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UPDATED TO 2023-2028 SYLLABUS

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SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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another option until the organism is narrowed down to its

genus and species.
1. Characteristics and
Syllabus 1.2.4: Ensure you can construct and
Classification of Living use dichotomous keys based on identifiable
features
Organisms
1.3. Features of Organisms
Designed by: Zhan Xuan Chong
The Five Kingdoms
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms
Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
MRS GREN organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
organism causing a change of position or place chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic
down nutrient molecules and release energy for organisms with cell walls not made of cellulose, spread by
metabolism spreading spores in moist/dark/warm environments. Most
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in have hyphae and mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast,
the internal or external environment mushrooms.
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true nucleus
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same or DNA in the cytoplasm. Many also have plasmids. Ex:
kind of organism E.coli, Salmonella.
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of Protocists: Single-celled organism with a nucleus.
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth, seaweed.
and development
Guidance: For this section, learn the five
kingdoms' main features.
1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification
System Main Features of All Animals:

Multicellular
Organisms are classified into groups by the features they
It contains a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts
share.
Only feed on organic substances made by other living
Species are a group of organisms which can reproduce to
things
produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of classification: Kingdom → Phylum → Classes
→ Orders → Families → Genus → Species. 1.4. Vertebrates
Funny acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Mammals
Good Soup Fur/hair on the skin
External ears (pinna)
The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
Internal fertilisation, giving the birth of young
internationally agreed system in which the scientific name Mammary glands
of an organism comprises two parts showing the genus Reptiles
and species. Thick, dry, scaly skin
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalized, Usually four legs
and the species are not. Internal fertilisation, conception from egg
The classification of organisms helps show the Soft eggs
evolutionary relationships between them. Fish
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help Wet scales
classify organisms. Streamlined body shape
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely related External fertilisation and soft eggs
two organisms are. Uses gills to breathe
Dichotomous keys use visible features to classify Amphibians
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and Smooth, moist skin
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to External fertilisation and soft eggs

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Gills & Lungs can live on land and water

1.7. Viruses
Most have four legs
Birds
Viruses are not part of any classification system due to
Feathers on body and scales on legs
not being considered living things.
Constant internal body temperature
They do not carry out the seven life processes for
Hard eggs
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s metabolic
Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs pathways to make multiple copies of themselves.
Syllabus 1.3.3: You must be able to classify Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA or
organisms using the features identified above DNA) inside a protein coat.
Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
ribosomes)
1.5. Arthropods
Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

Crustaceans (e.g. crabs)

Have an exoskeleton, one pair of compound eyes
Two body segments – cephalothorax, abdomen
More than four pairs of legs (10-14 legs)
Arachnids: (e.g. spiders)
Two body segments – cephalothorax and abdomen
Four pairs of legs (8 legs)
Myriapods: (e.g. centipedes)
Segmented body 2. Organisation of the
One pair of antennae
10+ pairs of legs – 1 or 2 pairs on each segment Organism
Insects: (e.g. bees)
Three body segments – head, thorax and abdomen
Three pairs of jointed legs (6 legs)
2.1. Cell Structure
One pair of antennae
All living things are made of cells.
1 or 2 pairs of wings
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
All typical cells have:
1.6. Classification of Plants Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of cells
Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns Nucleus: contains DNA and controls the cell
and flowering plants. Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis
Ferns:
Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
Do not produce flowers/seeds
looks rough under the microscope.
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Reproduce by spores
Plant cells especially also have:
Flowering plants:
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds
strengthens the cell
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons energy for photosynthesis
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has everything
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
above.
Parallel veins Branching veins
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves
3 Flower Parts 4 or 5 Flower Parts
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles

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2.3. Size of Specimens

size of drawing image I
M agnification = = =
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

A
Other Forms in Magnification Formula

Actual size = image size / magnification

Image size = magnification x actual size

Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)

1cm = 10mm
Prokaryotes (Bacteria) 1mm = 1000μm

Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)

Prokaryotes DO NOT have mitochondria and a true nucleus.

A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall, cell membrane,

cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA, and plasmids. 3. Movement In and Out of
Cells
3.1. Diffusion
Diffusion: Net movement of particles from a region of their
higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration
(i.e., down a concentration gradient) as a result of their
random movement.

Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify the

cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells

2.2. Levels of Organisation

The division of existing cells produces new cells.
Key Terms

Cells: Building Blocks of Life

Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
specific function random movement of molecules and ions.
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as without
working together to perform body functions. it, molecules that are needed for life, for example, glucose
and oxygen for respiration, would not be able to get to the
Specialised Cells Specific Function places they are required.
Movement of mucus in the Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
Ciliated cells through the cell membrane
trachea and bronchi
Root Hair cells Absorption Factors that influence diffusion:
Palisade Mesophyll cell Undergo photosynthesis
Concentration gradient
Conduction of electrical
Neurones Temperature
impulses
Surface area
Red Blood cells Transport of oxygen Distance
Sperm and Egg cells
For reproduction
(gametes) 3.2. Osmosis

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Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region of

higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially
permeable membrane.

3.3. Active Transport

The role of water as a solvent in organisms to aid with
digestion, excretion, and transport
Active Transport: Movement of particles through a cell
Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
cell membrane
concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient),
The concentration of solute outside the cell =
using energy from respiration.
concentration inside the cell → no change in size
The concentration of solute outside the cell > Carrier proteins are also used during active transport.
concentration inside the cell → cell shrinks
(Flaccid/Plasmolysis)
The concentration of solute outside the cell <
concentration inside the cell → cell swells (Turgid)

In Animals

Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it

to burst (lysis) because it has too much water and no cell
wall.

In Plants

Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the

cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. It is embedded in the cell membrane to pick up specific
Decreasing solute concentration inside of the cell causes molecules and take them through the cell membrane
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole against their concentration gradient.
gets smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from the Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
cell wall. optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by root
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the hair cells.
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
(CHO)
Dialysis Tubing Experiment Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
Dialysis tubing (or Viking tubing) is a non-living, partially
permeable membrane made from cellulose. Smaller molecules Larger molecules
Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller molecules Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
(such as glucose and water) to pass through by Amino acids Proteins
diffusion and osmosis.

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4.2. Food Tests 5. Enzymes

Starch: Add a few drops of iodine solution (+ve result =
blue-black colour, -ve result = remains brown) 5.1. Enzymes
Reducing sugars: Add Benedict’s solution, then the
mixture is heated in a water bath for 2 to 3 minutes Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
(70°C). (+ve result = brick-red precipitate, -ve result = and is not changed by the reaction
remains blue) Enzymes: proteins that are involved in all metabolic
Proteins: Add a few drops of Biuret solution, +ve result = reactions, where they function as biological catalysts.
purple/lilac colour Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
Fats and oils: Ethanol Emulsion test; ethanol is added to reaction to take place.
the mixture, poured into a test tube with an equal amount It is essential in all living organisms regarding the reaction
of distilled water, then shaken, +ve result = milky-white rate necessary to sustain life.
emulsion. Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
Vitamin C: Decolourisation of DCPIP shows that vitamin C
is probably present. Lock and Key Model

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to react,

complementary to the active site.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction

Different sequences of amino acids may lead to different

shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences may
be deferred in their function.
4.3. Structure of a DNA
5.2. Temperature on Enzymes
Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid. Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the temperature
at which they work best, giving the fastest reaction ≈ at
37°C in animals & human bodies.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape and
no longer binding with a substrate.
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.

Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled

DNA 5.3. pH on Enzymes
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
Each strand contains chemicals called bases Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
The bases always pair up in the same way: alkaline.
A and T Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
C and G If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.

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Pepsin in acidic conditions, Amylase in neutral conditions The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
and trypsin in alkalinity conditions. starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, it
will remain brown.
5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme
Activity
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

6.3. Investigation of Light

De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
6. Plant Nutrition Remove the stencil and test for starch
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-black
6.1. Photosynthesis -ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remains brown

Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture

carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
light+chlorophyll
C arbonDioxide + Water ​
Glucose + Oxygen
light+cholorophyll
6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ +C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​

The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of

a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots. 6.4. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
Chlorophyll is a green dye that traps light energy and
converts it into chemical energy to form carbohydrates Take two de-starched potted plants.
and their subsequent storage. Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose B.
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars. Inside A, keep N aHC O3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​

produces C O2 . ​

Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs
Photosynthesis C O2 .
​

Keep both set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.

starch as an energy store
Perform the starch test on both plants.
cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
sucrose for transport in the phloem
nectar to attract insects for pollination

6.2. Investigation of Chlorophyll

Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves. The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
about 48 hours. test
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Hydrogencarbonate indicator - measures the carbon dioxide
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
concentration
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
by ethanol.
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf

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prevent water loss and open to letting gases in and out.

When guard cells lose water, the stoma closes (at night),
while the stoma opens when guard cells gain water &
swell (during the day).

6.5. Limiting Factors

Limiting Factors: something present in the environment in
such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Light Intensity
As the amount of light Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain how
increases, the rate of the structures above adapt leaves for
photosynthesis increases (a- photosynthesis
b)
The limiting factor is light 6.7. Mineral Requirements
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
affect the rate (c) Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
The limiting factor is now Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: plant lacks
carbon dioxide or slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow
temperature
Tip! You need to know the purpose of these
6.6. Leaf Structure required nutrients.

Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area

and are thin. 7. Human Nutrition
7.1. Diet
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
to maintain good health and metabolism.

Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Cuticle: the waxy layer that prevents water loss from the Children Below 12: Require more calcium
top of the leaf Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Upper/Lower Epidermis: transparent cell that allows Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
sunlight to pass through to the palisade cell Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Palisade mesophyll: is found at the top of the cell and Males: Generally, require more energy
contains many chloroplasts that absorb sunlight.
Spongy mesophyll: irregularly shaped cells that create air 7.2. Nutrition
spaces to allow the gaseous exchange to take place; do
not contain many chloroplasts Nutrients Uses
Vascular Bundles: made up of xylem and phloem
Carbohydrates Energy
Xylem: vessel which transports water and dissolved
minerals and has lignified walls made of cellulose Source of energy, building materials,
Phloem: a vessel that transports nutrients Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy,
Stomata: little holes that open and close to allow the making hormones
gaseous exchange to occur. The stomata are close to

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Nutrients Uses Stomach: has pepsin (a protease) to break down proteins

Energy, building materials, enzymes, into amino acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid.
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material They also have elastic walls.
(muscle), hormones, antibodies Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases
Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested by
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Development and maintenance of Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
Calcium
strong bones and teeth down starch.
Iron Making haemoglobin Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
Provides bulk for faeces, helps is where absorption takes place, adapted by having
Fibre (Roughage) villi and microvilli.
peristalsis
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin and lipase.
Chemical reactions, solvent for
Water Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
transport
molecules), deamination and makes urea to be sent to the
kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol and
7.3. Deficiencies other toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones parts:
and teeth Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
7.4. Digestive System body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need to
be known.

7.5. Teeth

Process of Digestion Incisors Canines Premolars Molars

Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the

body through the mouth.
Physical Digestion: breakdown of food into smaller pieces
without chemical change.
It increases the surface area of food for the action of
enzymes in chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food Blunt for
Blunt chewing
molecules into small, soluble molecules. Rectangular chewing and
Sharp-pointed and grinding.
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines shape, sharp grinding, one
for piercing Two or three
into the blood for cutting and or two roots,
and tearing roots, ridges
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells biting ridges at the
at the end
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body end
as faeces
Structure of Tooth
Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal
Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums
Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
ingestion takes place
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
from mouth to stomach

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Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing the
calcium salts surface area for absorption. One villus will have tiny folds
Cement: helps to anchor tooth on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and More surface area means more absorption of nutrients
nerve endings which detect pain. can happen.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
collagen fibres Capillaries: provide a better blood supply
Nerves Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
Blood vessels some from the colon (large intestine).

7.6. Chemical Digestion 8. Transport in Plants

Chemical Digestion: Enzymes are used to break down large
insoluble substances, such as proteins, into smaller soluble 8.1. Xylem and Phloem
substances, like amino acids so that they can be absorbed.
Functions of Xylem
Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is produced
in the pancreas (but also in the salivary gland) transport water and mineral ions, and support
Maltase: breaks down into glucose in the membrane of
the epithelium lining in small intestines. Functions of Phloem
Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides (done by
transport sucrose and amino acids
pepsin-acidic) and then into amino acids (done by trypsin).
Pepsin comes from the stomach and trypsin comes from Adaptations of Xylem
the pancreas (alkali).
Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, 1. thick walls with lignin (details of lignification are not
produced by the pancreas. required)
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice: 2. no cell contents
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms 3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity long, continuous tube
Kills pathogens
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid mixture
of food and gastric juices entering the duodenum from
the stomach to provide a suitable pH for enzyme action.

7.7. Absorption & Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
dicotyledonous plants

8.2. Water Uptake

Root Hair Cells

Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil

They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis and
ions by active transport.

The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases

The small intestine is the region for absorption of the uptake of water and mineral ions.
digested food.

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Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration

Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the water-

holding capacity of air and increase the transpiration rate
Humidity: Low humidity increases the water potential
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere hence
increasing the transpiration rate
Wind speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
steep concentration gradient

8.4. Translocation
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).

Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis Translocation in different seasons:
because water potential is higher in soil than in the Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
cytoplasm. leaves
Then, it enters into the root cortex cells, xylem, and lastly, Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
the mesophyll cells. photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.
8.3. Transpiration
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, and it
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata.

9. Transport in Animals
Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then 9.1. Circulatory Systems
diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
mesophyll cells and the size and number of stomata. to ensure a one-way flow of blood.
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
Single circulation system (fish):
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
Blood flows through the heart once every complete
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
circuit
water molecules.
Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills
Wilting
Released in body cells, then back to the heart
Wilting: occurs if water loss is greater than water uptake – Double circulation system:
cells become flaccid, tissues become limp. Four heart chambers

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Blood passes through the heart twice every complete Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
circuit pulmonary vein
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, and It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the left
back to the heart ventricle
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
blood to it from the lungs The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood from
flowing back down into the heart
9.2. Heart
Exemplar Past Year Question
The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in arteries
circuit.
(0610/42/F/M/23)

caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)

pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
contract/pump
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax

9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
Right atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to the listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
right ventricle
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.
right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart 9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood separate.
Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
the left atrium
Left atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to the The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting blood
supply to the heart muscle.
left ventricle
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the
aorta heart attack
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
the rest of the body genetic predisposition, age and sex
This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty food
Atrioventricular and semi-lunar valves: prevent backflow
(a good diet) and exercising regularly
of blood

Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right Ventricle < Left 9.6. Blood Vessels
Ventricle
Vessel Function Structure
9.3. Functioning of the Heart Elastic tissue walls
stretch and relax as
The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows blood is forced out;
into the right atrium via the vena cava. causes pulse
Transport high-pressure
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is Arteries
blood away from heart Thick walls to withstand
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the right
high pressure
ventricle.
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed Small lumen maintains
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve, (high) blood pressure.
which prevents blood from flowing backwards into the Veins Transport low pressure Valves prevent backflow
heart. blood to the heart of blood.
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
capillaries, passing the alveoli.

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Vessel Function Structure Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
Blood is at low pressure, oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
but nearby muscles White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody production
squeeze veins and help Platelets: allows blood clotting
push blood to the heart Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
Large and wide lumen to
dissolved substances)
reduce resistance to the
flow of blood Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify red
One cell thick wall for and white blood cells in photomicrographs and
easy diffusion diagrams
Highly branched; large
Allow substances to surface area
Capillaries
diffuse into cells Capillary beds
constantly supplied with
fresh blood, so diffusion
occurs
White Blood Cells
Major Blood Vessels
Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein Phagocytes have
Lymphocytes have a circular
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins lobed/irregular C-shaped
nucleus and are found in
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins nuclei and vesicles containing
blood
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein digestive enzymes.
Phagocytosis: engulfs
The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the Large nucleus/small
pathogen, vesicles fuse with
heart to the liver cytoplasm, and they produce
the vacuole, enzymes digest
The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the liver antibodies,
bacteria.
back to the heart
The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins
from the gut to the liver
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens,
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes.

Blood Clotting

Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out

Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to form
a scab.

Arterioles and Venules 10. Diseases and Immunity

10.1. Pathogens
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
Transmissible disease: a disease in which the pathogen
can be passed from one host to another.
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
transmitted either:
The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called Direct contact e.g., through blood, body fluids
arterioles Indirect contact e.g., contaminated surfaces/food,
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called from animals, from air
venules
10.2. Body Defences
9.7. Blood

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The human body has many natural defences against Process of Vaccination:
pathogens. weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the
body
Mechanical barriers: the antigens stimulate an immune response by
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust lymphocytes which produce antibodies
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells memory cells are produced that give long-term
Chemical barriers: immunity
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which Passive Immunity
kills many of the bacteria in food
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen by
defences are destroyed by white blood cells: antibodies acquired from another individual.
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
by phagocytosis Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill the Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
pathogen Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
Vaccination against disease helps antibodies to be which are passed on to her baby.
made very quickly Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases against any diseases.
Some diseases are caused by the immune system
a clean water supply targeting and destroying body cells (Auto-immune
hygienic food preparation disease)
good personal hygiene
waste disposal 10.4. Cholera
sewage treatment
Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces
10.3. Active & Passive Immunity To cure this, is oral rehydration therapy
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio chlorae”,
Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens leading to the direct causing cholera.
destruction of pathogens or marking pathogens for Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted in
destruction by phagocytes. contaminated water.
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the
Pathogen molecules are called antigens, and they have secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, causing
specific shapes lower osmotic water movement into the gut, causing
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which fit diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the blood.
specific antigens
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be made
that are exactly the right shape to fit into molecules 11. Gas Exchange in Humans
(antigens) outside the pathogen.
Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces
engulf.
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many Properties Reasons
lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen Short distance to diffuse (one cell
Thin surface
and divide rapidly by mitosis. thick)
Many molecules can diffuse at
These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating active Large surface area
once/More alveoli
immunity.
Regular fresh air supplies keep up
Active Immunity Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody Gases can be carried to/from the
Good blood supply
production in the body. cells that need/produce them

Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen or

by vaccination. 11.2. Structure of the Lungs
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
pathogens

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The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles, Inspiration Expiration

larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure <
capillaries Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs

Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and expand
and contract (and efficient breathing).
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall. Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in sneezing.
the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs. Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
Composition of Breathing Dry Air Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat back
and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus up the
Inspired Air Expired Air lungs into the mouth.
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4% 12. Respiration
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water Vapour Lower Higher
12.1. Respiration
Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result = Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient
turns cloudy molecules in living cells to release energy.

Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle

11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
respiration - and higher CO2 concentration in the blood. maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to
This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
spirogram. speed up the reaction.
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast
change in breathing volume and rate helps keep CO2
concentration and pH safe. An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
the effect of temperature on yeast cells.
11.4. Breathing Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically,
though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
Inspiration Expiration is being investigated.
External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the
upwards and outwards downwards and inwards suspension.
The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless,
Diaphragm muscles contract Diaphragm muscles relax –
the faster the respiration rate.
– the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
IV: Effect of Temperature
downwards, and the volume the volume of the thorax
of the thorax increases decreases

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DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for Aerobic Anaerobic
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless) Oxygen Needed Not needed
Breakdown of
Complete Incomplete
Glucose
Animals: Lactic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Products & Yeast: Carbon
and Water
Dioxide and Ethanol
Amount of Energy
More Less
Released

13. Excretion in Humans

Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that 13.1. Excretion
energy is released; it is NEVER made,
produced, or created. Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the
waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells
12.2. Aerobic Respiration including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.
Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,
excess water and ions (kidney).
Glucose + Oxygen → C arbonDioxide + Water The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
urea.
C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

13.2. Function of Liver

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration
The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break down converting them to proteins.
nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen.

In muscles (vigorous exercise):

Glucose → Lactic Acid
In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + C arbon Dioxide
C 6 H12 O6 → 2C 2 H5 OH + 2C O2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:

Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
molecule that aerobic respiration would
Produces poisonous lactic acid
Lactic Acid:
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of
this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
amino acids to form urea.
after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt. Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Oxygen Debt is removed by: Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid Do remember assimilation is the uptake and use of
in the blood from the muscles to the liver nutrients by cells.
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
13.3. Function of Kidney
Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and of glucose and some salts
Anaerobic Respiration

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14. Coordination and

Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises nerves
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
functions.
Electrical impulses travel through the neurones.
The nervous system helps with the coordination and
regulation of body functions.

14.2. Types of Neurones

Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
nerve cells called neurones
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder Motor Neurone
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
Bladder: stores urine
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules and
leaves wastes behind

13.4. Structure and Function of the

Nephron
Sensory Neurone

1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters the

glomerulus. Water, urea, salts and glucose are forced
Relay Neurone
into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and large
proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of the
salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but not
salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the nephron
by osmosis because of the low water potential of the
medulla tissue fluid. 14.3. Simple Reflex Arc
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into
the collecting duct, forming urine.

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Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny vacuoles
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors (vesicles, each containing a chemical called
(muscles and glands). neurotransmitter)
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal membrane and empty their content into the synaptic cleft.
surface The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
neurone and a motor neurone. of the relay neurone.
The gap between neurones is called a synapse. This can happen because the neurotransmitter
How the simple reflex arc works: molecules' shape complements the receptor molecule's
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that shape.
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse)
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the receptor
to the CNS
14.5. Sense Organs
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature and chemicals.
cord
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
the response

Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of
different colours (Rods and cones)
Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain

14.6. Pupil Reflex

14.4. Synapse
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter Adjusting for high and low light intensity
An involuntary response

Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity

Radial muscles (straight lines)
Circular muscles (circular
contract and become shorter
lines) contract and become
to pull the pupil (black dot),
shorter to reduce pupil size
making it wider to let more
and protect the retina from
light enter to form a clear
bleaching.
image on the retina

14.7. Accommodation
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.

The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called

accommodation
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when the
only. suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight or loose
Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles brings
neurones about the changes

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Distribution of Rods and Cones

14.9. Hormones
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
Near Object Distant Object carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more
Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax specific target organs.
Suspensory Ligaments slack Suspensory Ligaments tighten
The lens becomes short and The lens becomes long and
Endocrine Glands
fat thin
adrenal glands and adrenaline
pancreas and insulin
Exemplar Past Year Question testes and testosterone
ovaries and oestrogen
Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if the
suspensory ligaments become permanently overstretched. Adrenaline
(0610/42/F/M/23)
A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland.
1. ciliary muscles relax
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged
riding a rollercoaster.

14.8. Rods and Cones Gland Hormone Function

Prepares the body for vigorous
Adrenal gland Adrenaline
Rods Cones action
Provide low detail, black & Reduces the concentration of
Provide detailed, coloured Pancreas Insulin
white images, suitable for glucose in the blood
images; they work in high light
seeing in low-intensity light (at Causes the development of
intensity. Testes Testosterone
night). male sexual characteristics
Packed most tightly around Causes the development of
Most tightly packed at the Ovary Oestrogen
the edge of the retina, so you female sexual characteristics
retina's centre, objects are
can see things most clearly
seen most clearly when Increases concentration of
when not looking directly at Pancreas Glucagon
directly looking at them. glucose in the blood
them.

Fovea: 14.10. Nervous and Hormonal Control

Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed
most closely together Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Where light is focused when you look straight at an Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
object Chemical
Electrical impulses messengers
Nature of message travelling along (hormones)
nerves travelling in the
bloodstream

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Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth,
Duration of Usually within It may take years blurred vision, and feel thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired,
response seconds (puberty) showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
Localized response Widespread
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
Area of response (only one area response (in many
blood glucose concentration
usually) organs)
Development of the
Example of Reflexes such as
reproductive
14.13. Thermoregulation
process-controlled blinking
system

14.11. Homeostasis
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
environment.

Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.

The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback Constant body temperature is maintained by:
with reference to a set point
Insulation: provided by fatty tissue retains heat. Hairs
Negative Feedback become erect to trap warm air by contracting erector
muscles and vice versa.
Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones and
Vasodilation: when it is hot, arterioles, which supply blood
regulates their own production to the skin-surface capillaries, dilate (become wider) to
allow more blood near the skin surface to increase heat
A negative feedback control is when the change in
hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change, loss (face redder)
Vasoconstriction: when it is cold, arterioles, which supply
so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone
production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited. blood to the skin-surface capillaries, constrict (become
smaller) to allow less blood near the skin surface to
decrease heat loss
14.12. Glucoregulation Sweating: the water evaporates, giving a cooling effect
Skin receptors: sense heat, and sensory neurons send
Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the impulses to the hypothalamus
pancreas Shivering: muscular activity generates heat
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones Thermoregulatory Centre: the hypothalamus controls
depending on the blood glucose level
corrective mechanisms (e.g. sweating and shivering).
Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
releases it into the blood

When the control of blood glucose does not work, a

person is said to have diabetes 14.14. Tropic Responses

Type 1 Diabetes Auxin:

Plant hormones or growth substances
Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that secrete Controls tropisms
insulin. It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and shoots
of plants

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Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the production
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity. of genetically identical offspring from one parent.

Auxins’ role in gravitropism: Bacteria:

Made in the shoot tip Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides
Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip into two.
Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
gravity divide into 2.
Auxin stimulates cell elongation
Advantages Disadvantages
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
Fast: no need to find a mate,
(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is No variation/biodiversity
fertilise, etc.
coming.
Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
Auxins’ role in phototropism: Overcrowding- fighting for
Do not need to carry offspring
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot, food
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side. Prone to extinction
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow
faster than cells on the right. Syllabus 16.1.2: You must be able to identify
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster examples of asexual reproduction in diagrams,
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the images and information provided
right side towards sunlight.

16.2. Sexual Reproduction

15. Drugs
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from
affects chemical reactions in the body.
each other

15.1. Antibiotics Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei

The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a
Antibiotics work by disrupting the cell wall formation of zygote is diploid
the bacteria you are trying to get rid of, but not of human Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
cells. Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces
the effectiveness of antibiotics. Advantages Disadvantages
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can Produces genetically different It takes lots of time and
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when essential offspring energy
and ensuring treatment is completed. Reduced risk of extinction Mate required
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not have
Energy on improving
a cell wall and make the host cell perform their tasks.
appearances or pollen
volume for pollination (plants)
15.2. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through 16.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
natural selection, where it begins from:
Insect Pollinated Flowers
Mutation - giving rise to variation
Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
Competition for food space, etc
Reproduce via binary fission
Then, alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.

16. Reproduction
16.1. Asexual Reproduction

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Wind Pollinated Flowers Self Pollination

Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the anther

of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different
flower on the same plant.
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition
pollination between plants
Functions Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
disease
Sepal: protect the flower bud.
Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
nectarines, which are all used to attract insects petals in Cross-Pollination
wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
and stigma.
plant of the same species.
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain the
male nucleus (male gamete). Advantages Disadvantages
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls. Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen
Less susceptible to diseases More energy required
Syllabus 16.3.1 and 16.3.2: You must be able to
identify in diagrams and images and draw the
following parts of an insect-pollinated flower:
sepals, petals, stamens, filaments, anthers,
carpels, style, stigma, ovary and ovules,
together with its function.

16.4. Pollination
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the
plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
16.5. Germination
(stigma).
Germination: A process controlled by enzymes
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water and
Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
wind
into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
the testa splits
nucleus in an ovule
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
Bright, colourful petals –
Dull petals optimum temperature).
attract
Sweetly scented No scent
16.6. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
Contains nectar No nectaries
A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen Male Reproductive System
Pollen is spiky/sticky Pollen round and smooth
Anther & stigma inside the Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and
Anther and Stigma hang out the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
flower
Sticky stigma Feathery stigma Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and creates
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle, to the
the penis
ovules.
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
Ovule - seed
female.
Ovary - fruit

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It implants itself in the nucleus's (implantation) wall,

followed by conception.
Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
growth (mitosis) and development (organization of cells
into tissues and organs)
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from the
fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which carries
oxygenated blood and soluble food from the placenta to
the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as
foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
mother’s blood)
Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
Female Reproductive System broken at birth.
Amniotic fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
produces progesterone and oestrogen
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
and affect the fetus.
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle,
moist by mucus with a small opening 16.8. Adaptive Features of Gametes
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way out
for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and Sperm (Male Gamete)
secretes mucus
1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

Features Functions
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim
Respiration to release energy
Mitochondria
for swimming
Release digestive enzymes to
Enzymes in the acrosome
digest the jelly coat
16.7. Fertilisation & Early Development
Egg Cell (Female Gamete)
Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
(sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell). 1. Larger in size
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
Development of zygote:
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
One sperm penetrates
4. Released once per month containing 23 chromosomes
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.

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Features Functions In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;

Energy storage Development of zygote menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation
In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
16.9. Sex Hormones in Humans ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
Day 13/14/15:
The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary Gland
and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during to trigger the release of the egg from the follicle into
puberty the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on Day 14.
Day 15 to 28:
Primary sexual characteristics: present during In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
development in the uterus and are the differences in
Luteum
reproductive organs etc., between males and females In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes that Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
occur during puberty as children become adolescents possible embryo implants.
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
primary sex organs; the testes in males and the ovaries in
No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum
females. degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back
which can recognize them. to Day 1
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.
Implantation occurs.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum
16.10. Menstrual Cycle maintained, which means that progesterone is high.
This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy

16.11. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle

Oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle,
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the
hormone LH.
Progesterone is a hormone secreted by ovaries. It
maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part
of the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary and
stimulates ovaries to release the hormone oestrogen.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): is also secreted by the pituitary
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the
ovary.

16.12. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a
sexually transmitted infection.

Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ

transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
How it affects the immune system:
Infects and destroys lymphocytes
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
Day 1 to 5:
The body becomes liable to infection by other
In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to pathogens
stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary. This may lead to AIDS and death from infection

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Mitosis is needed for:

17. Inheritance Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new
cells when needed.
Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts.
Replacement of worn-out cells
Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes Asexual reproduction: in plants
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before
Allele: an alternative form of a gene mitosis
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
chromosomes. maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
cell
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
Stem Cells: unspecialized cells that divide by mitosis to
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
produce daughter cells that can become specialized for
chromosomes (e.g., in body cells) specific functions
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
sequence of amino acids used to make a specific protein.
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes 17.4. Meiosis
to protein molecules.
Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number
is halved from diploid to haploid
17.2. DNA & Protein Synthesis
DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers and
receptors for neurotransmitters

DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG

Protein synthesis has two stages:
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
bases of RNA)
Translation (using RNA base sequence to build amino
acids into a sequence in a protein)
How proteins are made: Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.
the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
are not all genetically identical.
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.
the sequence determines the specific order of amino
acids of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
Terminologies
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs
the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
17.3. Mitosis tall plant or green seed)
genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically identical Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
cells gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous individuals
that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular
gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T
or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)

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Pedigree Diagram

Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a

specific characteristic (usually a disease) through
generations of a family.
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.

Codominance: when both alleles in heterozygous organisms

contribute to the phenotype

Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance

Genetic Diagrams There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a symbols IA, IB and IO.
genetic diagram known as a Punnett square. IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible and both dominant to IO.
combinations of alleles that could be produced in the
offspring. Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the gene
The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it more
the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase. common in one sex than in the other.
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is
obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the
examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and
which is recessive.

1:1 Monohybrid Crosses

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use

genetic diagrams to predict the results of
monohybrid crosses involving codominance or
sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios.

18. Variation & Selection

18.1. Variation
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Both genetic and environmental factors cause phenotypic
variation

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Continuous variation: results in a range of phenotypes Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable water
between two extremes; examples include body length and Stomata open at night and close at midday when
body mass evaporation is highest
Discontinuous variation: results in a limited number of E.g. cactus and marram grass
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood groups,
seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas) Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
It is usually caused by genes only, and both genes and the Their features are:
environment cause continuous variation. Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
area for absorption and photosynthesis
Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and describe Minimal cuticle formation
examples of continuous and discontinuous variation Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
open and clear
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
absent

18.3. Selection
Natural Selection
Mutation
The greater chance of passing on genes by the best-
Mutation: A genetic change. adapted organisms.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Gene mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA is an example of natural selection.
Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate Process of Natural Selection:
of mutation
1. genetic variation within populations
2. production of many offspring
3. struggle for survival, including competition for
resources
4. There is a greater chance of reproduction by
individuals who are better adapted to the environment
than others; these individuals pass on their alleles to
the next generation.

Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which

populations become more suited to their environment over
many generations.

Artificial Selection

Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued

18.2. Adaptive Features
characteristics together to produce offspring that share those
valuable characteristics.
Adaptive feature: an inherited feature that helps an organism
to survive and reproduce in its environment It can be used to produce organisms that are more
economically valued
Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce and
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features
easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better
are:
appearance
Deep roots reach the water far underground
Leaves reduced spines with minimum surface area for Process of Selective Breeding:
transpiration
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain Selecting by individuals with desirable features
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits to Crossing three individuals to produce the next generation
trap moist air Selection of offspring showing the desirable features

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Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of

19. Organisms and their transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
Environment some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not eat
the whole plant.
19.1. Energy Flow The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher
The sun is the principal source of energy input to energy value.
biological systems. At each level, heat is lost by respiration.
Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and then Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans eating
that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten by animals because:
animals, which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment. We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal but
to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of plant
Food Chains and Food Webs material to get far less meat.
When raising an animal, plants lose energy in the
Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for environment and does not use up all the plant material, so
example: it is inefficient.
Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food chains.
Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass

Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the

organism in a food chain biomass
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain
When moving up the pyramid,
by ingestion (number of individuals × their
the number of individuals
Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients, individual mass)
decreases
usually using energy from sunlight through
photosynthesis
The pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped.
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on
other organisms.
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary, 19.2. Nutrient Cycles
tertiary and quaternary according to their position in a
food chain Carbon Cycle
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead
or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain,
food web or ecological pyramid.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels (plants)
because energy transfer is inefficient: It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls decomposed by microorganisms.
onto leaves.

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Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from

2023 onwards

Nitrogen Cycle

Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing

individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, the
conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate is
reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much.
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum population
size.
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
competition, etc.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for
plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they live
in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can
20. Human Influences on
happen because of lightning or microorganisms providing
them through decomposition.
Ecosystems
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing substances
into better nitrogen-containing substances for the plants 20.1. Food Supply
(nitrification).
Plants absorb these substances and convert them into Humans have increased food production because:
proteins
Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to Agricultural machinery to use larger areas of land and
stage one improve efficiency
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they convert Chemical fertilisers help crops grow better
nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric nitrogen Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
Selective breeding to improve production by crop plants
19.3. Population and livestock

Population: a group of organisms of one species living in Large-scale monoculture: the continuous production of one
the same area at the same time. type of genetically identical crop.
Community: all of the populations of different species in
an ecosystem. Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of organisms If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
and their environment interacting together. wiped out.
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm them
Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth easily
Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
Food supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium to of species. This hinders biodiversity.
reproduce to make a shell. When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
population will rise. their effectiveness
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving birth, Welfare issues for the livestock
or even population decline. Diseases can spread easily among them
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby

19.4. Sigmoid Curve of Population

20.2. Habitat Destruction
Growth

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Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and
area. decreasing the O2 concentration
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
Reason for habitat destruction
Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production, and housing
Extraction of natural resources
Freshwater and Marine pollution
By altering food webs and food chains, humans can harm
habitats.
Effects of deforestation 20.4. Conservation
Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it
warming is removed from the environment so that it does not run out
Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably,
rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages, limited to forests and fish stocks.
and the soil becomes less fertile
1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected
Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by foliage,
areas, quotas and replanting.
root systems or evaporates. After deforestation, water
2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education, closed
accumulates in valleys.
seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and
mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
20.3. Pollution
Natural Resources:
Pollution due to pesticides:
Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, which rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the increase in the can be replenished.
dose of toxin from one level of the food chain to the next) Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals which therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
eat the plants
Recycling:
Non-biodegradable plastics:
Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
Choke birds, fish and other animals environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food treatment
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
raw materials for industry
Global Warming: Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
Increase in the average temperature of the Earth
energy
Methane from the burping of cows
It started at the same time as humans began burning Species and habitats need to be conserved because:
fossil fuels
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not proven Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
yet Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations new drugs)
in the atmosphere, causing an enhanced greenhouse Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are
effect that leads to climate change. lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
engineering)
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
nutrients. then the whole ecosystem could collapse
The use of artificial insemination (AI) and in vitro
Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers.
fertilisation (IVF) in captive breeding programmes
Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates leach
into rivers and lakes after rain Endangered species:
Water plants grow more than usual
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath How they become endangered: climate change, habitat
They die and sink to the bottom destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
If the population size drops, variation decreases

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Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology

protecting species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes, and seed banks Pectinase:
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include:
reducing extinction Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down
protecting vulnerable environments pectin)
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling Pectin helps plant walls stick together
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
genes the fruit
increase biodiversity Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy

21. Biotechnology & Genetic Biological Washing powders:

Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes

Modification that help remove the stain
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in
21.1. Biotechnology & Genetic the wash, releasing the enzyme
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier
Modification for detergents to remove
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass,
Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and blood
their ability to make complex molecules. Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such
as starch
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres

Lactase:

The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in

milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
therefore, can’t digest lactose.

Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic

modification?

1. few ethical concerns over their manipulation and

growth
2. the presence of plasmids

21.2. Biotechnology
Biofuel

Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks down

to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.

Bread-Making

Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
the dough.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and
Lactose-free milk production
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration.
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast ferments Lactase made from yeast
sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates bubbles, so Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
bread rises. Milk passed down beads
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
hardens the outer surface. Immobilized enzymes are reused

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Examples of genetic modification:

21.3. Fermenters
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce
human insulin
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
resistance to herbicides
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
resistance to insect pests
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins

Human Insulin in Bacteria

Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called

Penicillium.
They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
supply and waste products.
The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
nucleic acids
The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
Probes monitor temperature and pH
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
temperature of 24°C. Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same restriction
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended (allowing enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
access to nutrients and oxygen) while maintaining an Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA using
even temperature. DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid – insertion of
the plasmid into bacteria.
It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be crystallized Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
to make capsules. which make human protein as they express the gene

Mycoprotein
21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial
scale in fermenters. Advantages Disadvantages
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the Uniform in shape – easy to
optimum pH and temperature to grow. transport/appeal to Natural species may die
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided consumers
with glucose syrup as a food source. Decrease biodiversity/genetic
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter Growing season shorter
diversity
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein
Led to the development of
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for
Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products.
GM
No one knows the long-term
21.4. Genetic Modification Higher yields
effects on humans
Solve global hunger Expensive seeds
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes

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Biology

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