Unit 4: Theory of Radiation

Dr Priya Hasan∗
Department of Physics
Maulana Azad National Urdu University
Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500 032
April 9, 2020

Abstract
Theory of Radiation: Blackbody radiation, Spectral distribution, Concept of Energy Density, Derivation
of Planck’s law, Deduction of Wiens distribution law, Rayleigh-Jeans Law, Stefan Boltzmann Law and Wiens
displacement law from Plancks law.

1 Blackbody radiation
A black-body is an idealised object which absorbs and emits all radiation frequencies. Near thermodynamic
equilibrium, the emitted radiation is closely described by Planck’s law and because of its dependence on tem-
perature, Planck radiation is said to be thermal radiation, such that the higher the temperature of a body the
more radiation it emits at every wavelength.

2 Rayleigh Jeans Formula

Rayleigh Jeans developed a theory for the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation. Consider a cavity of
length l that behaves as a blackbody, such that radiation in the form of standing waves are trapped in the
cavity. The wavelengths of these radiations are given by

nλ/2 = l

where n=1,2,3.... The corresponding frequencies (overtones) are

cn
ν = c/(λ) =
2l
where n=1,2,3.... Here c is the velocity of light
The number of overtones may be referred to as the several degrees of freedom with which the system is
capable of vibrating. Every allowed frequency is called a mode of vibration.

Figure 1: Fig1

If the three edges of the cube from the three axis in space, the number of loops in each direction are nx , ny , nz
2l
nx =
λ
∗ e-mail:[email protected], [email protected]

1
 l = nx (λ/2) = ny (λ/2) = nz (λ/2)
As the radiation are diffuse, the waves are inclined at angles α, β, γ to the x,y,z axis.

lcosα = nx (λ/2)

lcosβ = ny (λ/2)
lcosγ = nz (λ/2)
Also
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
2l 2
n2x + n2y + n2z = ( )
λ
If
2l 2
n2x + n2y + n2z = r2 , r2 = ( )
λ
,
2l
r=
λ

Figure 2: Fig 2

The above equation is an ellipsoid with nx , ny , nz directions as coordinate axis. The total ni =number of
modes of vibrations are the possible sets of nx , ny , nz . In the two dimensional case,

2l 2
n2x + n2y = ( )
λ
This equation represents a circle with nx , ny as in the figure 2, the number of squares is equal to the area of
the quadrant 1/4πr2
2l 2 πl2
(1/4)π( ) = 2
λ λ
We extend this to the 3D case, then the volume of the spherical shell will be

2l 3 4πl3
f = 1/8(4/3πr3 ) = 1/8(4/3π( ) =
λ 3λ3
The number of possible modes of vibration

4πl3 d 4πl3 3
df = (1/λ3 ) = (− 4 dλ)
3 dλ 3 λ
Neglecting negative values of dλ,
4πV
df = dλ
λ4
as l3 = V .
No of vibrations per unit volume,
4π
= dλ
λ4
With two polarizations per mode,
8π
= dλ
λ4

2
Rayleigh and Jeans assumed that the law of equipartition of energy holds good in case of radiation also.
According to this law, the average energy per mode of vibration is kT where k is Boltzman’s constant and T is
absolute temperature.
Energy density within wavelength λ and λ + dλ is Eλ dλ= Total no of modes of vibration X Average energy
per mode
8π
= dλ × kT
λ4
8πkT
= dλ
λ4
This is Rayleigh-Jeans Formula.
Rayleigh-Jeans law accurately predicts experimental results at radiative frequencies below 105 GHz, but
diverges with observations when frequencies reach the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum (small
λ). This was called the ‘ultraviolet catastrophe’, as the energy would be very large at the ultraviolet region
according to theory, but was much smaller according to observations.
Plank’s Law finally resolved this problem.

3 Plank’s Law

Figure 3: Plancks radiation law

Planck’s law describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body in thermal
equilibrium at a given temperature T, when there is no net flow of matter or energy between the body and its
environment.
At the end of the 19th century, physicists were unable to explain why the observed spectrum of black
body radiation, which by then had been accurately measured, diverged significantly at higher frequencies from
that predicted by existing theories. In 1900, Max Planck derived a formula for the observed spectrum by
assuming that a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black-body radiation
could only change its energy in a minimal increment, E, that was proportional to the frequency of its associated
electromagnetic wave. This resolved the problem of the ultraviolet catastrophe predicted by classical physics.
It was a pioneering insight of modern physics and is of fundamental importance to quantum theory.
Plank made the following three assumptions: 1. A black body radiator contains simple harmonic oscillators
of possible frequencies
2. The oscillators cannot absorb or emit energy continuously.
3. Energy can be absorbed or emitted only in discrete packets of nhν where n is an integer 1,2,3....
Let N be the number of Plank Oscillators and E be their total energy. Then the average energy per oscillator
E
=
N
Let there be N0 , N1 , N2 ......Nr ..... oscillators with energy 0, , 2, 3....r respectively. Now

N = N0 + N1 + N2 + ...... + Nr + ...

3
 E = 0 + N1 + 2N2 + ...... + 3N3 + rNr + ...
From Maxwells distribution formula
r
Nr = N0 e− kT
Substituting
 2 r
N = N0 + N0 e− kT + N0 e− kT + ...... + N0 e− kT + ...

h  2 r
i
= N0 1 + e− kT + e− kT + ...... + e− kT + ...

N0
=  
1 − e kT
Since
1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + ..... =
(1 − x)
Substituting
 2 r
E = (N0 × 0) + N0 e− kT + 2N0 e− kT + ...... + rN0 e− kT + ...


h  2 (r−1)
i
= N0 e− kT 1 + 2e− kT + 3e− kT + ...... + re− kT + ...

 

− kT 1
= N0 e 
(1 − e− kT )2
Since
1
1 + 2x + 3x2 + x3 + ..... =
(1 − x)2
Now the average energy per oscillator

h i
E N0 e− kT 1

(1−e− kT )2
= =
N h N0  i
1−e kT


e− kT
= 
1 − e kT


e kT − 1
Now
 = hν
hν
= hν
e kT −1
From the earlier derivation, we know the number of oscillators per unit volume is

8π 8πν 2
= 4
dλ = 3 dν
λ c
Since
c c
λ= , dλ = − 2
ν ν
Therefore
8πν 2 hν
Eν dν = 3
dν hν
c e kT − 1
In terms of wavelength
8πhc 1
Eλ dλ = hc dλ
λ5 e λkT −1
This is Plancks radiation law

4
4 Derivation of Rayleigh-Jeans Law and Wiens Law from Planks
Law
4.1 Wiens Law
For short wavelengths, when λ is very small,
8πhc 1
Eλ dλ = hc dλ
λ5 e λkT −1
then
hc hc
e λkT − 1 = e λkT
8πhc 1
Eλ dλ = hc dλ
λ5 e λkT
Putting
hc
8πhc = A, =B
k
A −B
Eλ dλ = e λT dλ
λ5
This is Wien’s Formula

4.2 Rayleigh-Jeans Law

For long wavelengths, when λ is very large,
 2
hc hc hc
e λkT = 1 + + + ......
λkT λkT
hc
=1+
λkT
Now
8πhc 1
Eλ dλ = hc dλ
λ5 e λkT −1
8πhc 1
= hc
dλ
λ5 (1 + λkT )−1
8πhc λkT
= dλ
λ5 hc
8πkT
= dλ
λ4

4.3 Wiens Displacement Law

8πhc 1
Eλ dλ = hc dλ
λ5 e λkT −1
Putting
8πhc = A

1
Eλ = Aλ−5 hc
e λkT −1
To find the wavelength at which we have maximum radiation, we take the derivative and equate it to zero
"  −2  −1 #
−5 1 hc −hc −6 1
A λ (−1) hc e λkT 2 − 5λ hc =0
e λkT − 1 λ kT e λkT − 1
 hc −1 hc hc 5
e λkT − 1 e λkT 2 =
λ kT λ
  hc
hc e λkT
 hc  =5
λkT e λkT − 1

5
 Putting
hc
=x
λkT
xex
x
=5
e −1
x
+ ex = 1
5
the two roots are x=0 and x=4.965 using
hc
= 4.965
λkT
hc
λmax T = =b
4.965k

4.4 Stefans Law

8πhc 1
Eλ dλ = hc dλ
λ5 e λkT −1
The total energy radiated will be the integral of the above equation.
Z ∞
2πh ∞ ν 3 dν
Z
E= Eν = 2 hν
0 c 0 e kT − 1
Let
hν kT x kT dx
= x, ν = , dν =
kT h h
Substituting,
∞
2π(kT )4 x3 dx
Z
E=
h3 c2 0 ex − 1

2π(kT )4 π4
E= ×
h3 c2 15
Since ∞
x3 dx π4
Z
x
=
0 e −1 15

2π 5 k 4 4
= T
15h3 c2
E = σT 4
2π 5 k4
where σ = 15h3 c2