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Chapter 1
Fundamental of Energy Conversion

E- Book: Energy Conversion by “Kenneth C. Weston”

Instructor: Dr. Hafiz Daraghmeh

E-mail: [email protected]
Department of Mechanical Engineering
College of Engineering and Technology
Palestine Technical University
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1.1 Introduction
Energy Conversion

It is concerned with the transformation of energy

from sources such as fossil and nuclear fuels and the
sun energy into conveniently used forms such as
electrical energy, rotational and propulsive energy,
and heating and cooling.
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1.1 Introduction
Plenty of choices and challenges face the modern energy
conversion engineer as follows:

• Many electric power utilities were content with state -

of-the reliable fossil-fuel-consuming steam power
plants, then came the high fuel prices that threatened
shortages.

• Also, air pollution produced by factories, power plants,

and automobiles and other forms of environmental
pollution were harmful.
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1.1 Introduction
New and previously shelved ideas are now being
considered or reconsidered, tested, and sometimes
implemented. A few examples are:
1. Combined steam and gas turbine cycles
2. Solar and windmill power farms
3. Cogeneration
4. Photovoltaic solar power
5. Coal-gasification power plants.
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1.2 Basics of Thermodynamics

System, Surroundings, and Universe

• The subject of thermodynamics stems from the

concepts of temperature, heat, and work.

• We define a pure substance as a homogeneous

collection of matter. Consider a fixed mass of a
pure substance bounded by a closed,
impenetrable, flexible surface. Such a mass,
called a system
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1.2 Basics of Thermodynamics

System, Surroundings, and Universe

• All other matter which can interact with the system is

called the surroundings.

• The combination of the system and the surroundings

is termed the universe
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• Consider a fixed mass of a pure substance bounded

by a closed system

• The system could be a collection of molecules of

water, air, refrigerant, or combustion gas confined
in a closed container such as the boundary formed
by a cylinder and a fitted piston
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• Work
From basic mechanics, work, W, is defined as the energy that
causes a force, F, to move one or more particles through a
distance, x.

Thus, work must be done by an external agent to decrease the

volume, V, of a system of molecules.
-e.g: Volume change of the system due to the motion of the
piston is related to the differential work through the force-
distance product:
• dW = Fdx = pAdx = pdV [ N.m]
or
• dw = pdv [ kJ/kg]
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• Heat

Given a system immersed in a container of hot fluid,

by virtue of a difference in temperature between the
system and the surrounding fluid, energy passes
from the fluid to the system. We say that heat, Q
[kJ], is transferred to the system. The system is
observed to increase in temperature or to change
phase or both. Thus heat transfer to or from the
system, like work, can also change the state of the
matter within the system.
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Internal Energy and The First Law of

Thermodynamics

• A property of a system that reflects the energy of the

molecules of the system is called the internal energy, U.

• The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy can be

neither created nor destroyed.
Thus, the internal energy of a system can change only when
energy crosses a boundary of the system, i.e., when heat
and/or work interact with the system. This is expressed in an
equation known as the First Law of Thermodynamics.

In differential form the First Law is:

• du = dq - dw [kJ/kg]
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• Cyclic Process
A special and important form of the First Law of
Thermodynamics is obtained by integration of
previous equation for a cyclic process.
• du = 0  dq = dw

• Arbitrary Process of a System

• q = u+ w [kJ/kg]

• a system that is rigid (w = 0) and adiabatic (q = 0)

has an unchanging internal energy.
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Reversibility and Irreversibility

• If a system undergoes a process in which

temperature and pressure gradients are always small,
the process may be thought of as near-equilibrium
states.
• If each of the states can be restored in reverse
sequence, the process is said to be internally
reversible.
• If the environmental changes accompanying the
process can also be reversed in sequence, the process
is called externally reversible.
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Reversibility and Irreversibility

• All real processes fail to satisfy the requirements for

reversibility and are therefore irreversible.

• Irreversibility occurs due to temperature, pressure,

composition, and velocity gradients caused by heat
transfer, solid and fluid friction, chemical reaction,
and high rates of work applied to the system.

• An engineers job frequently entails efforts to reduce

irreversibility in machines and processes
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Entropy and Enthalpy

• The entropy change of a system, ∆s [kJ/kg-K], is defined as

the integral of the ratio of the system differential heat transfer
to the absolute temperature for a reversible thermodynamic
path.
• ds = dqrev /T [kJ/kg-K]

• An important example of the use of last equation considers a

thermodynamic cycle composed of reversible processes. Find
net work of the cycle
• Wn = dq = Tds [kJ/kg]
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Enthalpy

• The enthalpy, h, is a property of state defined in

terms of other properties:
• h = u + pv [kJ/kg]

Two other important forms of the First Law make use

of these properties for a reversible process

• Tds = du + pdv [ kJ/kg]

• Tds = dh - vdp [kJ/kg]

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics

• The Second Law of Thermodynamics, is concerned with
the entropy change of the universe, i.e., of both the
system and the surroundings.

• the entropy of a system is the sum of the entropy of its

parts. Applying this to the universe, the entropy of the
universe is the sum of the entropy of the system and its
surroundings. The Second Law may be stated as "The
entropy change of the universe is non-negative":

• Suniv ≥ 0 [ kJ/K]
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Example 1.1
• (a) Calculate the entropy change of an infinite
sink at 27°C temperature due to heat transfer
into the sink of 1000 kJ.

ΔSsink = 1000/(273 + 27) = + 3.333 kJ/K.

Heat
Heater Sink
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Example 1.1

• (b) Calculate the entropy change of an infinite

source at 127°C losing the same amount of heat.

ΔSsource = -1000/(273 + 127) = -2.5 kJ/K.

• (c) What is the entropy change of the universe if the

aforementioned source supplies 1000 kJ to the sink
with no other exchanges?

• ΔSuniverse = 3.333 - 2.5 = +0.833 kJ/K > 0

which satisfies the Second Law

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Example 1.1

• (d) What are the entropy changes if the direction

of heat flow is reversed and the source becomes
the sink?

ΔSsink = (-1000 )/(273 + 27) = -3.333 kJ/K

ΔSsource = (1000)/(273 + 127) = + 2.555 kJ/K

ΔSuniv = -3.333 + 2.5 = - 0.833 kJ/K

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1.3 Control Volumes and Steady Flows

• In many engineering problems it is preferable to deal with a
flow of fluid particles as they pass through a given region of
space rather than following the flow of a fixed collection of
particles.

• Steady flow implies no accumulation or depletion of mass

occurs in the control volume, the conservation of mass
requires equal mass flows in and out, i.e., m1 = m2, kg /s.
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1.3 Control Volumes and Steady Flows

Q: The rate of heat flow into C.V
W: The outgoing shaft work rate
Applying conservation of energy:

Q – W = m2h2 – m1h1 = m (h2-h1)

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1.3 Control Volumes and Steady Flows

This equation is the frequently used equation.

It is known as “Steady flow form of first law of thermodynamics”

Applying second law of thermodynamic, by considering adiabatic C.V

requires that m2s2≥m1s1
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1.4 Properties of Vapors: Mollier and T-s Diagrams

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1.4 Properties of Vapors: Mollier and T-s Diagrams

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1.4 Properties of Vapors: Mollier and T-s Diagrams

• The entropy of saturated vapor Sv varies from the

entropy of the saturated liquid Sl in accordance with
the following quality equation:

S = Sl + x(Sv - Sl) [kJ/kg.K]

where S is the entropy per unit mass.

Other extensive properties such as enthalpy and

volume vary with quality in the same way.
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1.5 Ideal Gas Basics

Under normal ambient conditions, the average

distance between molecules in gases is large,
resulting in negligible influences of intermolecular
forces. In this case, system thermodynamics are
governed by ideal (perfect) gas law:

• Pυ = RT [kJ/kg] ,
υ = specific volume
R= 0.287 kJ/kg-°K
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1.5 Ideal Gas Basics

Cv = (∂u /∂T)v (kJ/kg.K)

Cp = (∂h /∂T)p (kJ/kg.K)

• For a thermally perfect gas the heat capacities are related by

the following equation:
cp = cv + R [kJ/kg-K]  Use h = U + PV
This relation does not apply for a dissociating gas

• Another important gas property is the ratio of heat capacities

defined by k = cp /cv.
It is constant for gases at room temperatures but decreases as
vibrational modes become excited.
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1.5 Ideal Gas Basics

Example 1.2

• (a) Derive an expression for the entropy change of a system in

terms of pressure and temperature for a calorically perfect gas.
• (b) Derive a relation between p and T for an isentropic process in a
calorically perfect gas.

Solution
(a) For a reversible process, Equation (1.8) gives
Tds = dh - vdp.

Dividing by T and applying the perfect gas law gives

ds = cp dT/T - Rdp/p.
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Example 1.2

ds = cp dT/T - Rdp/p

Then integration between states 1 and 2 yields

s2 - s1 = cp ln(T2 /T1) - R ln( p2 /p1)

(b) For an isentropic process, s2 = s1.

Then the above equation gives:
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1.8 Energy Classification

All human activities involve conversion of energy from one form

to another. For example, the human body, transforms the
chemical energy stored in food into external motion and work
produced by muscles.
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1.9 Efficiencies
• Efficiency is a measure of the quality of an operation
or of a characteristic of a device.

• The efficiency of a machine that transmits mechanical

power is measured by its mechanical efficiency, like
the efficiency of the gearbox which is the ratio of its
power output to the power input.

• A turbine with an efficiency of 0.9, will, for example,

deliver 90% of the power of a perfect (isentropic)
turbine.
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Types of Efficiencies
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1.10 The Carnot Engine

• The ideas put forth by Sadi Carnot in 1824, expressed
the content of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
relevant to heat engines: “It is impossible for a device
which operates in a cycle to receive heat from a single
source and convert the heat completely to work.

• Carnot’s great work provides the theoretical limit for

efficiency of heat engine cycles that operate between
two given temperature levels: the Carnot cycle.
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1.10 The Carnot Engine

• The ideas put forth by Sadi Carnot in 1824, expressed
the content of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
relevant to heat engines: “It is impossible for a device
which operates in a cycle to receive heat from a single
source and convert the heat completely to work.

• Carnot’s great work provides the theoretical limit for

efficiency of heat engine cycles that operate between
two given temperature levels: the Carnot cycle.
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1.10 The Carnot Engine

• The Carnot cycle consists of two reversible, isothermal
processes separated by two reversible adiabatic or
isentropic processes
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1.10 The Carnot Engine

• All of the heat transferred to the working fluid is
supplied isothermally at the high temperature TH = T3,
and all heat rejected is transferred from the working
medium at the low temperature TL = T1.

• It is evident from the T-s diagram that:

The heat added (qa) = T3(s3 - s2 )
The heat rejected = T1 (s4 – s1 )
The net work (wn) = T3(s3 - s2 ) - T1 (s4 – s1 ).

• The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle, like that of

other cycles, is given by wn / qa
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1.10 The Carnot Engine

Carnot Efficiency (ηc)

ηc= (Qin –Qout )/Qin

Both isothermal processes operate between the same entropy limits.

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1.10 The Carnot Engine

• The Carnot efficiency equation shows that efficiency rises
as TL drops and as TH increases.

• The message is clear:

A heat engine should operate between the widest possible
temperature limits. Thus the efficiency of a heat engine will
be limited by the maximum attainable energy-source
temperature and the lowest available heat-sink temperature.

• Thus the Carnot efficiency sets an upper limit on the

performance of heat engines, and it can be taken as
criterion to judge other engines.
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1.11 Additional Second-Law Considerations

Reversible Work: The maximum work achievable
by a reversible heat engine operating between the
appropriate temperature limits.

Irreversibility: The irreversibility, I, of a process is

defined as the difference between the reversible work
and the actual work of a process: I = Wrev – Wact

• Second-Law Efficiency:
The ratio of the actual work of a process to the
reversible work
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EXAMPLE 1.3

• Through combustion of a fossil fuel at 1500°C, an

engine receives energy at a rate of 3000 kW to heat
steam to 500°C. There is no energy loss in the
combustion process. The steam, in turn, produces
1000 kW of work and rejects the remaining energy to
the surroundings at 4°C.
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EXAMPLE 1.3

(a) What is the thermal efficiency of the plant?

(b) What are the reversible work and the Carnot

efficiency corresponding to the source and sink
temperatures?

(c) What is the irreversibility?

(d) What is the second-law efficiency?

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Solution
(a) The thermal efficiency, or first-law efficiency, of the plant is I
= Wact/QIN = 1000/3000 = 0.333 = 33.3%.

(b) The relevant Carnot efficiency is

1 – (4+273)/(1500+273) = 0.8437, or 84.37%.

The engine’s reversible work =

ηC .QIN = 0.8437(3000) = 2531.1 kW.
(c) The plant irreversibility is I= 2531.1 - 1000 = 1531.1 kW.

(d) The second-law efficiency is then η th / η C = 0.333/0.8437 =

39.5%
or
Wact /Wrev = 1000/2531.1 = 0.395, or 39.5%.