0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 viewsUnit 5 EM
Uploaded by
NARENDRA POTLIYACopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 viewsUnit 5 EM
Uploaded by
NARENDRA POTLIYACopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 51
rR
cmH AP TE
Semiconductor
In this chapter we develop a basic erstanding of
ceamsie semiconductors. Although ita of ate dgcieione a exert ole
aan Si, the ideas are applicaisle io Ge seussions and examples will be
: : pplicable to Ge and to the compound semiconductor ch
as GaAs, InP, and others. By intrinsic Si we mean an ideal perfect crystal of th ah ;
no impurities or crystal defects such as dislocations and grain boundaries, The cata
thus consists of Si atoms perfectly bonded to cach other in the diamond rarueue. At
temperatures above absolute zero, we know that the Si atoms in the crystal lattice will
ae distibuvion of energic : ven though the average energy of the vie
rations is at most 3k 7" and incapable of breaking the Si-Si bond, a few of the lattice
vibrations in certain crystal regions may nonetheless be sufficiently energetic to “rup-
ture” a Si-Si bond, When a Si-Si bond is broken, a “free” electron
wander around the crystal and also contribute to electrical conduction in the pri
of an applied field. The broken bond has a missing electron that causes this region to
be positively charged. The vacancy left behind by the missing electron in the bonding
orbital is called a hole. An electron in a neighboring bond can readily tunnel into this
broken bond and fill it, thereby effectively causing the hole to be displaced to the orig-
inal position of the tunneling electron. By electron tunneling from a neighboring bond,
holes are therefore also free to wander round the crystal and also contribute to elec-
Nical conduction in the presence of an applied field. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the
Number of thermally generated electrons 1s equal to the number of holes (broken
bonds). In an extrinsie semiconductor impurities are added 10 the semiconductor oa
Aa ante either excess cee or oxesss le Fr ord contributes ne alee
Such as arsenic i i, ed om acts as a a .
Hon othe ase ated nS aaeee Gent come from broken bond Ne number
of 7 : 2 ae i ctor, and the As-doped »
in nade and holes are not equal in ae il Se Si since siectieal con-
ici ee willhave excess electrons trons, It is also possible t0 obtaH
Pay Will be mainly due to the mouIo® or ein excess of the electron concentration
e Si crystal in which hole concentration is e
hie to
to, for example, boron doping. 374
CHAPTER 5 * SEMICONDUCTORS
5.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
5.1.1 SILICON CRYSTAL AND ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM
The electronic configuration of an isolated Si atom is [Ne}3s2p?, Howey,
vicinity of other atoms, the 3s and 3p energy le
result in the four orbitals ¥-(3s), ¥ (3px), W(3Py)
four new hybrid orbitals (called yy) th
cach other as possible (toward the corner
simply view the orbitals pictorially as
each have one electron so that they are
Si atom can overlap a Whyb Orbital
with two spin-paired electrons. In
atoms by overlapping the half-oc:
vel . no
'S are SO Close that the interac .
and ¥(3p.) mixing together
at are symmetrically directed as fra
ts ofa tetrahedron). Intwo dimensions
in Figure 5.18. The four hybrid ori ¢™
half-occupied, Therefore, a yyy orbital 9
of neighboring Si atom to form a covalen he
this manner one Si atom bonds with
s e four other §)
‘cupied Yriy, orbitals, as illustrated in Figure 5.1b,
Vip orbitals
Valence:
electron | £8
Shogp
core (+4e)
(a)
Electron energy
Conduction nd CB)
Ent of eons 0K
Band gap =E,
Valence band (VB)
Pull of electrons 10
gion of he sj
2810 of temperature
(€) The energy band
diagram at absolute *YsIal showing covalent bonds ae
5.1 INTRINSIC SexicospuctoRs
; nsionel phic view of the Si
crystal showing covelent bonds os two lines where exch
line is a valence electron.
Each Si-Si bond corresponds to a bonding orbital, y/p. outained by overlapping two
eighboring Yine orbitals. Each bonding orbital (¥/) has two spin-paired electrons and
is therefore full. Neighboring Si atoms can also form covalent bonds with other Si
toms, thus forming a three-dimensional network of Si atoms. The resulting structure
js the Si crystal in which each Si atom bonds with four Si atoms in a tetrahedral
arangement. The crystal structure is that of a diamond, which was described in
Chapter 1. We can imagine the Si crystal in two dimensions as depicted in Figure 5.1b.
The electrons in the covalent bonds are the valence electrons.
The energy band diagram of the silicon crystal is shown in Figure 5.1c.' The
\enical axis is the electron energy in the crystal. The valence band (VB) contains
those electronic states that correspond to the overlap of bonding orbitals (yx).
Since all the bonding orbitals (y) are full with valence electrons in the crystal,
the VB jis also full with these valence electrons at a temperature of absolute zero.
‘The conduction band (CB) contains electronic states that are at higher energies.
those comesponding to the overlap of antibonding orbitals. The CB is separated
fom the VB by an energy gap E,. called the bandgap,-The energy level E. marks
the top of the VB and E, marks the bottom of the CB. The energy distance from Ex
tothe vacuum level, the width of the CB, is called the electron affinity 7.The gen-
cra energy band diagram in Figure 5.1¢ applies to all crystalline semiconductors
‘With appropriate changes in the energies. .
The electrons shown in the VB in Figure 5.1c are those in the covalent bonds be-
‘Ween the Si atoms in Figure 5.1b. An electron in the VB. however. is not localized to
*1 atomic site but extends throughout the whole solid. Although the electrons appear
lized in Figure 5.1b, at the bonding orbitals between the Si atoms this isnot, in fact,
‘us. In the crystal the electrons can tunnel from one bond to another and exchange
If'we were to work out the wavefunction of a valence electron in the Si crystal,
‘e vould find that it extends throughout the whole solid. This means that che electrons
the covalem bonds are indistinguishable. We cannot label an electron from the start
Say that the electron is in the covalent bond between these two stom. own
fe can crudely represent the silicon crystal in two dimensions & ean
"we 5.2. Each covalent bond between Si atoms is represented by two lines come
"Pending toto spin-paired electrons. Each line represents @ valence electron.
in
*loreenan ae
2h eneigy bonds in the sticon exysial was described Oct
apie &
375 4 SEMICONDUCTORS
CHAPTER 5
5.1.2. ELECTRONS AND HOLES
«in the silicon crystal are in the CB (Figure 5.1), 4,
s around the crystal and also respond tp...
of neighboring empty energy levels, 4.
ic Slate:
The only empty electronic ST | ne
electron placed in the CB is free to
id because there are plenty
applied electric field because th . neig mpty enere
electron inthe CB ain energy from the field and move to higher energy jn.
als because these states are EMPL Generally we can treat an electron in the CBasiti,
e S eee within the crystal with certain modifications to its Mass, as explained later ig
were free '
Section 5.1.3. . _ ;
° Since the only empty states are 11 the CB, the excitation of an electron from the
VB requires a minimum energy of E,. Figure 5.3% shows w hat happens when a pho.
electron in the VB. This electron absorbs the
ton of energy hy > Eg i incident ot
incident photon and gains sufficient energy to surmount the energy gap E, and reach
the CB. Consequently, a free electron and a “hole,” corresponding to a missing elec.
tron in the VB, are created. In some semiconductors such as Si and Ge. the photon 2b
Sorption process also involves lattice vibrations (vibrations of the Si atoms), which we
have not shown in Figure 5.3b.
‘Although in this specific example a photon of energy hv > E, creates anelectron- |
hole pair, this is not necessary. In fact, in the absence of radiation, there is an electron
hole generation process going on in the sample as a result of thermal generation. Due
to thermal energy, the atoms in the crystal are constantly vibrating. which corresponds
to the bonds between the Si atoms being periodically deformed. In a certain region, the
atoms, at some instant, may be moving in such a way that a bond becomes over-
stretched, as pictorially depicted in Figure 5.4. This will result in the overstretched
bond rupturing and hence releasing an electron into the CB (the electron effectively
can easily £0
Electron energy
|
|
|
(a)
Figure 5.3
{o} A photon with on energy greater than E, can excit
{b] When a photon breaks a Si-Si bond, cee pasillenty from the VB to the CB.
are created. @ hole in the Si-Si bond 3.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Figure 5.4. Thermol vibrations of atoms can break
bonds and thereby create electron-hole pairs.
becomes “free”). The empty clectronic state of the missing electron in the bond is what
we call a hole in the valence band. The free electron, which is in the CB, can wander
around the crystal and contribute to the electrical conduction when an electric field is
applied.'The region remaining around the hole in the VB is positively charged because
acharge of —e has been removed from an otherwise neutral region of the crystal. This
hole, denoted as h*, can also wander around the cry: f it were free. This is be-
cause an electron in a neighboring bond can “jump,” that is, tunnel, into the hole to fill
the vacant electronic state at this site and thereby create a hole at its original position.
This is effectively equivalent to the hole being displaced in the opposite direction, as
illustrated in Figure 5.5a. This single step can reoccur, causing the hole to be further
displaced. As a result, the hole mov round the crystal as if it were a free positively
charged entity, as pictured in Figure 5.5a to d, Its motion is quite independent from that
of the original electron. When an electric field is applied, the hole will drift in the di:
rection of the field and hence contribute to clectrical conduction. It is now apparent
that there are essentially two types of charge carriers in semiconductors: electrons and
holes, Ahole is effectively an empty electronic state in the VB that behaves as if it were_
a positively charged “particle” free to respond to an applied electric field,
When a wandering electron in the CB mects a hole in the VB, the electron has
found an empty state of lower energy and therefore occupies the hole. The electron
falls from the CB to the VB to fill the hole, as depicted in Figure 5.5e and f. This is
called recombination and results in the annihilation of an electron in the CB and a
hole in the VB. The excess energy of the electron falling from CB to VB in certain
Semiconductors such as GaAs and InP is emitted as a photon. In Si and Ge the excess
oy is lost as lattice vibrations (heat).
‘ge be emphasized that the iluste
al Hons of hole motion based on ¢
Ys a discussed in more advanced texts
i cet
ioucmber that the electron has a wavefunction in th
ions in Figure 5.5 are pedagogical pictorial
assical notions and cannot be taken too
(see also Section 5.11). We should
e crystal that is extended and not
nee as the pictures in Figure 5.5 imply. Further, the hole is a concept that cone
we ES toan empty valence band wavefunction that normally bi in electron. ‘y .
SANNOL localize the hole to a particular site, as the pictures in Figure 5.5 imply.
377 Figure 5.5, pictorial ilustation of hole inthe valence band wandering around the crystal di Je to the tunneling
igu Hi le in the valence band wandering oround the cry:
wre 5.5 A pictorial illustrat
cf elecrons from neighboring bonds.
5.1.3 Conpuction in SEMICONDUCTORS
in Figure 5.6, the.
When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor as shown in ea aa
tion ats bend. The total electron energy E is KE Res ea non ee
Contribution that is not constant in an applied cect ‘virtue 0!
© implies a linearly decreasing potential V(x). by ), of te
rpt's V = —Ax +B, This meane that de Pe et
ch increases linearly across the sample. Al shownit
€ the energy bands Must therefore tilt up in the x direction, a8
the 'pplied field, 5 ately
i «electron in the CB moves to the left and immedi
Stans gaining nergy from the
tional electrostatic PE
uniform electric field
(V/dx) = —¢
electron is now
‘ al vibe
timate se tcld. When the electron eollides with a een in
» loses g, i 4 7 m i
ce, Alter the calsien ae Of this energy and thus “falls” down
and so on,
isio”»
5 i xt coll
: arts to accelerate again, until the nee i fields
80 le re is : FA ied fie
isa ree a Brocess &s the drift of the electron in an applied he
drift mobility of th
i
. . (i
Of the election ft Velocity wy, of the electron is 1,£, where Fe on
plied field, buy "
drift io
Fe the drift he fashion, the holes in the VB fared cnet
tothe On the vg Along the tg Notice that when a hole gaits
to that of the electron Case t
‘ ysite
"© Potential energy of the hole is of OPPO 8.1 INTHINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS.
lectron Energy
conductivity
Hole energy
Figure 5.6 When on electric
opplied, electrons in the CE and holes in the
VB can drift and contribute to the
(6) A simplified ilustrotion of dei
{b] Applied field bends the energy bands
379
is
in Z,,
x0 rel since the electrostatic PE of the electron is
—eVlx) and Vix} decreases in the direction of
(a) \ (b) ‘Ly, whereas PE increases.
Since both electrons and holes contribute to electrical conduction, we may write
the current density J, from its definition, as.
J = envae + epran 5.1]
where 1 is the electron concentration in the CB, p is the hole concentration in the VB,
‘and vj. and vg, are the drift velocities of electrons and holes in response to an applied
lectric field £,, Thus,
Vie = MeEx and Yah = HAE (5.2)
Where 1. and ju, are the electron and hole drift mobilities. In Chapter 2 we derived the
tit mobility 4, of the electrons in a conductor as
en
i [5.31
re Me
where
The:
te tis the mean free time between scattering events and m, is the electronic mass.
ideas on electron motion in metals can also be applied to the electron motion in the
nna, Semiconductor to rederive Equation 5.3. We must, however, use an effective
eles. "* £0r the electron in the crystal rather than the mass m. in free space. A “free
energy te etYstl is not entirely free because as it moves it imteracts with the potential
Thee =) Of the ions inthe sold and therefore experiences various intemal forces.
the eet¥€mass m? accounts for these internal forces in sucha way that we can relate
F,, ~ eration a of the electron in the CB to an external force Fox (¢.8., ~e£) by
2a just as we do for the electron in vacuum by Feu = mea.Jn applying the
Electron and
hole drift
velocities eee
180
Conductivity
ofa
semiconductor
. genuconnucTors
Harter & ; ‘on, we are assumi
jption to the motion of the cet oF meicured exper OF cour
age marypeot desert cjciron can Be caleular™ Sured experimentally
ie ive mass we behavior is governed by the solution of"
that the effect
js important
Sehridinger eau :
“ran indeed describe the HNET
effective mass mt. The Guay
‘ronment within the crys al. :
ome can now speculate on whether the hole can also have a mass. As long as ye
‘view mass as resistance (© ‘acceleration, that is, inertia, there is no reason why the hole
should not have a mass. ‘Accelerating the hole means accelerati ing electrons tunneling
soto bod in the opposite direction. Therefore 18 ApEn! that the hoe wil
‘ass because otherwise the smallest external force wil}
ave a nonzero finite inertial m 1
impart an infinite acceleration to it. If we represent the effective mass of the hole in the
VB by mf, then the hole drift mobility will be
- that the u eget ad
to remark th ae iattice (crystal) from which it can be shown that,
f the electron to acceleration in terms We
ation in a pe!
ation in a Ps ance o! i r
he interaction of the electron w;
depends on t ofan
nertial resist
thins
ye mass
_ eth
Mee (54
my,
wher a is re mean free time between scattering events for holes.
‘aking Equation 5.1 for the current densi it
tise nt density further, we can write the conductivity
o = ene + eppy
| ‘ [5.5]
where » and p are the electron “
is and he + +
This is a general equation v. ‘ole concentrations in the CB and VB, respectively
‘lid for all semiconductors,
5.14 Eves
CTRON AND Ho
LE CONCEN
The general e NTRATIONS
luctivi q
ron concentration, id of a semiconductor, Equation 5.5, depen
se the density cae the procedure sane concentration. How do we detemit
and i lat " + =
integrated over the emtgs aePlied by amatically shown in Figure s.Tatodi®
P.CB for wand verdne ey OF sate being oo
ensity of *r the entire VB for p.
gy reve BY the Fermi Tyre oe the CB, that is, the numberof si
rp Mu is the eta EE nett on Of finding an electron in a state“!
B.Thys, 2! Mumber of eteg HA (E), which is discussed in Chapter *
rons per unit energy per unit ¥°
PME numbe ne dl
crof E =
eattom (£4) Tore ONS inthe ong, ED AE
lectrons per toy © energy rr
Unit vorys, 2) Of the Cy ee E to eg
te, inthe Ce Bives thee Integrating this Ft
Tn other words n concentration 1+
nef 8
iz, MECE) ap
ee
fe, KE) f (E) dE 3.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS. 381
@ te ‘a A
QE = (E- ED!
E
LAO
For
electrons
ng E) or p(B)
Fgure 5.7
{0} Erergy bord diogrem.
(8 Densty cf sates (number of states per unit energy per unit volume}
[@ femi-Dirce ercbebilty function (probability of occupancy ofa stte)
(@ The product of gl€] and AE) is the energy density of electrons in the CB [number of electrons
etait energy per unit volume). The area under m(E) versus E isthe electron concentration,
Weill assume that (E. — Ep) > kT (ie. Eris t least a few AT below E,) so that
P(E) © exp[-(E — Ep)/4T]
atistics and thereby in-
ss than the number of
We .
ar thus replacing Fermi-Dirac statistics by Boltzmann st
ly assuming that the number of electrons in the CB is far le
asin this band.
x = we will take the upper limit to be E = co rather than E. + x since SE)
ae ely wi That gacE)FUE) — 0 near the top of the band. Further-
nificant only close to Ec, We CaN USE meee
xsV 2? 2 stares in
ga(E) = SE EON conduction:
hout having to consider the exact
Bran elect
foun op tO in a three-dimensional PE well wit
Ss(E) across the whole band. Thus
mBJBmev fp? : E-Ep)
re ES | eB oo| Ee Jae
E. 382
Etectron
‘concentration
in CB
Effective
density of
States at
CBedge
Hole
concentration
in VB
Effective
density of
Slates at
VB edge
8+ SecoNDUcTORS
cnapr
which leads to
fe ~ Er)
v= noo[ ct]
kT by
where .
damger\?
Ne =2( Se
me isn
‘The result of the integration in Equation 5.6 seems to be simple, but i
imation as it ass » Ne is a temperature
approximation as it assum : re.
constant, called the effe density of states at the CB edge, Equation 56 can
interpreted as follows, IC we take all the states in the conduct
fon band and replice
tates per unit volume) ap
probability function, fe)
Concentration of electrons at Ec, that is, ine
an effective density of states nd edge,
them with an effective concentration N, (number of s
and then multiply this simply by the Boltz
expl—(E. ~ Ep)/kT), we obtain the
conduction band, N. is th
We can carry out a
tiplying the density of
hole [1 = S(E)), that is
concentration per unit ene
With the probability of occupany ys
aan electron is absent, gives pe, the hee
Over the VB gives the hole concentra
a fs
v= rede =P aceia— penae
A
assumption that Ep is
he probability that
ray. Integrating this
With the a few kT above
the integration simplest
(Er - Ey (sal
P= Ny exp] —F — Ev)
P iT
Where 1, is the effective density of states
at the VB edge and is given by
ya
Ny =2 (3H) is
iol
enon ® ROW see the virtues of Studying the density of states g(£) as. funti
nergy E and the FermiDirac function /(E). Both
Foe S10NS for n and p. There
for Er being a few kr mete
a
; Pecific assumptions in our derivations
away from th
-8 are generally valid,
ions 5
i band edges, which means that Equations
ons
hat determine the free electron and hole concent
Gand 5.8, j
- ILis interesting to consider the product”
"p= N, | (Ec~ Ep)
(Ee
“Fe ]_ v0 SRF < nro
‘quations ¢
uations 5,
‘hus given by Eg
or
p=
AT
wf
M en(- 2) ;
Thi
sceal
jeate
fin the
sg
tinea
ani
aad bole
gst.
aalthus
duc, 5.1 InrRinsic
CONDUCTORS,
ere Be = Bi Ew ie the banda cnergy. First, we note that this is a general ex-
wossil jn which the right- andre NeNy exp(—E,/kT), is a constant that depends
we emperature and the material properties, for example, £,. and not on the posi
on the 1 smi level. In the special case of an i © semi
ca eer 1 © of an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p, which
n, So that NN, exp(—E,/kT) must be
an denote as i+ the intrinsic concentra
wei Equation 5.10 we therefore have
a
np =n? = NN, exp(-Z2
kT
{5.111
qhis is a general equation that is valid as long as we have thermal equilibrium.
gxtemal excitation, such as photogeneration, is excluded. It states that the product np
is a temperature-dependent constant, If we somehow increase the electron concentra-
tion, then we inevitably reduce the hole concentration, The constant n; has a special
significance because it represents the free electron and hole concentrations in the in-
trinsic material.
Anintrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor crystal in which the electron
and hole concentrations are equal. By pure we mean virtually no impurities in the
crystal. We should also exclude crystal defects that may capture carriers of one sign
and thus result in unequal electron and hole concentrations. Clearly in a pure semicon-
ductor, electrons and holes are generated in pairs by thermal excitation across the
bandgap. It must be emphasized that Equation 5.11 is generally valid and therefore
applies to both intrinsic and nonintrinsic (n # p) semiconductors.
When an electron and hole meet in the crystal, they “recombine.” The electron
falls in energy and occupies the empty electronic state that the hole represents. Con-
sequently, the broken bond is “repaired,” but we lose two free charge carriers.
Recombination of an electron and hole results in their annihilation. In a semiconduc-
tor we therefore have thermal generation of electron-hole pairs by thermal excitation
from the VB to the CB, and we also have recombination of electron-hole pairs that re-
moves them from their conduction and valence bands, respectively. The rate of re-
Combination R will be proportional to the number of electrons and also to the number
of holes. Thus
Ronp
__ The rate of generation G will depend on how many electrons are available for ex-
Citation at £, that is, Ny; how many empty states are available at E., that is, Nei and
the Probability that the electron will make the transition, that is, exp(—E,/kT), so that
Since in thermal equilibrium we have no continuous increase in m or p. we Must
inn Tate of generation equal to the rate of recombination, that is, G = R-Thisis
‘ent to Equation 5.11. git
Insketching the diagrams in Figure 5.7a to d to illustrate the derivation oft ex
for n and p (i ions 5.6 and 5.8), we assumed that the Fermt leve" ©
p (in Equations 5.6 an‘ + i E :
tine Where around the middle of the energy bandgap. This was not 2 i m
Mathematical derivations but only in the sketches. From Equations > :
383
Mass action
law: 384
Fermi energy
in intrinsic
semiconductor
Fermi energy
in intrinsic
semiconductor
@
HAPTER 5 + SEMICONDUCTORS
ci
mn levels inyportant in determining th
rations, Ht serves asa “mathematical crank” to determine w get
e concentrations. a j
eat fact conctder an itseaic semiconductor, x = P= mi. Setting p =| inky
Yenc ‘olve for the Fermi energy in the intrinsic semiconductor, Eni?
tion 5.8, we can s
isthe
z,
(En E))] _ 12 (-4)
yep “ERD = (NN)? exp — Fe
also note that the position of
which leads to
1 Ne
En = Bvt 5B, ~ 5kT (72) eh
Furthermore, substituting the proper expressions for N. and NY, we get
1 Ber in( )
En = Ey 5B e~ FAT In ink 1514)
"is apparent from these equations that if N, = Ny or mz = my, then
1
Ens Ey t 5B,
that is, Eg; is Tight in the middle of the en
By ats Will not be equal and the Fermi level will be Slightly shifted down from midgap
by an amount 347° In(m?/m}), which is quite small compared with 3 ,. For Si and
Ge. the hole effective mass (for density of states) is slightly smaller thas the cleetoa
effective mass, so Ep, is s ightly below the midgap.)
: = 17 means that if we Can sonichow increase the electron concen
tration in the CB over the intrinsic Nalue—for example, by adding impurities into the Si
crystal that donate additional électrons to the CB—we will then have n > p. The semi-
Is t¢
conductor is then called ‘n-type. The Fermi level must be closer to £, than E,, so that
Eo~ Ep p. The n, oduct always yields n? in
“quilibrium in the absence of extemal excitation. “tluminati
Feige leetrons from the VB and thereby
t case Er is closer to £y than to E,. A semiconductor in which ? BH
Senieon The general band diagrams with the appr
ntrinsic, n- ‘type, and P-type semiconductors (e.g., i-Si, n-Si, an
strated j 8a toc, ined n and
Eris, then we have effectively deseo
» Vecan view Ep as a material property gril
Gatees however, gous pope CATH that conrabe to eletrical conduction. 18 a
Clectton from the seq, 4" and p. It also determines the energy needed to eon
cl ‘BY difference between the vacuum level
onewes Wk function @ of ne semiconductor, the ene)
“oneven though there are no electrons at E rin a semico™ 5.1 INTRINSIC
semiconductors.
{a) (b) \d In all cases, np = n3.
‘The Fermi level can also be interpreted in terms of the potential energy per electron
foreletrcal work similar to the interpretation of electrostatic PE. Just as e AV is the elec-
treal work involved in taking a charge ¢ across a potential difference AV, any difference
in Ep in going from one end of a material (or system) 0 another is available to do an
amount AE of external work. A corollary to this is that if electrical work is done on the
material, or example, by passing a current through it, then the Fermi level is not uniform
inthe material. A Er then represents the work done per electron. For a material in thermal
equilibrium and not subject to any external excitation such as illumination or connections
toavoltage supply, the Fermi level in the material must therefore be uniform, AE» = 0.
What is the average energy of an electron in the conduction band of a semiconduc-
tor? Also, what is the mean speed of an electron in the conduction band? We note that the
concentration of electrons with energies E to E + dE isne(E) dE of Qy(E) f(E) dE.
Thus the average energy of electrons in the CB, by definition of the mean, is
ay 1
Eca= if EQey(E) f (E) dE
n lee
here the integration must be over the CB. Substituting the proper expressions for
s(E) and f(E) in the integrand and carrying out the integration from E¢ to the top
ofthe band, we find the very simple result that
Fos = Ect Ser 15.14)
nergy of 3kT above Ec.
Thus, an electron in the conduction band has an average ¢ :
3kT must be its average
ed we know that an electron at E, is “free” in the crystal,
inetic energy,
his is just like the average kinetic energy of gas atoms
in that the atoms (or the “paticles”) do nat interact thi
dome fm the kinetic theory that the statistics of a coll
by pbeysthe classical Maxwell-Boltzmann descripioh withan average energy sven
Ici: We should also recall that the description of electron statistics inameta involves
areggt- Dia function, which is based on the Pauli exci principe Ina metal the
aunt? tetgy ofthe conduction electron is $r and. for al practic purposes. emper
tulependent. We see that the collective electron behavior 1s completely diffe eatin
Solids, We can explain the difference by noting thatthe conduction band in
(such as He atoms) in a tank
at is, they are independent.
lection of independent gas
erage energy given
385
Figure 5.8 Energy bond diagrams for
{0) intrinsic, (b) mtype, ond (e) plype
Average
electron
energy in CB CHAPTER 5
386
1s SEMICONDUCTORS
‘5, ond GaAs at 300 K =
perfies of Ge,
able 5.1. Selected tpicl properties .
1 5 Ne m (em VS) mm, oe
wea ne
(ev) ev) (ee) a ~ win
Gia Torx io” 60x 10% 23 900 ‘900 2 3 im,
Ge 066 4.13 : " E
7 1.0 x 10" 135 oe
jo. sor 28x10 12x10" 10x 2
sid : = "
Tx 1" 21x 108 8500 00 a ce ‘
Gaks 142 407 4.7 x 10! 08 :
fe ied to condcvy (beled oi ciferent thon thot for density of states (iabeled Bin numerous te
NOTE: fective mos lod to conducivi }
lena 4510 en di rl mes widely sed vole fn oS, hough the correct woe nce on
fohen os 1-45 10"? em >and is herefore
(M.A. Green, J Appl. Phy, 67, 2944, 1
semiconductor is only scarcely populated by electrons, which means th,
more electronic states than electrons and thus the likelihood of two elec
cupy the same electronic state is practically ni
Principle and use the Boltzmann statistics. This ii
ber of conducti
1990)
ion electrons and the
Table 5.1 is a comparative tab)
Conductors, Ge, Si, and GaAs,
EERAT imnsc CONC
at there are many
trons trying tog.
We can then neglect the Pauli exclusion
Ss not the case for metals where the: num
number of states are comparable in magnitude.
le of some of the properties of the important seni-
related effective
ICENTRATION AND ¢
Masses of el
Given that the density of states
are approximately 1.08m, and 0.60r.
at room temperature are 1350 and
centration and intrinsic resistivity ofS: vesune o
go that
n=
[ast x 10" em™V(1.16 x 10” om 1"Pexp| — (10 ev)
= 1.0 x 10"%em™ 2(300 K)(8.62 x 10 eVK 5]
‘The conductivity is
7 = enue + epity = eny(ue + 4)
thats,
1.6 x 107" C)(1.0 x 10" em=*)(1350 + 450 em? V-! s')
= 2.9 x 10°° QO"! cm"!
‘The resistivity is
5 x 10° Q2em
Although we calculated n, = 1.0 x 10" cm, the most widely used n, value in the literature
has been 1.45 x 10" cm”. The difference arises from a number of factors but, most impor-
tantly, from what exact value of the effective hole mass should be used in calculating N,.
Henceforth we will simply use? n, = 1.0 x 10'° cm73, which seems to be the “true” value.
EAN SPEED OF ELECTRONS IN THE CB Estimate the mean speed of electrons in the con- Cue E
duction band of Si at 300 K. If a is the magnitude of lattice vibrations, then the kinetic theory
predicts a? cc T; or stated differently, the mean energy associated with lattice vibrations (pro-
Portional to a?) increases with kT. Given the temperature dependence of the mean speed of
electrons in the CB, what should be the temperature dependence of the drift mobility? The
effective mass of an electron in the conduction band is 0.26m..
SOLUTION
‘The fact that the average KE, 4m? v2, of an electron in the CB of a semiconductor is 3kT means
thatthe effective mean speed ve must be
To 23 a
% (= Es Gx18 x17 90) = 2.3 x 10 ms”
me: (0.26 x 9.1 x 10-")
The effective mean speed v, is called the thermal velocity vs, of the electron. |
‘The mean free time r of the electron between scattering events due to thermal vibrations of
ca tOt is inversely proportional to both the mean speed v, of the electron and the scattering
*s section of the thermal vibrations, that is,
1
v_(ma?)
‘amplitude of the atomic thermal vibrations. But, ve
_ and consequently 4, « T~*. 24 a hi ii
aeetimentally 11, is not exactly proportional to 7~"/* but to 7. 4 higher power index.
ingat®stive mass used in the density of states calculations is actually different than that used
“Sport calculations such as the mean speed, drift mobility, and so on.
ae
1, 67, 2944, 190)
| nd A ‘valve $ppears io bo 1.0 x 101° ‘em-2 08 discussed by M. A. Green UJ. Appl. Phys. 67,
roul and M.A. Greon |. App. Phys., 70, 846, 1991)
TX
Whete a is the
tro 7-3/2
a T'? and (1a?) «kT, $0 388
CHAPTER 5 + SEMICONDUCTORS
5.2. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
By introducing small amounts of impurities into an otherwise pure §j Crystal iti
ble to obtain a semiconductor in which the Concentration of carriers gf one 9 SPOS
much in excess of the other type. Such semiconductors are referred to ase
conductors vis-i-vis the intrinsic case of a pure and perte
adding pentavalent impurities, such as arsenic, which hav
the hole nit # semiconductor in which the electron con
the hole concentration. In this case we will have an n.
trivalent impurities, such as boron, which have a valenc
that we have an excess of holes over clectrons. We now have a ty
How do impurities change the Concentrations of holes and electron
Semicon,
sina Semiconductae
5.21 n-Type Doping
Consider what happens when small amounts of a
fi
Tom Group V in the Periodic Table, such as As,
Pentavalent (valency of 5) clemen:
crystal. We only add small amo
P. Sb, are introduced Ano a pure §,
every million hos
mom by millions of $i atoms
pal rans {€.8.. one impurity atom for
atoms) beca ish to surround each impure
thereby forcing the i sim 5.2. EXTRInsic SEMICONDUCTORS 389
tw apply this to the electron around an Ast core in the Si crystal envi-
ronment, We MUST USE 65 instead OF e,, where ¢, isthe relative permiltivity of silicon,
and aso the effective mass of the electron m? in the silicon crystal, Thus, the binding
nergy of the electron to the As* site in the Si erystal is
te Eleciron
i el me\ (4 bindin,
& = 3. —t HY 1g
8 = gereane — Ct oev(™)(4) 15.15) | Chery ata
donor
With s, = 11.9 and m? © 4m, for silicon, we find E}' = 0.032 eV, which is com-
ble with the average thermal energy of atomic vibrations at room temperature,
~3kT (~0.07 eV). Thus, the fifth valence electron can be readily freed by thermal
vibrations of the Si lattice. The electron will then be “free” in the semiconductor, or, in
other words. it will be in thé CB. The energy required to excite the electron to the CB
is therefore 0.032 eV. The addition of As atoms introduces localized electronic states
atthe As sites because the fifth electron has a localized wavefunction, of the hydro-
genic type, around As*. The energy Ey of these states is 0.032 eV below E, because
this is how much energy is required to take the electron away into the CB, Thermal ex-
citation by the lattice vibrations at room temperature is sufficient to ionize the As atom,
thatis, excite the electron from Ey into the CB. This process creates free electrons but
immobile As* ions, as shown in the energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor
“in Figure 5.10. Because the As atom donates an electron into the CB, it is called a
donor atom. E, is the electron energy around the donor atom. Ey is close to E¢, so the
spare fifth electron from the dopant can be readily donated to the CB. If N, is the donor
atom concentration in the crystal, then provided that Ng >> nj, at room temperature the
electron concentration in the CB will be nearly equal to Ng, that is n © Ng. The hole
concentration will be p = 1}/Ng, which is less than the intrinsic concentration be-
‘cause a few of the large number of electrons in the CB recombine with holes in the VB
Soas to maintain np = n?. The conductivity will then be
BY aw eae
o Wane e ( Hn © eNabe 516g ductivity.
At low temperatures, however, not all the donors will be ionized and we need to
know the probability, denoted as fy(E.), of finding an electron in a state with energy
a Figure 5.10 Energy band diagram for an
5 type Si doped with | ppm As.
& There are donor energy levels just below E-
g ‘around As* sites,
g cB
a
E
“003 ey |
le!
5 x Distance into
oisieta 1 bows creniual
As atom sites every 10° Si atoms 390
‘Occupation
probability at
‘adonor
CHAPTER 5 + SexticonpucToRs
Ez ata donor. This probability function is
except that it has a factor of $ multiply’
imilar to the Fermi-Dirae
ig the exponential term,
function fe,
FE) = ism
The factor } is due to the fact that the electron state at the donor can take ane
tron with spin either up or down but not both? (once the donor has beer occupied
second eleetron cannot enter this site) Thus, the numberof ionized donors tem
perature T is given by
Nq x (probability of not finding an electron at Ey)
= Nall = fa(Ea))
(5.14)
5.22 p-Type Doping
We saw that introducing a pentavalent atom into
cause the fifth electron cannot go into a bond
thermal excitation. By similar arguments,
with a trivalent atom (valency of 3) such
tal. We consider doping Si with small a
a Si crystal results in n-type doping be-
and escapes from the donor into the CB by
Wwe should anticipate that doping a Si cyst
as, Al, Ga, or In will result in a p-type Si crys
mounts of B as shown in Figure 5.11a, Because
B has only three valence electrons, when it shares them with four neighboring Si atoms,
one of the bonds has a missing electron, which of course is a hole Anearby electron can
tunnel into this hole and displace the hole further away from the boron atom. As the hole
roves away, it gets attracted by the negative charge left behind on the boron atom and
therefore takes an orbit around the B~ ion, as shown in Figure 5.11b, The binding energy
d using the hydrogenic atom analogy as in the
the B atom accepting an electron from a neighboring Si-Si bond (from the VB), whch
effectively results in the hole being displac
ced away and its eventual escape to freedomin.
the VB. The B atom introduced into the Si crystal therefore acts as a; cco accept
Bur because ofthis, it is called an acceptor impurity. The electron accepted by the
B atom comes from a nearby bond. On the energy band diagram, an electron leaves oe
VB and gets accepted by a B atom, which becomes negatively charged. This proces
| * The proof can be found in advanced solidstate Physics lex 5.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
to) {b)
Figure 5.11 Boron-doped Si crystal.
B hos only three valence electrons. When it substitutes for @ Si atom, one of ils bonds
has an electron missing and therefore a hole, as shown in (a). The hole orbits around
the B site by the tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds, as shown in (b).
Eventually, thermally vibrating Si ctoms provide enough energy to free the hole from
the B™ site into the VB, as shown,
Bleton energy
B atom sites every 10° Si atoms
x Distance
into crystal
Figure 5.12. Energy bond
diagram for « ptype Si doped with
1 ppm B.
There are acceptor energy levels Ee
just above E, around B~ sites. These
teccepior levels accept electrons from
the VB ond therefore create holes in
the VB.
sincelthe negatively charged B atoms are immobile and hence cannot contribute to the
Conductivity, If the concentration of acceptor impurities N, in the crystal is much
{eater than the intimsie concentration m,, then at room temperature all the acceptors
Would have been ionized and thus p ~ Na. The electron concentration is then deter-
ined by the mase action law, n= 1?/Nq, which is much smaller than p» ‘and conse-
‘SWenlly the conductivity is simply given by ¢ = eNalth: as ,
sum_Vbical ionization energies for donor and acceptor ‘atoms in the silicon crystal are
“marized in Table 5.2. 392
Compensation
doping
CHAPTER 3 + SEMICONDUCTORS
Joble 5.2 Examples of donor and accoplor ionization energies (eV) in $j
a
poe Acceptors
Donors:
os AS B Al "Ga,
0.015 0.054 0.039 0.045 0.057 007
geese 9c ea siti
5.2.3 COMPENSATION DOPING
What happens when a semiconductor contains both donors and acceptors? Com.
pensation doping is a term used to describe the doping of a semiconductor with both
donors and acceptors to control the properties. For example, a P-type semiconductor
doped with N, acceptors can be converted to an n-type semiconductor by simply
adding donors until the concentration Ng exceeds N,. The effect of donors compen-
sates for the effect of acceptors and vice versa. The electron concentration is then
given by Ny — Nq provided the latter is larger than n;. When both acceptors and
donors are present, what essentially happens is that electrons from donors recombine
with the holes from the acceptors so that the mass action law np = n} is obeyed. Re-
member that we cannot simultaneously increase the electron and hole concentrations
because that leads to an increase in the recombination rate that returns the electron
and hole concentrations to satisfy np = n?. When an acceptor atom accepts a valence
band electron, a hole is created in the VB. This hole then recombines with an elec-
tron from the CB. Suppose that we have more donors than acceptors. If we take the
initial electron concentration as n = N,, then the recombination between the elec-
trons from the donors and N, holes generated by N, acceptors results in the electron
concentration reduced by N, ton = Ny — Nq. By a similar argument, if we have
more acceptors than donors, the hole concentration becomes p = Ng - Ne» with
electrons from Ny donors recombinii i
! ing with holes from N, acceptors. Thus there are
two compensation effects: ,
(Na — No)
2. More acceptors: N, — W, P = and "= — Ny,
Na — Ng > ny @-™)
(Na — Na) (Na — Na)
1. More donors: Ny — Na > ny
=(Na-N,) and p=
These ar; s:
acceptors to have Geo sume that the temperature is sufficiently high for donors at
eoized. This will be the case at room temperature. At low te
Peratures, we have to conside; statistics a1
ts t donor and acceptor st d the charg
RESISTIVITY OF INTRI
i INSI i
Given da 2 (PPD) (note that this doping it aenic if the doping is
‘ om V"! Ss“ and wy = 450 cm? Velen
son ct 8.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS 393
fox the intrinsic case, we apply
o = enpe + eppty = en(Ue + py)
a = (1.6 x 107" C)(1.0 x 10" em)(1350 + 450 em? V-!
= 2.88 x 10-6 O°! cm
0
since L = 1 emand A = 1 cm?, the resistance is
L 1 é
SET ZT BATH WR or TKS
‘When the crystal is doped with 1 in 10°, then
Ns _ 5x 10”
Ng = 2
“* 10° 10°
5x 10% em->
Atroom temperature all the donors are ionized, so
n= Nq=5x 10% cm?
The hole concentration is
(1.0 x 10")?
= 2.0 x 10%om™ )
vs ne ton oneenain and ences consbution fo electrical cong
Cla, ible compared with te hele concen aor Thus, by excessive bore
sare semiconductor hes been converted 103 P-1YPS semiconductor.
The electron concentration
luction i
doping,
FERRERS re ree ven no AND pTVPESE An Si wafer has been doped unifomniy
TO" antimony (Sb) atoms em->, Calculate the position of the Fermi energy with respect to i
reac uar Em in ininsic Si The above n-type Si sample is further doped with 2 1p"
toon atomns en2. Calculate the position of the Fermi energy with respect to the Fermi en
Epv in intrinsic Si. (Assume that T = 300 K, and kT = 0.0259 eV.) rey
SOLUTION
Sb gives n-type doping with Ny = 10'° em, and since Ny > nj (
1.0 x 10" em~3), wea
n= Ng = 10 om se
For intrinsic Si,
m= Ne en| Es En
whereas for doped Si, =
n= Nene -E—Fe] =N,
where Ey, and Ep, at ii . :
er fe are the Fermi energies in the intrinsic and n-type Si. Dividing the two ex
so that a 5.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
zp and Er are the Fermi energies in the intrinsic and p-type Si, respectively. Dividing
fn
were
rer expressions,
the two
(En -
p_ ot A)
2 =o iT ]
Epp — Eni = -«rn(2) = ~(0.0259 ev) (toxin
= -0.43 eV
sothat
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM OF AN n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR CONNECTED TO A VOLTAGE
SUPPLY Consider the energy band diagram for an n-type semiconductor that is connected to a
volage supply of V and is carrying a current. The applied voltage drops uniformly along the
seniconductor, so the electrons in the semiconductor now also have an imposed electrostatic
oentl energy that decreases toward the positive terminal, as depicted in Figure 5.13, The
whole band structure, the CB and the VB, therefore tits. When an electron drifts from A toward
Figure 5.13 Energy band diagram of an
nntype semiconductor connected to a voltage
supply of Volt.
The whole energy diagram tits because the
electron now also has an electrostatic potential
energy.
Electron energy
395 SEMICONDUCTORS
5+ SEMICON
CHAPTER
«is approaching the positive terminal, The Perm leve) sy,
es because iLi8 appro
PE decreases deca
is ye
B, its
sic ease, En votre wets She
Cena se aan important property of the Fermi level i that ehy
We should remember th
ie extemally to do electrical work, AS a corollary we nog
panaaon the system, for example, when & battery is connected {9
on the system, om, Achang.
riform throughout the whole system, A chang
ge in p,
fe that When
4 Semieg
; On.
in Ep within a system
lectrostatie
within a syste
electrical work is done
ductor, then Ey is not un atic ,
Seo ce aa Ey from one end to the other, Ep (A) ~ Ep(B), is ust eV, i
Pe aking an eletron through the semiconductor, as shown in Figur th
CE oe ee ieee semiconductor is uniform, 80 E, ~ Ey must be constant ine
reer tc ather- Tha the CB, VB, and Ey all bend! by the sme amount,
tron or eV, Ey therefore follows the e
5.3 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CONDUCTIVITY
So far we have been calculating conductivities and resistivities of doped semiconduc-
tors at room temperature by simply assuming that n * Ng for n-type and p No for
p-type doping, with the proviso that the concentration of dopants is much greater than
the intrinsic concentration n;. To obtain the conductivity at other temperatures we have
{0 consider two factors: the téimperature dependence of the cartier concentration and
‘the drift mobility. —
—_ ‘
5.3.1 CARRIER CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
Consider an n-ty
pe semiconductor doped with N,
Na > nj.
Ja donors per unit volume where
We take the semiconductor down to very low temperatures until its con-
Y 8 practically nil. At this temperature, the donors will nor.be ionized be-
cause the thermal vibrational i ently small. As the temperature i
mors become ionized and donate their electrons to the CB.
2. The Si-Si bond breaking, that is, thermal excitation from
Cause it takes too much ener Si the donor ionization
energy AE = £. — ‘gy. Since the dono! spe
electrons from 6! aH Then mall (CE.), thermal generation involves exciting
the expression ‘4 - The electron concentration at low temperatures is given by
eae
m= (Sym) on(-22) isi
as shown in Figure 5,
E. to E., is unlikely be
Similar to the Intrinsic case, that is,
Cc ns W.Nin"*exp(— Er) em
2kT
fou Valid When the i an
that at low 2 Equation 5.19 is the ane esaion ston 30 ag
the Counterpart of, ; ine into acc
of M. we have N, 4 S the excitation ig ae of Equation 5.20 taking i
at inst
er Of avait eat '0 Ee (across AE) and that is
“ailable electrons, The numerical fact0" ?
unt 5.3) Tenpei E
3 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF ConpuctIVITY
T
