EECE 210

Electric
Circuits
The Operational Amplifier
Main Topics

• Operational Amplifier Terminals

• Terminal Voltages and Currents
• The Inverting-‐Amplifier Circuit
• The Summing-‐Amplifier Circuit
• The Noninverting-‐Amplifier Circuit
• The Difference-‐Amplifier Circuit
• More realistic Op Amp model
Operational Amplifiers
• Also known as Op Amp
• Operational
• It was initially used in analog computers to implement
the mathematical operations of integration,
differentiation, addition, subtracting, scaling, and sign
change
• Recently, the range of application has broadened to
various functions
• Amplifier: It amplifies the input signal
• Multiply the input signal by a large gain
• Very small in size (DIP chip)
Operational Amplifier
5 Important Terminals
Terminal Voltages

Saturate
Linear region
Saturate
Terminal Currents

➢ Ideally, the equivalent input resistance

is infinite, resulting in the current
constraint:
ip= in=0

➢ The current constraint is based on the assumption that the op

amp is confined to its linear operating region as was the
voltage constraint. Kirchhoff's current law yields the following:
▪ ip+in+i0+ic-+ic+=0
▪ i0=-(ic-+ic+)
Ideal Op Amp Characteristics
Linear region
➢ Gain A = +∞ vp = v n Virtual short condition

➢ VCC ≤ 20 V
Maintain the virtual short condition to ensure linear operation: Negative feedback
OP-Am Important Notes
• Even if the circuit provides a negative feedback path for the op amp, linear
operation is not ensured. So how do we know whether the op amp is
operating in its linear region? The answer is: We don’t know!

• We first assume linear operation, perform the circuit analysis, and then
check our results for contradictions, if we have -VCC≤vo≤VCC, it’s in the
linear region, if not, it’s saturated!

• The positive and negative power supply voltages do not have to be equal in
magnitude. In the linear operating region, vo must lie between the two
supply voltages.
• The value of A (Gain) is not constant under all operating conditions. For now,
however, we assume that it is.
Operational
Amplifier Terminals
Internal composition: Semiconductor technology including
electronic devices such as transistors and diodes
We are only Interested in terminal behavior
• Combine the op amp with resistors to perform multiple
functions such as addition, integration, scaling
• No interest in the internal structure or in the voltages
and currents inside. The Focus is on the terminal
behavior of the Op-Am
• Consider the op amp as black box and analyze it from
its terminals (5 terminals)
 Voltage Transfer Function
• Transfer function describes how the output voltage varies as
a function of input voltages and how the voltage is
transferred from the input to the output
• Output voltage in an op amp is a function of the difference
between the two input voltages vp-vn
• Three regions of operation:
• Positive saturation
• Negative saturation
• Linear region
• Slope= A (Gain)
Voltage Transfer Function
▪ When |vp-vn| is small
▪Op amp behaves in the linear region
▪ Op amp’s output voltage equals to the difference input
multiplied by a constant gain A
▪ When |vp-vn| is greater than some threshold
▪ Op amp goes to positive or negative saturation
▪ Vo cannot exceed –Vcc or +Vcc

 − VCC A(v p − vn )  −VCC 

 
vo =  A(v p − vn ) − VCC  A(v p − vn )  +VCC 
 +V A ( v − v )  +V 
 CC p n CC 
Open-loop Gain

vo = -Avn = -Avs
A: open-loop gain
|vs| ≤ VCC / A
Voltage Constraint
▪ To operate the op amp in the linear region a constraint is
imposed on the input voltages vp and vn.. The voltage
constraint is based n values of VCC and A

▪ In most Operational Amplifiers:

▪ DC power supply voltages seldom exceed 20 V
▪ Gain A is rarely less than 104
▪ This implies that the input difference |vp - vn| must be less
than 20/104 or 2 mV
▪ Typically, node voltages in circuits are much larger than 2 mV,
this means that voltage difference less than 2mV is zero
▪ Voltage constraint for ideal Operational Amplifier is vp=vn
Current Constraint
▪ Real op amp input resistance is very large and typically,
around 1 MΩ . Ideally, input resistance equals infinity

▪ Current constraint
▪ in=ip=0
▪ This constraint does not depend on the assumption of
linear region

▪ Apply KCL at the op amp level

▪ ip+in+i0+ic-+ic+=0
▪ i0=-(ic-+ic+)

▪ Even though the current at the input terminals is negligible,

there is an appreciable current at the output
Op Amp Analysis
➢ Assumption: Ideal model of Op Amp
➢ Simplify the Op Amp representation while operating in linear
region
• The DC voltages +/- Vcc do not enter in the circuit's equations
• Remove the power supplies from the Op Am representation
➢ Keep in mind the following:
• io is not equal to 0 but rather i0=-(ic-+ic+)
• The positive and negative DC sources (V- and V+) are not
necessarily equal
• Ideally, the gain A is considered to be constant and infinite
• The output Voltage is limited to V −  V  V +
0
Example 1
• Calculate vo if Va=1 V and Vb= 0 V
• Calculate vo if Va=1 V and Vb= 2 V
• If Va=1.5 V, specify the range of Vb that avoids vn
amplifier saturation
• Check if vo is within limits vp
vn = vp = vb = 0

i25 + i100 = in = 0

vo = -4 V
Example 1- Solution Using Nodal Analysis
Calculation of vo with Va=1 V and Vb= 0 V
• Nodal Equation at Vn: (Vn-Va)/25000+(Vn-V0)/100000+ In= 0
• Vn=Vp (Voltage Constraint) and Vp= Vb=0 (given) then Vn=0
• In= 0 (current constraint)…this leads to the following
equation: -Va/25000-V0/100000 which leads to
V0=-4Va= -4V (for Va =1 Volt)
Calculation of vo with Va=1 V and Vb= 2 V
• Same Analysis as above leads to the following Equation
• (Vn-Va)/25000+(Vn-V0)/100000 +In=0
• If Vb equals 2 and Vp=Vb=Vn=2 from current constraint
(In=0) then Vn=2 leads to (2-Va)/25000+(2-V0)/100000=0
Which leads to 8-4Va+2-V0=0 which leads to V0= 6 V
(where Va=1 Volt)
• In order to avoid saturation then V0 must be in the region
Vcc<Vo<+Vcc
• Redoing the above problem with Va=1.5V results in
Vo = 5Vb - 6 which will lead to -0.8V<Vb<3.2 V
Common Operational Amplifier Types

• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing-Amplifier Circuit
• Non-Inverting Amplifier Circuit
• The difference Amplifier Circuit
• Integrating and Differentiating
Amplifier Circuit
The Inverting Amplifier
Circuit consists of
• The op amp
• Two resistors (Rf and Rs)
• Rs = source resistance
• Rf = feedback resistance
• Voltage signal source (Vs)
• A short is connected between the non-inverting input
terminal and the common node.
The goal is to obtain an expression for the output voltage,
Vo, as a function of the source voltage, Vs
Assume that the op amp is operating in its linear region.
The Inverting Amplifier
Assume that the op amp is operating in its linear region
v p = vn = 0
is + i f = in = 0
𝑉𝑠−𝑉𝑛 𝑣0−𝑉𝑛
𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖𝑓 = where Vn=0
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑓
Rf
vo = − v s
Rs
Rf /Rs is the Amplification factor….It is the OP Amp Gain A
Upper limit on gain, is determined by the power supply voltages and
input signal vs
Rf Rf Vcc
| vo | Vcc , v s  Vcc , 
Rs Rs vs
Example 2
a) Design an inverting amplifier with a gain of 12. Use
±15 V power supplies and an ideal op amp.
b) What range of input voltages, vs, allows the op amp in this
design to remain in its linear operating region?
Solution for Example 2
a) We need to find two resistors whose ratio is 12
from the realistic resistor values listed in Appendix
H: Rs = 1 kΩ Rf = 12 k Ω

verify

b) Solve two different versions of the inverting-

amplifier equation for vs: first using vo = +15 V and
then using vo = -15 V:
The Summing Amplifier

Circuit consists of
• The op amp
• Rs = source resistance
• Rf = feedback resistance
• Multiple voltage signal sources with corresponding source resistors
• Short circuit connected between the non-inverting input terminal and
the common node.
The Summing Amplifier
▪ The goal is to obtain an expression for the output
voltage, Vo, as a function of the input voltages, Va , Vb ,
and Vc
▪ Summing the currents away from the inverting input
terminal we get:
vn − va vn − vb vn − vc vn − v0
+ + + + in = 0
Ra Rb Rc Rf
▪ Assume that the op amp is operating in its linear
region.
v p = vn = 0 in = 0
 Rf Rf Rf 
v0 = − va + vb + v c 
 Ra Rb Rc 
The Summing Amplifier
 Rf Rf Rf 
v0 = − va + vb + v c 
 Ra Rb Rc 
• Summing amplifier with different amplification
factor at each input
• If Ra=Rb=Rc=Rs . Voltage at the output is an
inverted scaled sum of the three input voltages
• If Ra=Rb=Rc=Rs=Rf then the output voltage is the
inverted sum of inputs, and the number of
inputs can be increased as needed
• Application: Audio mixer
• Inputs: audio tracks
• Choose resistors to change amplification
factor
The Non-Inverting Amplifier
Circuit consists of:
▪ The op amp (operating in its linear region)
▪ Rf = feedback resistance at the inverting input
▪ Voltage signal source (Vg) between the non-
inverting input terminal and the common
node.

ip = 0 v p = vn = vg
Rs Rs + R f
vn = vg = v0 v0 = vg
Rs + R f Rs
Rs + R f Vcc
There is an upper limit on gain, determined by the 
power supply voltages and the input signal vg Rs vg
The Non-Inverting Amplifier (Gain Formula )
Assume that the op amp is operating in its linear region

ip = 0 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑔

➢ Node Currents at Node Vn: Vg/Rs + (Vg-Vo)/Rf+ In = 0

because (Vg=Vp=Vn)
➢ In=0 (Infinite OP-Am input impedance) implies that
Vo= (Rf*Vg + Rs*Vg)/Rs= Vg (Rs + Rf) /Rs

𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑔 = 1+(Rf/Rs)Vg
𝑅𝑠
Example 3

a) Design a noninverting amplifier with a

gain of 6. Assume the op amp is ideal.
b) Suppose we wish to amplify a voltage
vg, such that -1.5 V ≤ vg≤ 1.5 V. What are
the smallest power supply voltages that
could be used with the resistors
selected in part (a) and still have the op
amp in this design remain in its linear
operating region?
 Solution for Example 3
a) Using the noninverting amplifier equation

Therefore, we have

We want two resistors whose ratio is 5. Use

Appendix H of the textbook and choose Rf = 10
kΩ, so Rs = 2 kΩ. But there is not a 2 kΩ
resistor in Appendix H. We can create an
equivalent 2 kΩ resistor by combining two 1
kΩ resistors in series. We can use a third 1 kΩ
resistor as the value of the resistor Rg.
 Solution for Example 3 Cont’d
b) Solve two different versions of the
noninverting amplifier equation for
vo—first using vg = +1.5 V and then
using vg = -1.5V:

Thus, if we use ±9 V power supplies for the

noninverting amplifier designed in part (a) and
-1.5 V ≤ vg ≤ +1.5 V, the op amp will remain in
its linear operating region.
 Selected OP-Am Types and Relations @glance
 Rf Rf Rf 
Rf v0 = − va + vb + v c 
vo = − v s  Ra Rb Rc 
Rs

𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑔
𝑅𝑠
OP-AM Summary Notes

➢ Voltage constraint: Vp =Vn (Virtual Short)

➢ Current Constraint Ip=In=0 (Infinite Input
Resistance of OP AMP)
➢ Linear (and useful) operation of OP AMP
when -Vcc<Vo< +Vcc
➢ OP AMP is more practical with feedback (Rf)
and source Resistor (Rs)
➢ We always do NEGATIVE FEEDBACK and NOT
Positive Feedback
➢ The Output Voltage of the OP AMP is a
SCALED REPLICA of the Input
The Difference Amplifier
▪ Assume ideal op amp
Rd
• vn = v p = vb
Rc + Rd

• in = i p = 0
vn − va vn − v0
• + + in = 0
Ra Rb

Rd ( Ra + Rb ) Rb
v0 = vb − va
Ra ( Rc + Rd ) Ra
▪ Output voltage is proportional to the
difference between a scaled replica of va and
another scaled replica of vb
The Difference Amplifier
Rd ( Ra + Rb ) Rb
v0 = vb − va
Ra ( Rc + Rd ) Ra

Scaling factor can be made equal by setting

Ra Rc
=
Rb Rd
Rb
v0 = (vb − va )
Ra
▪ The output voltage is a scaled replica of the
difference
▪ The gain factor can be controlled by the value of the
resistors
Example 4
- Find ia
- Find v (instead of 400 mV) so that ia = 0
vn − va vn − v0
+ + in = 0
Ra Rb Rd ( Ra + Rb ) Rb
v0 = vb − va
Ra ( Rc + Rd ) Ra
➢ To calculate the current Ia then we have to find the output voltages of both Op
Amplifiers Vo1 and Vo2 : Vo1= -(90/15)(-0.5)= 3 V Vo2= -(120/30)(0.4)= -1.6 V
Ia= (Vo2-Vo1)/R which is equal to (-1.6-3)/1000 Ia = - 4.6 mA
➢ To calculate V (replacing the 400 mv source) so that Ia =0
V01 should be equal to V02 which leads to –(90/15)(-0.5)= -(120/30) V which
leads to V = -75 mv
Example 5
Calculate Vo1 & Vo2
Example 5 Solution
▪ Vp=Vn implies that the 14.7 V and the 10 V
Input signal voltages are where indicated in the
diagram to the right below.
▪ The voltage difference across the 4.7K Resistor
is 14.7–10=4.7 V which leads to I1= 1 mA mA.
The Voltage of 10 V at the top of the 2 K
Resistor implies that there is a 5mA current
flowing in the resistor.
▪ I1+I2+0= 5 mA implies that I2= 4 mA which
leads to Vo2= (I2x1.5)+ 10= 16 V
▪ I3 = (14.7-16)/13= - 0.3 mA : I4= I3+I1 This
implies that I4=- 0.3 +1= 0.7 mA which leads to
Vo1= 14.7+2.1= 16.8 V
Chapter Review- What We have Learned
• Ideal op amp, linear region, saturate
• Voltage constraint, current constraint
• Inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, noninverting
amplifier, difference amplifier
• Common mode and difference mode
• Difference-‐amplifier, common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR)
• More realistic Op Amp model