EECE 210 Electric Circuits

Chapter 4 Techniques of Circuit Analysis

Main Topics
• Circuit Terminology
• Node-Voltage Method
• Mesh-Current Methos
• Source Transformation
• Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
• Maximum Power Transfer
• Superposition
2
Circuit Terminology Example
▪ Node: A point where two or more circuit
elements join
▪ a, b, c, d, e, f and g
▪ Essential node: A node where three or
more circuit elements join
▪ b, c, e, and g
▪ Path: A trace of adjoining basic elements
with no element included more than once
▪ Examples: R1-R5-R6, v2-R2
▪ Branch: A path that connects two nodes
▪ V1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7 and I
Circuit Terminology Example
▪ Essential branch: A path which
connects two essential nodes
without passing through an essential
node
▪ V1-R1, R2-R3, v2-R4, R5, R6, R7, I
▪ Loop: A path whose last node is the
same as the starting node
▪ V1-R1-R5-R6-R4-v2
▪ Mesh: A loop that does not enclose
any other loops
▪ V1-R1-R5-R3-R2, v2-R2-R3-R6-R4,
R5-R7-R6, and R7-I
Circuit Terminology Summary
Name Definition
node A point where two or more circuit elements join
essential node A node where three or more circuit elements join
A trace of adjoining basic elements with no elements included
path
more than once
branch A path that connects two nodes
A path which connects two essential nodes without passing
essential branch
through an essential node
loop A path whose last node is the same as the starting node
mesh A loop that does not enclose any other loops
planar circuit A circuit that can be drawn on a plane with no crossing branches
Circuit Analysis
▪ A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across and the current in
every element have been determined
▪ How many unknowns need to be determined?

▪ How many equations need to be solved?

▪ Can one reduce the number of needed equations?
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
▪ Ohm’s law
▪ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)
▪ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations
▪ Voltage divider rule
▪ Current divider rule
▪ Node-voltage method
▪ Mesh-current method
▪ Source transformations
▪ Thevenin equivalent circuits
▪ Norton equivalent circuits
▪ Superposition
Systematic Approach
➢ Apply KVL in the meshes

➢ Apply KCL at the essential nodes: b, c, and e

➢ Get 6 equations with 6 unknowns

➢ Direct method becomes cumbersome

➢ Two new circuit analysis techniques

➢ Node-Voltage Method
➢ Mesh-Current Method
KCL and KVL Solving Method

➢ Apply KCL at node 1

➢ Substitute the values of currents by voltages using KVL and Ohm’s Law

➢ Similar procedure at node 2

➢ 2 equations 2 unknowns (ne-1) → The system is solved

Node-Voltage Solving Method
▪ Step 1: Make neat circuit : No branches cross-over

▪ Step 2: Identify the essential nodes (nodes 1,2)

▪ Step 3: Choose reference node (usually a node that

3
connects to most branches- node 3 in this case)
Reference node
▪ Step 4: Need (ne-1) node voltage equations to solve
the circuit
▪ Step 5: Define the node voltages at all other
essential nodes
▪ Voltage node: Voltage rise from the reference
node to one non-reference essential node
(example v1 and v2 in the shown circuit)
Node-Voltage Method- Example 1
Writing the node equations, we get:

V1 − 10 V1 − 0 V1 − V2
+ + =0
1 5 2
V2 − V1 V2 − 0
+ −2=0
2 10
3

Solving the two equations above

simultaneously we get:
V1=100/11=9.09 V AND
V2=120/11=10.91 V
Node-Voltage Method Example 2

In this case, ground nodes a and b. They are V1 V2

the reference node.
For the remaining Essential nodes V1 and V2 ,
we have:

𝑉1 − 30 𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + −4=0
15 31.25 25
▪ Modify the example: Substitute the 4 A source
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0 with a resistor and solve
+ +4−1=0
25 50 ▪ Modify the example: Substitute the 30V voltage
source by a 30 A current source and solve
▪ Modify the example: Insert a resistor between
points a and b
Node-Voltage Method Example 3
V1 V2

Reference Node

𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + − 15 = 0
60 15 5
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0
+ +5=0
5 2
 Node-Voltage Method: Dependent Sources
𝑉1 − 20 𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
+ + =0 V1 V2
2 20 5

𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 0 𝑉2 − 8𝑖∅
+ + =0
5 10 2

▪ 2 equations BUT 3 unknowns V1, V2 and 𝑖∅

▪ 1 additional constraint due to the
𝑉 −𝑉
dependent source 𝑖∅ = 1 2
5 ➢ What is the power dissipated in the 5Ω resistor in the circuit?
▪ Now the solution is possible with the Find the value of Iϕ and then apply the formula P = I2 R
substitution of 𝑖∅ in terms of the 2
unknowns V1 and V2
Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
▪ The special case here is related to the 25-ohm
resistor in parallel with the 100V power source
▪ Voltage source is only element between two
essential nodes
▪ Node 1 although it is an essential node will
automatically have a value of 100V
▪ The problem reduces to a single equation with
single unknown namely V2
𝑉1 = 100 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉2 − 100 𝑉2 − 0
+ −5=0
10 50
yields
6𝑉2 = 750 𝑉2 = 125 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
 Node-Voltage Method: Supernode
▪ Voltage source is only element
between two essential nodes (non-
reference nodes): Supernode
▪ Supernodes reduce the number of
required equations by combining
nodes (nodes 2&3 in this example):
𝑉1 = 50 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉2 − 50 𝑉2 − 0 One more equation is needed (constraint
+ +𝑖 =0 between Nodes 2 and 3)
5 50
(𝑉2 − 50)
𝑉3 − 0 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 = 10𝑖∅ = 10
−𝑖 + −4=0 5
100
𝑉3 = 3𝑉2 − 100
Substitute V3 in terms of V2 and solve
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
▪ Ohm’s law

▪ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

▪ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y

transformations
▪ Voltage divider rule

▪ Current divider rule

▪ Node voltage method

➢ Mesh current method

▪ Source transformations

▪ Thevenin equivalent circuits

▪ Norton equivalent circuits

▪ Superposition
 Circuit Types
Planar circuits: these are the circuits allowed and they can be drawn on a plane with
no crossing branches
Non-Planar circuits must be changed to Planar circuit (if possible) before being solved

✔
✗
(Non-Planar Circuit)

✔
 Mesh-Current Method

▪ Applies only to planar circuits

▪ Write a set of mesh-current equations

using KVL. How many equations are
needed?
▪ Mesh current is the current that exists
only in the perimeter of a mesh
▪ Mesh currents Can be different from
corresponding branch currents
 Mesh-Current Method- Example 1

▪ Mesh Current Method: Two Meshes, Two

Equations with Two mesh currents
defined clockwise for each loop ia and ib
 Mesh-Current Method- Example 2

3 Meshes with 3 mesh currents (one in each loop)

defined in clockwise direction leading to 3 equations with 3 unknowns
Mesh Special Case- Common Current Source Example
Mesh a:
Mesh c:

Mesh b:
Constraint:
Mesh-Current Analysis- Dependent Source Example

Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
Mesh 3:
Constraint:
Same Problem with Node-Voltage Method Solution

Only Two Essential Nodes: V and the Ref. node

At node V we have : V
(V-50)/5 + (V-0)/20 + (V-15Iϕ)/4 = 0

Iϕ= V/20 This implies that the equation above

will yield 125V=4000 which leads to V=32 V
 Mesh-Current Method: Supermesh
▪ Current source is only element in an essential branch

▪ Form super-mesh (merge the 2 meshes into 1 big

mesh)
▪ Temporarily remove the current source
▪ Keep the original mesh currents
▪ Save one mesh current equation
▪ Return the current source (relate currents)
▪ Supermesh: -100+3(Ia-Ib)+2(Ic-Ib)+50+4Ic+6Ia=0;
▪ Mesh Ib equation: 10Ib+2(IB-IC)+3(Ib-Ia)=0 :
▪ Constraint Eq. Ic-Ia=5
 Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current
➢ Both reduce number of required equations

➢ Both are systematic

➢ Which method is better?

▪ Which one requires less equations?
▪ Does circuit contain supernodes?
▪ Does circuit contain supermeshes?
▪ Will solving some portion of the circuit give the
requested solution? If so, which method is most
efficient for solving just the pertinent portion of the
circuit?
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current Comparison
▪ Find power dissipated in the 300Ω resistor

▪ Need to find the voltage or the current

2
and then apply the formula P=I R or
P=V 2/R
▪ Mesh-Current Method: 5 mesh equations
& 1 constraint equation
▪ Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations which
will reduce to 2 equations since a voltage
source is between 2 nodes, & 1 constraint
equation
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: Example 1
▪ Mesh Current Method: 5 mesh equations & 1
constraint equation V2
V1
▪ Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations →reduce
to 2 equations since a voltage source is
between 2 nodes, & 1 constraint equation
▪ Node Voltage is the better method, and the
equations are as follows:
▪ At Node V1: (V1-V2)/300+ (V1-0)/200 +
(V1-50Idelta)/100 + (V1-256)/150=0
▪ At Node V2: (V2-0)/400 + (V2-V1)/300 +
(V2-50IΔ)/250 + (V2+128))/500 = 0
▪ Constraint: IΔ = (V2-V1)/300
Mesh-Current vs. Node-Voltage: Example 2
▪ Find v0

▪ Mesh Current Method: 3 mesh

equations→ reduce to 1 equation (super
mesh) & 2 constraint equations
▪ Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations and
2 constraint equations
▪ 3 Mesh circuits means 3 mesh equations But reduced by two because of super-mesh
involving the two current sources of the circuit
▪ Mesh currents are Ia, Ib and Ic implies that the Super-mesh equation is as follows:
193=Ia(4+6) + Ib(2.5+7.5) + Ic(8+2)+0.8Vϕ
▪ Constraints Equations are: Ib-Ia = 0.4VΔ and Ic-Ib =0.5; Vϕ= -7.5Ib
▪ Substituting:160=80 Ia (leads to Ia=2 A); Vo= (193- Ia(4+6)) =193-20=173 V (KVL in Loop 1)
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
▪ Ohm’s law

▪ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

▪ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

▪ Voltage divider rule

▪ Current divider rule

▪ Node voltage method

▪ Mesh current method

➢ Source Transformations

▪ Thevenin equivalent circuits

▪ Norton equivalent circuits

▪ Superposition
 Source Transformations
▪ From voltage source in
series with a resistor to a iL RL
current source in parallel
with same resistor (or
vice versa)
▪ Connect RL→ If same
current flowing from a to
b → same voltage drop
▪ Equivalent circuits iL RL
Source Transformations: Example 1
▪ Find the power associated with the 6 V source

▪ From the last Transformation :(19.2-6) V/ 16 ꭥ circuit current = 0.825A

▪ Power absorbed by the 6 V source is VI= 6x0.825= 4.95 W
Source Transformations: Special case
▪ The special case is related to a voltage source in parallel
with a resistor (resistor can be removed) OR a current
source in series with a resistor (resistor can be removed)
▪ From an independent voltage source in series with a
resistor to an independent current source in parallel with
same resistor (or vice versa), nothing is changed at
terminals a and b and the effects on connected circuits
Source Transformation: Example 2
(a) Use source transformations to find the voltage vo in the circuit.
(b) Find the power developed by the 250 V voltage source.
(c) Find the power developed by the 8 A current source.
 Solution for Example #2

➢ V0= 2x10= 20 V
➢ Power developed by 8A CS:
=-VI=-(-60)(8)= 480 W (absorbing)
➢ Power developed by 250 V PS:
P=VI=(250)(9.2+2)= 2800 W (Sourcing)

Tip: Resistor across a Voltage supply (Like the 125-ohm Resistor in the circuit diagram) OR a Resistor in
series with a current Source (Like the 10-ohm Resistor) are MEANINGLESS To calculate V0 (OR other
variables in the rest of the circuit). Such Resistors can be removed initially and later restored to
calculate power at the sources
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
▪ Ohm’s law

▪ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

▪ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-

to-Y transformations
▪ Voltage divider rule

▪ Current divider rule

▪ Node voltage method

▪ Mesh current method

▪ Source transformations

➢ Thevenin equivalent circuits

▪ Norton equivalent circuits

▪ Superposition
Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
• Thévenin and Norton equivalents are circuit simplification
techniques that focus on terminal behavior and thus are
extremely valuable aids in analysis.
• Thevenin equivalent circuit: an independent voltage
source Vth in series with a resistor Rth, which
replacesinterconnection of power sources and resistors.
• Norton equivalent circuit consists of an independent
current source in parallel with the Norton equivalent
resistance.
Note: No active elements and no passive elements besides
resistors can be present in the original circuit to be
replaced by Thevenin equivalent circuit.
 Thévenin Equivalent
▪ Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
▪ Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
voc VTh = voc

Thévenin voltage VTh equals to

the open-‐circuitvoltage in the
original circuit.

isc RTh = VTh/isc = voc/isc

Thévenin resistance RTh is the
ratio of the open-circuit voltage
to the short-circuit current.
Thevenin Equivalent Example 1

VTh = v1 = 32 V

RTh = VTh/isc = 8 ohm

Thévenin Equivalent
Thevenin Equivalent Important Notes
▪ An independent voltage source is
deactivated by replacing it with a
short circuit.
▪ An independent current source is
deactivated by replacing it with an
open circuit.
▪ Dependent Sources must be left as
they are. They can NOT be shorted
or opened
▪ If a given circuit has only
dependent sources, then Vth is zero
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 1 (Independent Sources)
▪ Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
▪ Increase load resistance to have an
open circuit
▪ Calculate open circuit voltage across ab
▪ Use any circuit analysis technique
Using nodal analysis
𝑉𝑏 = 0
𝑉𝑎 − 25 𝑉𝑎 yields
+ −3=0 5𝑉𝑎 = 160
5 20
yields
𝑉𝑎 = 32 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 Vth=32 V
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 1 (Independent Sources)
▪ Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
▪ Replace voltage source by a short circuit
▪ Replace current source by an open circuit
▪ Find Req as looking from the two terminals
a and b
▪ Rth=8Ω
 Thevenin
Equivalent
Circuit
The whole original circuit is
now replaced with a simplified
Thevenin equivalent circuit for
the purpose of analyzing any
circuit which can be connected
at the terminals of the
resulting circuit
 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 2 (Dependent Sources)- Calculate Vth
▪ Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
▪ Find V open circuit from terminals a and b

In the left loop, applying KVL results in:

−5 + 2000𝑖 + 3𝑣 = 0
Using Nodal analysis on the right side of the circuit, we obtain
𝑣 yields 𝑣 −3𝑣 + 5
+ 20𝑖 = 0 + =0
25 25 100

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑣 = −5 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 Vth=-5 V

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 2 (Dependent Sources)- Calculate Rth
▪ Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
▪ Short circuit the terminals a and b
▪ Find isc
▪ Rth =Vth/isc

𝑖𝑠𝑐 = −20𝑖
5
𝑖= = 0.0025՜𝑖𝑠𝑐 = −0.05 𝐴 = −50 𝑚𝐴
2000

𝑉𝑇ℎ −5
𝑹𝑻𝒉 = = = 100Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 −0.05
Thevenin
Equivalent
Circuit Case 2
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: Summary
▪ Thevenin equivalent is a circuit simplification technique of Linear circuits
(consisting of only power sources and resistors) that focus on terminal
behavior. It is very useful in circuit analysis.
▪ Thevenin Equivalent circuit consists of an independent current source in series
with an equivalent resistor
▪ Find first the Thevenin voltage Vth : open circuit voltage at the circuit terminals
▪ Find Thevenin resistance Rth (case dependent)
▪ Case 1: Independent voltage and current sources
▪ Short circuit voltage sources and open circuit current sources
▪ Case 2: Independent and Dependent voltage and current sources
▪ Calculate the Open circuit Voltage and the Short circuit current at the load
Terminals. Rth= Vth/Isc
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
▪ Ohm’s law

▪ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

▪ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-

to-Y transformations
▪ Voltage divider rule

▪ Current divider rule

▪ Node voltage method

▪ Mesh current method

▪ Source transformations

▪ Thevenin equivalent circuits

➢ Norton equivalent circuits

▪ Superposition
Norton Equivalent Circuit
▪ Norton Equivalent Circuit is like Thevenin
Equivalent Circuit except that it consists of an
independent current source in parallel with a
Norton equivalent resistor
▪ Find Norton Equivalent
▪ Sometimes easier to find it directly from
initial circuit
▪ Sometimes easier to get Thevenin equivalent
and do source transformation to get the
Norton equivalent
▪ Hint: Analyze the circuit carefully first to decide
on best approach
Norton Equivalent
➢ Norton Equivalent can be derived from Thevenin Equivalent: Derive Thevenin first and then transform into
Equivalent Norton using Voltage current source transformation
➢ Norton equivalent Circuit can be derived through a series of circuit Transformations as shown below
 Norton Equivalent- Solve Using ISC Calculations
• Introduce a “Short Circuit” across Terminals a,b and then apply
Node-Voltage method at the node between the 5 and 4-ohm
Resistors. The goal is to calculate the short circuit current ISC
which will flow through across terminals a,b
• The above step leads to the following Nodal Equation: (V-5)/25 +
V/20 +V/4 – 3= 0 Which leads to V= 16 V which leads to ISC=
16/4= 4 Amps which leads to: Norton Equivalent Current is 4 A

Norton Equivalent Resistor:

• De-activate all Independent sources by shorting the voltage
source and open circuit the current source and then calculating
the Equivalent resulting Resistor
• Norton Equivalent Resistance RN = 5//20 = 4 which is in series
with the 4 ohm in the circuit above leading to an equivalent
Resistance of 8 ohm
Test Voltage/ Current Method (for Thevenin
Resistance Determination) IT
▪ The Test Voltage OR Test Current method
calls for the deactivation (short circuiting
VS and open circuiting CS) of independent VT +-
sources.
▪ The only independent source remaining in
VT= Test Voltage
the circuit is the Test Voltage VT (can be of IT= Current through VT
any value but usually 1V) or Test Current IT Finding Rth: Rth= VT/IT
(can be of any value but usually 1A) that we IT= VT/25 + 20i
connect to the load terminals i= -3VT/2 substituting we get
▪ Solving the circuit is to calculate node IT=VT/25 – 60VT/2000
voltages & currents in terms of VT or IT IT/VT=1/25-6/200= 1/100
▪ The ratio of VT to IT (VT/IT) at the Load Rth= VT/IT= 100 ꭥ
Terminals is the Thevenin resistance value.
Maximum Power Transfer
➢ The first basic type of power transfer emphasizes
the efficiency of the power transfer.
• Power utility systems are a good example of
this type because they are concerned with the
generation, transmission, and distribution of
large quantities of electric power.

➢ The second basic type of power transfer

emphasizes the amount of power transferred.
• Communication and instrumentation systems
are good example because in the transmission
of information, or data, via electric signals, the
power available at the transmitter or detector
is limited
Maximum Power Transfer
▪ Transfer from a source to a load
▪ Efficiency of the transfer
▪ Amount of transferred power
▪ Maximum power transfer occurs when the Load and
Source Impedances are matched
▪ Matched load: RL=Rth
▪ Power Max= V˄2/RL But since RL=Rth this leads to
▪ Pmax= Vth˄2/4RL
Derivation of Max. Power Transfer Equation

P = I˄2RL = {Vth˄2/(Rth + RL)˄2} RL

Power p is maximized when the derivative dp/dRL = 0, thus we have

Maximum Power Transfer: Example
▪ Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (use current divider first
and then get Voltage at the top of the 15 K-Ohm Resistor
and at the top of the 12 K-Ohm)
▪ Vth=-15((18x15)/40) - (-12((18x25)/40))...Note that we
are dealing with mA and K-ohm
▪ Thevenin Equivalent Resistor (Deactivate the current
source by open circuiting it and then calculate Rth by
combining series and // Resistors (10 in series with 3 and
15 in series with 12. The results are in // with each other
(13x27)/40. The Thevenin equivalent resistor is then the
series combination with the 2- and 4-ohm resistors which
leads to Rth= 14.775 K-ohm
▪ The max. Power Transfer will occur when the load
resistor (connected across Vo) is equal to Rth
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
▪ Ohm’s law

▪ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

▪ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-

to-Y transformations
▪ Voltage divider rule

▪ Current divider rule

▪ Node voltage method

▪ Mesh current method

▪ Source transformations

▪ Thevenin equivalent circuits

▪ Norton equivalent circuits

➢ Superposition
Superposition: Example V2

➢ Open circuit the Current source and solve

the nodal equations to get V1 and V2…
➢ Divide by the resistor values to get the
Individual currents.
➢ 2nd step short the Voltage source and then
apply again Nodal equations and repeat the
solution
➢ Add the I1, I2, I3 and I4 contribution of each
INDEPENDENT source to get the total
current.

This is the Superposition method.

Chapter Review- What we have Learned
• Basic terms: node, essential node, path, branch, essential
branch, mesh, and planar circuit.
• Node-Voltage and Mesh-Current Methods
• Source transformations
• Thévenin and Norton equivalents
• Maximum power transfer
• Superposition
Extra Review Problems
▪ The circuit has four essential nodes: Nodes a
and d are connected by an independent
voltage source as are nodes b and c.
▪ The problem reduces to finding a single
unknown node voltage

vb vc