritus particles.
2. Leaching: Water that percolates through the
soil carries soluble substances like sugars and
 inorganic nutrients to deeper layers of soil or
ground water (NEET 2023) and get precipitated
as unavailable salt.
3. Catabolism: Decomposers like bacteria and
fungi excrete digestive enzymes on the detritus.
This changes complex organic substances into
simple and soluble organic compounds and
inorganic substances. Some of the broken-down
food is taken up by decomposers and
immobilized.
4. Humification: Humification causes the
accumulation of a dark-colored, amorphous
substance called humus. Humus is rich in lignin
and cellulose and is highly resistant to microbial
action, which leads to slow decomposition. It is a
reservoir of nutrients and helps maintain soil
moisture and aeration. Humus is colloidal in
nature.
5. Mineralization: Some microbes further degrade
humus (NEET 2023), which leads to the release
of inorganic nutrients through the process of
mineralization. It is a slow process because the
nutrients are trapped in humus and immobilized
in decomposers.
 Fig. 14.3.1 : Decomposition process

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF

DECOMPOSITION
The speed at which detritus decomposes is
affected by factors such as the chemical
composition of the detritus, soil temperature, soil
moisture, and soil pH. These factors impact the
activity of detrivores and decomposer microbes.
Temperature and moisture are more critical of
all.
14.4 ENERGY FLOW
Every part of an ecosystem continuously loses
energy, requiring a constant influx of energy to
maintain the ecosystem. The flow of energy in
ecosystems is governed by two laws of
thermodynamics, and requires a constant input
of energy as all components continuously
dissipate energy.
The first law states that energy can be
transferred or transformed, but not created or
destroyed.
The second law states that any energy
transformation is accompanied by energy
dissipation.
The primary source of energy in all ecosystems
is solar energy (except for the deep see
hydrothermal ecosystem) with 50% of it being
present in photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) (AIPMT 2011).
Solar radiant energy is fixed by plants,
photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria
(autotrophs) to synthesise food (NEET-II 2016).
Photosynthetic organisms can only capture 1-
5% of the incident solar energy or 2-10% of the
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in
the process of synthesizing organic matter
(gross primary productivity).
 All organisms are dependent for their food on
producers, either directly and indirectly.
Energy in ecosystems flows one-way
(unidirectional flow), from solar radiation to
producers, then to herbivores and carnivores,
and cannot be reversed.

Fig. 14.4.1 : Energy flow through different trophic levels

FOOD CHAIN
A food chain is a sequence of nutrient and
energy transfer in the form of food from one
organism to another within an ecosystem.
This involves repeated eating, with each group
being eaten by another and passing on the food
energy.
Typically, a food chain is straight and consists of
populations related by eating and being eaten,
with 3-6 trophic levels.
Humans, however, can occupy more than one
trophic level. As the trophic level rises, there is a
progressive reduction in available biomass,
energy, and number of individuals.
Most of the energy at each trophic level is lost as
heat. Producers and decomposers sustain food
chains.
Trophic level refers to the specific place in a
food chain where an organism obtains its food.
The number of trophic levels is equal to the
number of steps in the food chain.
The amount of living biomass or number of
organisms in a unit area of an ecosystem or
trophic level is called standing crop, which is
usually measured in dry weight to avoid
seasonal moisture differences.

Parasites, such as aphids, ticks, mites, leeches,

and mosquitoes, feed on organisms from
different trophic levels, including producers,
 herbivores, and carnivores. Therefore, they are
not assigned to any specific trophic level.
Energy flow in an ecosystem is not permanent in
any trophic level, as it is either transferred to a
higher trophic level or becomes available to
detritivores and decomposers after the
organism’s death.
All organisms in an ecosystem rely on plants
directly or indirectly for food. Herbivores feed on
producers, but only a small portion of the
assimilated food becomes part of their body,
while the rest is lost as heat or used for body
activities. Amount of energy decreases at
successive trophic level.
According to Lindemann’s 10% law proposed in
1942, only 10% of the energy available at one
trophic level transfers to the next trophic level.
This means that a large amount of biomass is
required at the producer level to support a
higher trophic level organism. Therefore, a
shorter food chain is more efficient and can
support a greater biomass with a given basic
source of potential food energy.

TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS

Food chains are of three types: Parasitic,
detritus and grazing.

1. Grazing food chain (GFC):

Grazing food chain also known as the predator

food chain, is the most prevalent food chain.
Each step of this food chain involves predation.
The GFC serves as the primary pathway for
energy flow in aquatic ecosystems.
In a study of the grazing food chain (GFC), the
number of trophic levels are restricted because

(
 it follows the 10% law (only 10% of energy is
transferred to each trophic level from the lower
trophic level) (AIPMT 2014).

2. Parasitic food chain (PFC):

Parasitic food chain also known as an auxiliary

food chain, starts with a host organism and
typically terminates with a parasite.

3. Detritus food chain (DFC):

A detritus food chain begins with dead organic

matter that is degraded into simple, inorganic
material and subsequently absorbed by
detrivores and decomposers, primarily fungi
and bacteria. This type of food chain is
composed of heterotrophic organisms that are
decomposers. Detritus/dead biomass serves as
an energy source or decomposers.
In aquatic ecosystems, the GFC is a major
source of energy flow, while in terrestrial
ecosystems, a larger portion of energy flows
through the detritus food chain compared to the
GFC.

An example of a detritus food chain with

earthworms as the detrivores is:
FOOD WEB

Table 14.4.1 : Differences between Food Chain and Food Web

14.5 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Fig. 14.5.1 : Ecological pyramid

An ecological pyramid is a graphical

representation of an ecological factor, like the
amount of energy or biomass or the number of
individuals at different levels of a food chain.
Producers are at the bottom and top carnivores
are at the top.
Each level represents a functional level and
includes all species at that level.
It can take on various shapes: upright with a
broad base and gradually narrowing towards
the top, inverted with a narrow base and
gradually widening towards the top, or spindle-
shaped with a narrow base and tip but wider in
the middle.
A given species may occupy more than one
trophic level in the same trophic level in the
same ecosystem at the same time.
Example, sparrow a primary consumer when it
eats seeds, fruits and peas. And secondary
consumer when it eats insects and worms.

Table 14.5.1 : Differences between Upright and Inverted Pyramids

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Ecological pyramids are typically constructed
based on three ecological parameters: the
number of individuals, the total biomass, and
the amount of energy. As a result, there are
three different types of ecological pyramids.

1. PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
An ecological pyramid displays the number of
individuals per unit area in each level of the
food chain, with producers at the bottom and
top carnivores at the top.
In most cases, the pyramid of number is upright,
with fewer individuals in each higher trophic
level.
The largest number of individuals is found at the
producer level, and successively fewer
individuals are found in herbivores, primary
carnivores, and finally, top carnivores, which
have the smallest number.
 Fig. 14.5.2 : Pyramid of number in grassland

The pyramid of numbers is typically upright in

ecosystems such as ponds or grasslands, but
this is not always the case.

In some instances, the pyramid of numbers may

be inverted, meaning that the number of
organisms at each higher trophic level is higher
than at the previous level, and the size
decreases gradually. For example, a large tree
(producer) may support and provide
nourishment for several birds (herbivores), and
the number of ectoparasites like mites, ticks,
and bugs, which rely on the birds for
nourishment, is much larger than the number of
birds. Upright pyramid of number is not formed
in forest ecosystems (AIPMT 2012).
 Fig. 14.5.3 : Inverted and spindle shape pyramid of number

The pyramid of numbers for a tree can take on a

spindle shape, as the herbivorous birds are
typically preyed upon by eagles or falcons. The
number of eagles is much smaller than the
number of birds feeding on the tree. This results
in an increase in the number of organisms at
lower trophic levels and a decrease at higher
levels.

2. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS:
The amount of living organic matter is referred
to as biomass and can be measured as fresh or
dry weight.
The pyramid of biomass is a visual
representation of the biomass present at
different trophic levels per unit area, with
producers at the base and top carnivores at the
tip.

The maximum amount of living organic matter

 is found in producers. There is a steady
decrease in biomass as you move up the food
chain from herbivores to primary carnivores to
secondary carnivores, etc. in terrestrial
ecosystem.
Approximately 10-20% of the biomass from lower
trophic levels is transferred to higher levels, with
the rest being used for metabolic processes like
generating heat, overcoming entropy, and
carrying out various body activities.

Insects feeding on big tree will also have upright

pyramid of biomass. Even though the biomass
of phytoplankton may be smaller than that of
zooplankton and the latter smaller than primary
carnivores, if the total biomass produced per
unit time is calculated, the pyramid of biomass
will always be upright.

3. PYRAMID OF ENERGY

Fig. 14.5.4 : Pyramid of energy

The pyramid of energy is a graphical

representation of the amount of energy trapped
per unit of time and area in the different trophic
levels of a food chain, with producers at the
 p
base and top carnivores at the top.
The energy content is expressed in kcal/m2/yr or
KJ/ m2/yr.
Producers have the highest energy content,
which they obtain from solar radiation and
convert into chemical form stored in organic
matter.
As energy moves through the higher trophic
levels in the food chain, it decreases due to
dissipation as heat and use in overcoming
entropy and body activities.
The pyramid of energy is always upright and is
considered more accurate than the pyramids of
biomass or numbers.

LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL
PYRAMIDS
The concept of ecological pyramids is based on
the idea of simple food chains, which are not
found in reality as complex food webs exist in
nature.
Ecological pyramids cannot accommodate
cases where a single species functions at
multiple trophic levels.
These pyramids do not take into consideration
the significance of detrivores and decomposers
in the ecosystem.
14.6 ECOLOGICAL
SUCCESSION
Each community undergoes constant change in
response to changing environmental conditions,
with this change occurring in an orderly and
sequential manner that parallels changes in the
physical environment.
Ecological succession refers to the gradual and
predictable changes in the species composition
of an area, during which some species become
more numerous while others decline or
disappear.
These changes occur in a series of transitional
communities known as seral stages or seral
communities, with the initial group of organisms
colonizing bare land known as pioneers or
primary colonizers and the final group of
organisms in a stable, self-sustaining biotic
community at the end of succession referred to
as a climax community. The entire sequence of
community that successively change in a given
area are called sere(s).
The climax community is in equilibrium with its
physical environment and has maximum
diversity and niche specialization. As the
diversity and number of species and organisms
increase, so too does the total biomass.
The communities that exist today are the result
of millions of years of succession, with evolution
and succession occurring in parallel during this
time.

Changes observed during the biotic succession:

(i) The shift from small, short-lived plants (r-
selection) to large, long-lived plants (k-
)
 selection).
(ii) A transition from an unstable to a stable biotic
community.
(iii) An increase in diversity from low to high
(AIPMT 2015).
(iv) Greater specialization of niches.
(v) An increase in biomass (AIPMT 2015).
(vi) More soil differentiation is seen.
(vii) An increase in the humus content of the soil.
(viii) A change from aquatic or dry conditions to
mesic conditions (Mains 2011).
(ix) The progression from simple food chains to
complex food webs.
(x) An increase in respiratory consumption and a
decrease in productivity until the two become
equal (P/R=1).
(xi) A reduction in environmental perturbations.

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL
SUCCESSION
Ecological or biotic succession is divided into
two types: primary and secondary succession.
Primary Succession: This type of succession
occurs in an area that was previously barren or
lacked life, such as newly exposed sea floor,
igneous rocks, sand dunes, new cooled lava
sediments, or newly created pond or reservoir.
The environment is hostile to the first life or
pioneer community and the process takes a
long time, often thousands of years, as soil,
which is necessary for establishing a biotic
community, takes several hundred to several
thousand years to develop, depending on the
substrate and climate.
 Fig. 14.6.1 : Primary Succession

Secondary Succession: This type of succession

occurs in an area that has been disturbed (fire,
deforestation, etc), resulting in the destruction of
the previous community, such as abandoned
farm lands, burnt or cut forests, lands that have
been flooded.
The area that has been disturbed has soil
organic matter, making it biologically fertile,
allowing for a quicker succession process.
Underground parts, seeds, remnant species, and
invaders quickly establish a new community
once conditions become favorable.
The community goes through several seral
changes before reaching a climatic climax
community. Secondary succession takes
between 50 to 100 years in grasslands and 100 to
200 years for forest development.
The initial colonizers in secondary succession
are influenced by factors such as the condition
of the soil, availability of water, and the presence
of seeds and other propagules.
In some cases, a secondary bare area may be
invaded by moss such as Sphagnum or exotic
weeds like Lantana camara and Eupatorium
odorantum, which can have a significant impact
on the succession process and prevent the
formation of a climax community.
 Fig. 14.6.2 : Secondary Succession

The succession of plants is referred to as

hydrarch or xerarch depending on whether the
habitat is water or very wet areas, or very dry
areas, respectively.
Hydrosere (hydrarch) is the term used to
describe ecological succession in a newly
formed pond or lake. The successional series
progress from Hydric to Mesic conditions.
On the other hand, xerosere (xerarch) occurs
where moisture is present in minimal amounts,
such as in dry deserts or on rocks. The
successional series progress from Xeric to Mesic.
Mesic represents medium water conditions i.e.,
neither too dry (Xeric), nor too wet (Hydric).

BIOLOGICAL SUCCESSION ON BARE

ROCKS
The barren rocky environment is inhospitable to
 living organisms. No water is present as the
substratum is not able to absorb rainwater, and
there is no mechanism for retaining nutrients.
The surface temperature becomes extremely
high when exposed to the sun, making it
impossible for plants to grow on these rocks.
The first inhabitants of this habitat are typically
lichens (pioneer species) in temperate regions
and blue-green algae in tropical regions.

The following are the various stages of

succession in this habitat:
BIOTIC SUCCESSION IN NEWLY
FORMED POND/LAKE
The different successional or seral stages of a
hydrosere are:

IMPORTANCE OF ECOLOGICAL
SUCCESSION
The sequence of biotic succession is usually set
and ecologists can easily determine the seral
stage of a biotic community in an area.
Understanding biotic succession allows us to
maintain certain stages of development, such
as a pasture composed of grasses and herbs,
by interfering with the progression of succession
through activities like grazing and fire.
14.7 NUTRIENTS CYCLING
Organisms require a constant supply of
nutrients in order to grow, reproduce, and carry
out various bodily functions.
The amount of nutrients, such as carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium, present in
the soil at any given time is referred to as the
standing state, which varies in different types of
ecosystems as well as seasonally.
Nutrients are not lost from ecosystems but
rather recycled indefinitely through a process
called nutrient cycling or biogeochemical
cycles.
Nutrient cycles are classified into two types:
Gaseous and sedimentary.

Table 14.7.1 : Differences between Gaseous and Sedimentary

Nutrient Cycling

Sulphur is unique in that it can exist in both

sedimentary and gaseous phases.
Environmental factors such as soil, moisture, pH,
and temperature regulate the rate of nutrient
release into the atmosphere.

Nutrients are present in two states: The reservoir

pool and the cycling pool.
CARBON CYCLE

Fig 14.7.1 : Carbon cycle

Carbon is a major component of organisms,

making up 49% of their dry weight, second only
to water. The majority of carbon (about 71%) is
found in oceans, which play a key role in
regulating the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere only contains about 1% of the
total global carbon. Additionally, fossil fuels
represent a reservoir of carbon.
The carbon cycle consists of a cycling pool of 6
× 1014 kg (29%) of free CO2 in the atmosphere
and 1.45 × 1015 kg (71%) of dissolved CO2 in the
oceans (AIPMT 2008). The oceans play a role in
controlling the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere. The reservoir pool is the
lithosphere, which contains 2.8 × 1021 kg of
carbon.
4 × 1031 kg of carbon dioxide is fixed annually in
the biosphere through photosynthesis.
Considerable amount of carbon returns to the
atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory
activities of producers and consumers.
Decomposers also contribute to the CO2 pool
through processing waste materials and dead
organic matter. Some fixed carbon is lost to
sediments and removed from circulation.
Human activities have significantly impacted
the carbon cycle. Burning of wood, forest fires,
combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel use,
and volcanic activity are additional sources of
CO2 in the atmosphere.
Rapid deforestation and increased burning of
fossil fuels for energy and transport have
significantly increased the rate of CO2 release
into the atmosphere.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Phosphorus is a vital component in biological
systems, participating in metabolic reactions
that release energy from food and aiding in its
utilization in various functions of the body.
It plays a crucial role in forming nucleic acids,
bio-membranes as phospholipids, cellular
energy transfer as ATP, and structural elements
like shells, bones, and teeth.
Phosphorus primarily exists in the form of
phosphate and has a reservoir pool in
phosphate rocks and a cycling pool in soil in
terrestrial ecosystems, and in water in aquatic
ecosystems (NEET 2013).
The cycling pool is replenished through the
( )
weathering of rocks (NEET 2022), and phosphate
is typically found in soil in combination with
calcium, iron, and aluminum.

Fig. 14.7.2 : A simplified model of Phosphorous cycle

Unlike other cycles, there is no gaseous cycle of

phosphorus, and it circulates through both the
lithosphere and hydrosphere in the abiotic
environment.
In some aquatic habitats, excess amounts of
phosphorus can be found due to soil wash,
industrial waste, and detergents.
Phosphate in soil may exist in an insoluble form,
but it can be made soluble by secretions from
microorganisms and plant roots. Once
dissolved, the phosphate can be absorbed by
plants and transformed into organic
compounds.
To enhance its availability, soil can be
supplemented with phosphate fertilizers or
sources such as soil from lake beds, ocean, and
guano (excreta of marine birds). Phosphorus
travels up the food chain as it is consumed by
animals. Upon death and decay of these
organisms, decomposers release the
phosphorus back into the soil, where it becomes
available for reuse by plants.
Some of the phosphorus can be lost through
leaching, or it may become combined with
calcium, iron, or aluminum and become
insoluble, settling at the bottom of lakes or
oceans. Over time, such phosphorus can
become a part of the lithosphere, only being
released after long intervals of weathering or
mining of the rocks that contain it.

Table 14.7.2 : Difference between carbon and phosphorus cycle

14.8 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Healthy ecosystems are vital for providing
valuable environmental, aesthetic and indirect
economic benefits known as ecosystem
services.
Carbon Conversion: The process of
photosynthesis enables producers in the
ecosystem to take in CO2 from the atmosphere
and transform it into organic compounds, which
sustains the ecosystem and supplies food to
entities beyond it.
Oxygen Generation: Producers in the ecosystem
play a crucial role in releasing a large amount of
oxygen through photosynthesis.
Pollination: It is a crucial part of plant
reproduction, with various plants relying on
specific animals such as bees, butterflies, moths,
birds, etc. for their pollination (AIPMT 2014).
These animals, in turn, depend on the plants for
their sustenance.
Seed Dispersal: Many plants need the help of
animals (birds, squirrels, terrestrial creatures) to
disseminate their seeds.
Soil Formation: Soil formation and soil
conservation are significant ecosystem services,
accounting for nearly half of their total value.
Perennial Water: Plant debris and humus
prevent water runoff, retain water like a sponge
and permit water to seep in.
Air: The plant coverage in natural ecosystems,
such as air, helps in reducing pollution by
absorbing harmful gases and settling
suspended particulate matter. It also
contributes to the reduction of carbon dioxide
and increase in oxygen levels.
Wetlands: Serve as protection against floods,
provide purification of pollutants and sediments,
and replenish groundwater.
Aesthetic significance: Ecosystems hold
spiritual, cultural, and aesthetic value.
14.8 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Healthy ecosystems are vital for providing
valuable environmental, aesthetic and indirect
economic benefits known as ecosystem
services.
Carbon Conversion: The process of
photosynthesis enables producers in the
ecosystem to take in CO2 from the atmosphere
and transform it into organic compounds, which
sustains the ecosystem and supplies food to
entities beyond it.
Oxygen Generation: Producers in the ecosystem
play a crucial role in releasing a large amount of
oxygen through photosynthesis.
Pollination: It is a crucial part of plant
reproduction, with various plants relying on
specific animals such as bees, butterflies, moths,
birds, etc. for their pollination (AIPMT 2014).
These animals, in turn, depend on the plants for
their sustenance.
Seed Dispersal: Many plants need the help of
animals (birds, squirrels, terrestrial creatures) to
disseminate their seeds.
Soil Formation: Soil formation and soil
conservation are significant ecosystem services,
accounting for nearly half of their total value.
Perennial Water: Plant debris and humus
prevent water runoff, retain water like a sponge
and permit water to seep in.
Air: The plant coverage in natural ecosystems,
such as air, helps in reducing pollution by
absorbing harmful gases and settling
suspended particulate matter. It also
contributes to the reduction of carbon dioxide
and increase in oxygen levels.
Wetlands: Serve as protection against floods,
provide purification of pollutants and sediments,
p p p
and replenish groundwater.
Aesthetic significance: Ecosystems hold
spiritual, cultural, and aesthetic value.