1

Botany

(FC 1)

Learning Module
This 5 unit course deals with the essential information about the structure and function of plants
and their relationship to the environment and to humans. It provides an understanding of the
major concepts in the following plant biology disciplines: growth, reproduction, anatomy,
morphology, physiology, taxonomy, genetics, ecology and evolution.

AUTHOR:
COURSE FACILITATOR: Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
Claudine M. Fronda Emily F. Muyo
st
Module in Botany – 1 Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Introduction
This learning material is composed of an exploratory course about Botany. In this module
you will investigate Botany as a science. You will also study how plants affect our lives.
Plants are one of the most fascinating and important groups of organisms living on Earth.
They play an important role in the energy flow that drives life on earth. They provide food, shape
our environment, and play major ecological role that affects all organisms in land and water.
Thus, understanding on plants biology, structure, function and ecology is essential as BS Fisheries
students.
This module will equip students with the knowledge and skills pertaining to the study of
plants. At the end of the module, students are expected to gain the knowledge and appreciation
on the diverse organisms we call plants, including its adaptations to the environment, evolutionary
and ecological relationship and their importance in human lives. The topics are as follows:

How to use the module

This learning material is composed of ten lessons. Each lesson is composed of the following;
 Topic Introduction
 Learning Outcomes
 Reading Resources/ Instructional Activities
 Post- Assessment (Exercises, quiz, activities, reflective essay)

To get the most from this Module, you need to do the following:
1. Refer to the schedule of lessons as this subject should be finished for 18 weeks.
2. Begin by reading and understanding the Learning Outcome/s. These will tell you what you
should know and be able to do at the end of each topic.
3. Proceed with your reading and do the required learning activities.

Submission of Learning Activities: This module is composed of 10 topics and each has learning
activities. Outputs should be finished within 1 week and must be submitted the following week.
Deduction will be given to late outputs.

Course requirements and grading system

In order to pass this course, you must:
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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1. Accomplish the learning activities of this course;

2. Pass the Quizzes and Exercises;
3. Achieve a passing mark in the major examinations;

Methods of Computation:
Mid-Term Final Term
A. Lecture (70%) A. Lecture (70%)
Quizzes 30% Quizzes 30%
Assignment/Task 30% Assignment/Task 30%
Midterm Exam 40% Midterm Exam 40%
Total Total
B. Laboratory (30%) Laboratory (30%)
Total 100% Total 100%
Percent rating shall be used in obtaining final grade. Grading of examination shall be obtained
using the formula as follows: Ratings = Score/ total item of number x 50 + 50. For major examination,
midterm grade + final grade/2.

The grading scale is as follows:

Percent Rating Numerical Rating

99-100 1.00
96-98 1.25
93-95 1.50
90-92 1.75
86-89 2.00
83-85 2.25
80-82 2.50
76-79 2.75
75 3.00
Below 75 5.00/ Failed

Course policy and Important reminders

1. Inquiries on the related matters will be entertain in the groupchat.
2. Join the Facebook group/group chat with your complete name. Do not post or
comment subject matters that does not concern the course.
3. Talk to your teacher and classmate politely.
4. Submit your outputs on time.
5. Make sure that your outputs are intact and the pages are well organized.
6. Learning activities with the same answers will be regarded as cheating and will gain no
points.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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ROMBLON STATE UNIVERSITY

San Agustin Campus
Lesson

9
School of Fisheries Technology
Cabolutan, San Agustin, Romblon

PLANT ECOLOGY,
GEOGRAPHY AND
IMPORTANCE IN
HUMAN LIFE

Lesson 9 will discuss about plant ecology, distribution and importance of plants in
human life.
At the end of this module, students are expected with the following learning
objectives:
1. Describe climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic factors.
2. Explain how these factors affects plant growth and development·
3. Describe the fundamental interactions between species and their abiotic
environment.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology which studies the distribution and

abundance of plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants,
and the interactions among and between plants and other organisms.

Sub topic 1: Ecological Factors and Behaviour

of Plants

Many organisms, co-exist in an environment. The environment (surrounding)

includes physical, chemical and biological components. When a component surrounding
an organism affects the life of an organism, it becomes a factor. All such factors together
are called environmental factors or ecological factors. These factors can be classified
into living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) which make the environment of an organism.
However, the ecological factors are meaningfully grouped into four classes, which are
as follows:
I. Climatic factors
II. Edaphic factors
III. Topographic factors
IV. Biotic factors

I. CLIMATIC FACTORS

Climate is one of the important

natural factors controlling the plant
life. The climatic factors include light,
temperature, water, wind and fire.

1.1 Light

Light is a well-known factor needed for

the basic physiological processes of
plants, such as photosynthesis,
transpiration, seed germination and
flowering. The portion of the sunlight
which can be resolved by the human Figure 1. Environmental factors affecting a plant
eye is called visible light. The visible

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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part of light is made-up of wavelength from about 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red). The
rate of photosynthesis is maximum at blue (400 – 500 nm) and red (600 – 700 nm).
The green (500 – 600 nm) wave length of spectrum is less strongly absorbed by plants.

Effects of light on plants

Based on the tolerance to
intensities of light, the plants
are divided into two types.
They are:
1. Heliophytes - Light
loving plants. Example:
Angiosperms.
2. Sciophytes- Shade
loving plants. Example:
Bryophytes and
Pteridophytes

In deep sea (>500m), the

Figure 2. Various effects of light upon a green plant
environment is dark and its
inhabitants are not aware of the existence of celestial source of energy called Sun.
What, then is their source of energy? Hydrothermal vents-hots springs in the
ocean with a high concentration of H2S
1.2 Temperature
Temperature is one of the important factors which affect almost all the metabolic
activities of an organism. Every physiological process in an organism requires an
optimum temperature at which it shows the maximum metabolic rate. Three limits of
temperature can be recognized for any organism. These are:

1. Minimum temperature - Physiological activities are lowest.

2. Optimum temperature - Physiological activities are maximum.25-32 centigrade
3. Maximum temperature - Physiological activities will stop.

Based on the temperature prevailing in an area, Raunkiaer classified the world’s

vegetation into the following four types. They are megatherms, a plant that requires great
heat combined with very abundant moisture for its successful growth mesotherms, a plant that
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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requires a moderate degree of heat for successful growth microtherms a plant requiring a mean
annual temperature between 0° and 14° C for full growth and hekistotherms A cold-tolerant plant
of polar regions. In thermal springs and deep sea hydrothermal vents where average
temperature exceeds 100oC.
Based on the range of thermal tolerance, organisms are divided into two types.
1. Eurythermal: Organisms which can tolerate a wide range of temperature
fluctuations. Example: Zostera (A marine Angiosperm) and Artemisia tridentata.

2. Stenothermal: Organisms which can tolerate only small range of temperature

variations. Example: Mango and Palm (Terrestrial Angiosperms).
 Mango plant do not and cannot grow in temperate countries like Canada
and Germany.

Temperature based zonation

Variations in latitude and altitude do affect the temperature and the vegetation
on the earth surface. The latitudinal and altitudinal zonation of vegetation is
illustrated below
Latitude: Latitude is an
angle which ranges from 00
at the equator to 900 at the
poles.
Altitude: How high a place
is located above the sea
level is called the altitude of
the place.
Figure 3. Latitudinal zonation of vegetation type
Timber line / Tree line: It is
an imaginary line in a mountain
or higher areas of land that
marks the level above which
trees do not grow. The
altitudinal limit of normal tree
growth is about 3000 to 4000m.

Figure 4. Altitudinal zonation of vegetation

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Effects of temperature
The following physiological processes are influenced by temperature:
 Temperature affects the enzymatic action of all the bio-chemical reactions in
a plant body. Optimum teperature
 It influences CO2 and O2 solubility in the biological systems. Increases
respiration and stimulates growth of seedlings.
 Low temperature with high humidity can spread diseases to plants.
 The varying temperature with moisture determines the distribution of the
vegetation types.

1.3 Water
Water is one of the most important climatic factors. It affects the vital processes of
all living organisms. It is believed that even life had originated only in water during the
evolution of Earth. Water covers more than 70% of the earth’s surface. In nature, water
is available to plants in three ways. They are atmospheric moisture, precipitation and
soil water.
The productivity and distribution of plants depend upon the availability of water.
Further the quality of water is also important especially for the aquatic organisms. The
total amount of water salinity in different water bodies are: (i).5% in inland water (Fresh
water) (ii).30 – 35% in sea water and (iii). More than 100% in hypersaline water
(Lagoons) a tidepool that is not connected to the ocean can become hypersaline when evaporating water
leaves salts behind.

Based on the range of tolerance of salinity, organisms are divided into two types.
1. Euryhaline: Organisms which can live in water with wide range of salinity.
Examples: Marine algae and marina angiosperms
2. Stenohaline: Organisms which can withstand only small range of salinity.
Example: Plants of estuaries.

1.4 Wind
Air in motion is called wind. It is also a vital ecological factor. The atmospheric air
contains a number of gases, particles and other constituents. The composition of
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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gases in atmosphere is as follows: Nitrogen -78%, Oxygen -21%, Carbon-di-oxide -

0.03%, Argon and other gases - 0.93%. The other components of wind are water
vapor, gaseous pollutants, dust, smoke particles, microorganisms, pollen grains,
spores, etc. Anemometer is the instrument used to measure the speed of wind.

Effects of wind
 Wind is an important factor for the formation
of rain
 Causes wave formation in lakes and ocean,
which promotes aeration of water
 Strong wind causes soil erosion and reduces
soil fertilityIncreases the rate of transpiration
 Helps in pollination in anemophilous plants
 It also helps in dispersal of many fruits,
seeds, spores, etc.
Strong wind may cause up-rooting of big trees.
Unidirectional wind stimulates the development of
flag forms in trees.
Figure 5. Flag form in trees
II. EDAPHIC FACTORS
Edaphic factors, the abiotic factors related to soil, include the physical and
chemical composition of the soil formed in a particular area. The study of soils is called
Pedology.Soil originates from rocks and develops gradually at different rates,
depending upon the ecological and climatic conditions. Soil formation is initiated by
the weathering process. Biological weathering takes place when organisms like
bacteria, fungi, lichens and plants help in the breakdown of rocks through the
production of acids and certain chemical substances.

Soil types
Based on soil formation (pedogenesis), the soils are divided into
1. Residual soils –These are soils formed by weathering and pedogenesis of the
rock.
2. Transported soils – These are transported by various agencies.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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The important edaphic factors which affect vegetation are as follows:

1. Soil moisture: Plants absorbs rain water and moisture directly from the air
2. Soil water: Soil water is more important than any other ecological factors affecting
the distribution of plants. Rain is the main source of soil water. Capillary water held
between pore spaces of soil particles and angles between them is the most
important form of water available to the plants.
3. Soil reactions: Soil may be acidic or alkaline or neutral in their reaction. pH value
of the soil solution determines the availability of plant nutrients. The best pH range
of the soil for cultivation of crop plants is 5.5 to 6.8.
4. Soil nutrients: Soil fertility and productivity is the ability of soil to provide all
essential plant nutrients such as minerals and organic nutrients in the form of ions.
5. Soil temperature: Soil temperature of an area plays an important role in
determining the geographical distribution of plants. Low temperature reduces use
of water and solute absorption by roots.
6. Soil atmosphere: The spaces left between soil particles are called pore spaces
which contains oxygen and carbon-di-oxide.
7. Soil organisms: Many organisms existing in the soil like bacteria, fungi, algae,
protozoans, nematodes, insects, earthworms, etc. are called soil organisms.

Soil Profile
Soil is commonly stratified into horizons at different depth. These layers differ in
their physical, chemical and biological properties. This succession of super-imposed
horizons is called soil profile.
Types of soil particles
Based on the relative proportion of soil particles, four types of soil are
recognized.
Loamy soil is ideal soil for cultivation. It consists of 70% sand and 30% clay or
silt or both. It ensures good retention and proper drainage of water. The
porosity of soil provides adequate aeration and allows the penetration of
root.
Clay soil are very tiny/the smallest soil particles and they packed closely
together. The pores between particles are so small that water drains very

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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slowly. Slow drainage can lead to oxygen deprivation because the water
takes the place of air in the pores.
Sandy soil is the largest particles. The large pores let water and nutrients
drain out too quickly for most plant to absorb it.
Silt particles are the medium size soil

Based on the water retention, aeration and mineral contents of soil, the
distribution of vegetation is divided into following types.
1. Halophytes: Plants living in saline soils
2. Psammophytes: Plants living in sandy soils
3. Lithophytes: Plants living on rocky surface
4. Chasmophytes: Plants living in rocky crevices
5. Cryptophytes: Plants living below the soil surface
6. Cryophytes: Plants living in ice surface
7. Oxylophytes: Plants living in acidic soil
8. Calciphytes: Plants living in calcium rich alkaline soil.
Hollard –Total soil water content
Chresard –Water available to plants
Echard – Water not available to plants

III. Topographic Factors

The surface features of earth are called topography. Topographic influence on
the climate of any area is determined by the interaction of solar radiation, temperature,
humidity, rainfall, latitude and altitude. It affects the vegetation through climatic
variations in small areas (micro climate) and even changes the soil conditions.
Topographic factors include latitude, altitude, direction of mountain, steepness of
mountain etc.

3.1 Latitudes and altitudes

Latitudes represent distance from the equator. Temperature values are
maximum at the equator and decrease gradually towards poles. Different types of
vegetation occur from equator to poles which are illustrated in figure 8.Height
above the sea level forms the altitude. At high altitudes, the velocity of wind
remains high, temperature and air pressure decrease while humidity and intensity
of light increases. Due to these factors, vegetation at different altitudes varies,
showing distinct zonation.
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Figure 6. Latitudinal and Altitudinal Vegetation

3.2 Direction of Mountain
North and south faces of mountain or hill possess different types of flora and fauna
because they differ in their humidity, rainfall, light intensity, light duration and
temperature regions.
The two faces of the mountain or hill receive different amount of solar radiation,
wind action and rain. Of these two faces, the windward region possesses good
vegetation due to heavy rains and the leeward region possesses poor vegetation
due to rain shadows (rain deficit).Similarly, in the soil of aquatic bodies like ponds
the center and edge possess different depth of water due to soil slope and different
wave actions in the water body. Therefore,
different parts of the same area may possess
different species of organisms

3.3 Steepness of the mountain

The steepness of the mountain or hill
allows the rain to run off. As a result, the loss
of water causes water deficit and quick
erosion of the top soil resulting in poor
vegetation. On the other hand, the plains and
valley are rich in vegetation due to the slow
drain of surface water and better retention of water in the soil.
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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IV. Biotic factors

The interactions among living organisms such as plants and animals are called
biotic factors, which may cause marked effects upon vegetation. The effects may be
direct and indirect and modifies the environment. The plants mostly which lives
together in a community and influence one another. Similarly, animals in association
with plants also affect the plant life in one or several ways. The different interactions
among them can be classified into following two types they are positive interaction
and negative interaction.

a. Positive interactions

When one or both the participating species are benefited, it is positive

interaction. Examples; Mutualism and Commensalism.
 Mutualism: It is an interaction between two species of organisms in which
both are benefitted from the obligate association. The following are common
examples of mutualism:
o Nitrogen fixation: Rhizobium (Bacterium) forms nodules in the roots of
leguminous plants and lives symbiotically. The Rhizobium obtains food
from leguminous plant and in turn fixes atmospheric nitrogen into
nitrate, making it available to host plants.
o Water fern (Azolla) and Nitrogen fixing Cyanobacterium (Anabaena).
o Anabaena present in coralloid roots of Cycas.(Gymnosperm)
o Cyanobacterium (Nostoc) found in the thalloid body of
Anthoceros.(Bryophytes).

 Commensalism: It is an interaction between two organisms in which one is

benefitted and the other is neither benefitted nor harmed. The species that
derives benefit is called the commensal, while the other species is called the
host. The common examples of commensalism are listed below:

Table 1. Different interaction of Plant

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Epiphytes
The plant which are found growing on other plants without harming them are
called epiphytes. They are commonly found in tropical rain forest. The epiphytic
higher plant (Orchids) gets its nutrients and water from the atmosphere with the
help of their hygroscopic roots which contain special type of spongy tissue called
Velamen. So it prepares its own food and does not depend on the host. They
use the host plant only for support and does not harm it in any way.
• Many orchids, ferns, lianas, hanging mosses, Peperomia, money plant and
Usnea (Lichen) are some of the examples of epiphytes.
• Spanish Moss –Tillandsia grows on the bark of Oak and Pine trees.

b. Negative interactions

When one of the interacting species is benefitted and the other is harmed, it is
called negative interaction. Examples: predation, parasitism, competition and
amensalism.
 Predation: It is an interaction between two species, one of which captures,
kills and eats up the other. The species which kills is called a predator and the
species which is killed is called a prey. The predator is benefitted while the
prey is harmed.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Examples:
A number of plants like Drosera (Sun dew Plant),Nepenthes (PitcherPlant),
Diaonaea (Venus fly trap),Utricularia (Bladder wort) and Sarracenia are predators
which consume insects and other small animals for their food as a source of
nitrogen. They are also called as insectivorous plants.

 Many herbivores are predators. Cattles, Camels, Goats etc., frequently browse
on the tender shoots of herbs, shrubs and trees. Generally, annuals suffer more
than the perennials. Grazing and browsing may cause remarkable changes in
vegetation. Nearly 25 percent of all insects are known as phytophagous(feeds
on plant sap and other parts of plant)
 Many defense mechanisms are evolved to avoid their predations by plants.
Examples: Calotropis produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides, Tobacco
produces nicotine, coffee plants produce caffeine, Cinchona plant produces
quinine. Thorns of Bougainvillea, spines of Opuntia, and latex of cacti also
protect them from predators.

 Parasitism: It is an interaction between two different species in which the smaller

partner (parasite) obtains food from the larger partner (host or plant). So the
parasitic species is benefited while the host species is harmed. Based on the host-
parasite relationship, parasitism is classified into two types they are holoparasite
and hemiparasite.

Holoparasites: The organisms which are dependent upon the host plants for their
entire nutrition are called Holoparasites. They are also called total parasites.
Examples:
1. Cuscuta is a total stem parasite of the host plant Acacia, Duranta and
many other plants.Cuscuta even gets flower inducing hormone from its
host plant.
2. Balanophora, orobanche and Refflesia are the total root parasites found
on higher plants.
Hemiparasites: The organisms which derive only water and minerals from their
host plant while synthesizing their own food by photosynthesis are called
Hemiparasites. They are also called partial parasites.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Examples:
1. Viscum and Loranthus are partial stem parasites.
2. Santalum (Sandal Wood) is a partial root parasite.
3. The parasitic plants produce the haustorial roots inside the host plant to
absorb nutrients from the vascular tissues of host plants.

 Competition: It is an interaction between two organisms or species in which both

the organisms or species are harmed. Competition is the severest in population
that has irregular distribution. Competition is classified into intraspecific and
interspecific.

1. Intraspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of the same

species. This competition is very severe because all the members of species
have similar requirements of food, habitat, pollination etc. and they also have
similar adaptations to fulfill their needs.
2. Interspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of different
species. In grassland, many species of grasses competition when enough
nutrients and water is available. During drought shortage of water occurs. A
life and death competition starts among the different species of grass lands.
Survival in both these competitions is determined by the quantity of nutrients,
availability of water and migration to new areas. Different species of
herbivores, larvae and grass hopper competing for fodder or forage plants.
Trees, shrubs and herbs in a forest struggle for sunlight, water and nutrients
and also for pollination and dispersal of fruits and seeds. The Utricularia
(Bladderwort) competes with tiny fishes for small crustaceans and insects.

Amensalism: It is an interspecific interaction in which one species is

inhibited while the other species is neither benefitted nor harmed. The inhibition is
achieved by the secretion of certain chemicals called allelopathic substances.
Amensalism is also called antibiosis.

Interspecific Interactions/ Co-evolutionary dynamics

Mimicry: It is a phenomenon in which living organism modifies its form,

appearance, structure or behavior and looks like another living organism as a
self-defense and increases the chance of their survival. Floral mimicry is for
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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usually inviting pollinators but animal mimicry is often protective. Mimicry is a

result of evolutionary significance due to shape and sudden heritable mutation
and preservation of natural
selection.

Example:
 The plant, Ophrys an
orchid, the flower
looks like a female
insect to attract the
male insect to get Figure 7. a Phyllium frondosum b) Carausiummorosus

pollinated by the male

insect and it is otherwise called ‘floral mimicry ‘.
 Carausiummorosus – stick insect or walking stick. It is a protective
mimicry.
 Phyllium frondosum – leaf insect, another example of protective
mimicry.

Myrmecophily: Sometimes, ants take their

shelter on some trees such as Mango, Litchi,
Jamun, Acacia etc.These ants act as body
guards of the plants against any disturbing agent
and the plants in turn provide food and shelter to
these ants. This phenomenon is known as
Myrmecophily. Example: Acacia and acacia
Figure 8. Myrmecophily
ants.

Co-evolution: The interaction between organisms, when continues for

generations, involves reciprocal changes in genetic and morphological
characters of both organisms.This type of evolution is called Co -evolution. It is
a kind of co- adaptation and mutual change among interactive species.

Examples:

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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 Corolla length and proboscis length of

butterflies and moths (Habenaria and
Moth).
 Bird’s beak shape and flower shape
and size.
More examples: Horn bills and birds of
Scrub jungles, Slit size of pollinia of
Figure 9. Co-evolution
Apocynaceae members and leg size of
insects.

Sub topic 3: Plant Geography

Plant geography (phytogeography)- is the study of the distribution of world

vegetation, with particular emphasis on the influence of the environmental factors that
determine this distribution.
Plant distributions is governed by a combination of historical
factors, ecophysiology and biotic interactions. The set of species that can be present at
a given site is limited by historical contingency. In order to show up, a species must either
have evolved in an area or dispersed there (either naturally or through human agency),
and must not have gone locally extinct. The set of species present locally is further
limited to those that possess the physiological adaptations to survive the environmental
conditions that exist. This group is further shaped through interactions with other
species.
Plant communities are broadly distributed into biomes based on the form of the
dominant plant species. For example, grasslands are dominated by grasses, while
forests are dominated by trees. Biomes are determined by regional climates, mostly
temperature and precipitation, and follow general latitudinal trends. Within biomes, there
may be many ecological communities, which are impacted not only by climate and a
variety of smaller-scale features, including soils, hydrology, and disturbance regime.
Biomes also change with elevation, high elevations often resembling those found at
higher latitudes.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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References

Berg, L. R. (2013). Introduction to Botany. Fourth edition, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd. Ortigas
Ave., Pasig City, Philippines 1605
Fuller, H. J. and Ritchie, D. D. (1967). General Botany, Fifth Edition. Barnes and Noble, Inc.
Evangelista, E. V. and Evangelista, L. T. (2009). Worktext in General Botany. C & E Publishing,
Inc.
Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., and Jackson, R. B.
(2014). Campbell biology, Tenth edition. Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department,
1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025
Kirsten, J. (2016). "History of Botany," in Bio Explorer.
https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/botany/.
Kirsten, J. (2018). "Top 12 Botany News For 2017," in Bio Explorer.
https://www.bioexplorer.net/botany-news-2017.html/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-biology2/chapter/plant-structures/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331430118_Introduction_to_Botany_Module_1

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ROMBLON STATE UNIVERSITY
San Agustin Campus
Lesson

10
School of Fisheries and Technology
Cabolutan, San Agustin, Romblon

Classification of Plants

Lesson 9 will take you to the wonderful world of plants. It aims to familiarize you with
different groups that comprise the Plant Kingdom and with how plants are classified.
This Lesson have 5 sub topics:
 Vascular and non-vascular plants
 The Plant Kingdom
 Subkingdom Thallophyta
 Subkingdom Embyophyta
 Embyophyta: Bryophyta
 Embyophyta: Tracheophyta
 Terrestrial and aquatic plants
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the importance of classifying plants
2. Describe how plants are classified
3. Compare non-vascular from vascular plants
4. Explain how the different groups of plants differ from each other
5. Describe some representative plants from the different groups
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Why Classify?
In science, the grouping or ordering of living things is called classification.
This concept of grouping things can be useful in your life, in your studies and in
your home.
It was Carolus Linnaeus, an English naturalist, who pioneered the science of
Classification or Taxonomy. His classification was mainly based on similarity of
structure. He distinguish plants according to its feature just like the type of leaf,
type of venation, type of fruit, etc. Presently, we have 550,000 different species
of plants that have been described and many more are still being discovered.

Level of Classification
There are seven major biological groupings or levels of
classification that we follow: The Kingdom is the largest group
in the system of classification. It is divided into phyla.
However, in plantsthis is equivalent to division. Each division
is divide into classes; these classes is divided into orders and
orders into families, then family into genera and so on down
to the smallest unit,which is the species. The species is a
basic unit of classification. As you move from kingdom down
to the species level, classification becomes more specific.
Originally Carl Linnaeus set up a two-kingdom system.
The plant and animal kingdom. After his time many more
biologist reclassified living things into more than two
kingdoms. Now we are following a 6-kingdom system and
actually there are 8 kingdoms discussed in some books. The
six kingdom are as follows: Kingdom Animalia, Plantae,
Protista, Fungi, Archeabacteria and Eubacteria. Animals are
the multi-cellular, heterotrophic (using other living organisms
for food) organism without cell wall in their cells. On the other
hand, plant are multicellular photosynthetic organisms with
cell walls in their cell membranes. Protists are organisms that exhibit both plants
and animal characteristics. Archeabacteria and Eubacteria composed of cells
without true nucleus and mitochondria. Fungi are plant-like organisms without
chloroplasts.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Topic 1: Vascular and Non-vascular Plant

The main difference between vascular and non-vascular is the presence of true roots,
leaves and stem that transports waters and minerals to different parts of the plant.

Key differences
Basis for
Vascular plants Non-vascular plants
Comparison

Vascular plants are plants found Non-vascular plants are plants

on land that have lignified tissues mostly found in damp and
Definition
for conducting water and minerals moist areas and lack
throughout the body of the plant. specialized vascular tissues.

Non-vascular plants are also

Also known Vascular plants are also known
known as bryophytes or lower
as as tracheophytes.
plants.

Vascular plants are numerous Non-vascular plants are fewer

Diversity and more diverse than non- in number and are less diverse
vascular plants. compare to vascular plants.

Vascular plants are land plants Non-vascular plants are mostly

Habitat that can inhabit multiple found in damp, shady, or
environments. swampy areas.

Vascular plants are characterized

The absence of a vascular
Vascular by the presence of a vascular
tissue system characterizes
system tissue system with lignified xylem
non-vascular plants.
tissue and sieved phloem tissue.

Division of labor is a prominent

feature of vascular plants where The arrangement of cells in
Cell the arrangement of cells is more non-vascular plants is a lot
arrangement complex and mostly simpler than that in vascular
characteristics to individual plants.
families.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
 23

Non-vascular plants are tender

The lignified tissue system is
and shorter than vascular
Strength strong and rigid, which provides
plants due to the unavailability
support and rigidity to the plant.
of water-conducting tissue.

The prominent or dominating

The prominent life cycle in
lifecycle in non-vascular plants
vascular plants is the sporophyte,
Lifecycle is gametophyte where they
where they produce spores that
produce gametes that are
are diploid.
haploid.

The root in vascular plants is true

Non-vascular plants have
with branches that support and
rhizoids with fine hair-like
adhere to the plant to the soil to
structures instead of true roots.
obtain nutrients from it.
Root
They obtain their water,
The roots absorb the water and
nutrients, and minerals from
mineral required for the plant from
the soil via diffusion or
the soil.
osmosis.

The stem in vascular plants is

multilayered with xylem and
No true stem is found in non-
Stem phloem that form a conducting
vascular plants.
pathway passing through the
principal axis.

True leaves are present which are

of defined shapes and have an
True leaves are absent.
important function in
photosynthesis.
Leaves
Stomata are found on the leaves The leaves do not have
that are important for gas specialized tissue for gas
exchange. exchange or transpiration.

Leaves and other parts have

These plants do not have
Cuticles cuticles that protect the plant
cuticles.
against desiccation.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Vascular plants are more

Non-vascular plants were
advanced forms of non-vascular
Evolution among the first plants to
plants that appeared later than
appear on earth.
non-vascular plants on earth.

Vascular plants appear later in

Non-vascular plants appear as
Pioneer ecological succession and thus
pioneer species in several
species do not form a part of pioneer
ecological successions.
species.

Some examples of vascular

Some examples of non-
plants include maize, mustard,
Examples vascular plants include moss,
rose, cycad, ferns, club mosses,
algae, liverwort, and hornwort.
grasses, etc.

Vascular plants, also known as tracheophytes, are plants found on land that have
lignified tissues for conducting water and minerals throughout the body of the plant.
These lignified tissues are also called vascular tissue and consist of water-conducting
xylem tissue and food-conducting phloem tissue. Vascular tissue forms a central column,
also called stele, through the plant axis for the transport of different substances. Vascular
plants are said to have a true stem, leaves, and roots due to the presence of vascular
tissues. The root is a true root that enables the plant to anchor onto the soil and gets
nutrients from it. The leaves are broad and have stomata that work for gas exchange
and support transpiration. The stem of vascular plants is multilayered with vascular
tissue that helps in the protection and conduction of food and water. The arrangement
of these issues might be different in a different group of plants as it depends on the
pattern of division of cells. The xylem is composed of non-living matter, tracheids, and
vesicles, hardened by lignin that provides a stiff structure to the tissue. The phloem, on
the other hand, contains living sieve elements that are not lignified. Vascular plants are
capable of surviving on land due to their ability to transport food, water, and mineral to
different parts of the plant by creating pressure through the tissues. Besides, they also
have several modifications that facilitate their survival on land. Another essential
characteristic of vascular plants is that the principal generation phase in these plants is
the sporophytic phase where they produce diploid spores. Vascular plants are tall and
large in size compared to the non-vascular plants because of their ability to transport
necessary substances to all parts of the body via vascular tissue. It is believed that

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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vascular plants are a more evolved version of non-vascular plants and thus came later
in the evolutionary history. Vascular plants are divided into two groups; non-seed plants
or lower vascular plants or cryptograms and seed plants or higher vascular plants or
phanerogams. The lower vascular plants include plants like ferns that although are
adapted to survive on land still have some characteristics of their aquatic ancestry.
These plants belong to the group Pteridophyta. The higher vascular plants are numerous
and extremely diverse and are further divided into different subgroups.

Non-vascular plants, also known as bryophytes or lower plants, are plants mostly found
in damp and moist areas and lack specialized vascular tissues. Both xylem and phloem
are absent in these plants, and thus they are primitive plants with primitive parts Non-
vascular plants consist of higher structural forms of algae, mosses, liverworts, and
hornworts. These mostly live in water and in swampy, bogs, or shady locations. These
are also comparatively shorter and simpler as they are limited due to the lack of vascular
tissues. Non-vascular plants do not have true roots, stems, or leaves and the tissues
present are the least specialized forms of tissue. Instead of true roots, they have rhizoids
that are hair-like structures that support the plant firmly to the ground. The absorption of
water and mineral in the rhizoids occurs by diffusion and osmosis. True leaves are also
absent with no specialized tissue for the protection of water loss or the process of
transpiration. The stem is made up of simpler tissue and is weak that cannot hold the
plant like in vascular plants. In non-vascular plants, the gametophyte generation is more
dominant with haploid gametophyte. The sporophytes of these plants develop from the
gametophytes and are dependent on the gametophytes for water and minerals. Non-
vascular plants are the primitive plants that appear first during the evolutionary process.
These plants consist of two major groups of plants; algae and bryophytes. Algae are
green colored lower plants that are capable of photosynthesis but lack true structures.
Bryophytes consist of plants like most mosses and liverworts which are found in shady
areas and feed on dead and decaying matter. Non-vascular plants often act as pioneer
species as they do not require much nutrients or water for their survival and can grow
on barren lands. Using several evolved techniques, a non-vascular plant is capable of
surviving in areas inhabited by vascular plants.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Topic 2: The Plant Kingdom

Plants are all unique regarding physical appearance, structure, and physiological
behavior. Aside from that, they also vary in their habitats, tolerance, and nutrient
requirement.
So with that kind of diversity, the big question is, how do you exactly start to classify
them? Good thing botanists have already devised ways to classify them. Originally, the
plant kingdom is divided into two subkingdoms which differ from their capability to form
embryo, namely the Subkingdom Thallophyta (plants not forming embryos) and the
Subkingdom Embryophyta (plants forming embryos). Thallophyta is further divided into
10 division/phyla, while embryophyta is divided into 2 division/phyla namely the
Bryophyta (plants lacking vascular tissues) and Trachaeophyta (plants with vascular
tissues). Plants classified under the subkingdom Thallophyta possess characteristics of
native plants and can be categorize to other kingdoms, earlier plant classification only
acknowledges bryophytes and tracheophytes.
Several systems of classification are in use, and systems change as new
knowledge and new ideas develop. A system favored by many botanists is the following:

Kingdom: Plantae
Subkingdom Thallophyta (plants not forming embryos)
Division 1- Cyanophyta ( blue-green algae)
Division 2- Euglenophyta (Euglenoids)
Division 3- Chlorophyta (green algae)
Division 4- Chrysophyta (yellow-green algae), golden brown algae, diatoms)
Division 5- Pyrrophyta (crytomonads, dinoflagellates)
Division 6- Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Division 7- Rhodophyta (red algae)
Division 8- Schizomycophyta (bacteria)
Division 9- Myxomycophyta (slime molds)
Division 10- Eumycophyta (true fungi)

Subkingdom Embryophyta (plants forming embryos)

Division 11- Bryophyta or atrachaeta (plants lacking vascular tissues)
Class Musci- Mosses
Class Hepaticae- Liverworts
Class Anthroceratae–hornworts
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Division 12- Trachaeophyta or Tracheata (plants with vascular tissues)

Subdivision Psilopsida- Psilopsids
Subdivision Lycopsida- Club mosses
Subdivision Sphenopsida- horsetails
Subdivision Pteropsida- (Spore-producing plants)
Class Filicinenae- ferns
Subdivision Spermopsida (Seed-producing plants)
Class Gymnospermae- conebearing plants
Class Angiospermae- trueflowering plants
Subclass Monocoyledonae (one seed)
Subclass Dicotyledonae (two seeds)

Botanists group plants into two major groups: non vascular and vascular (Figure
1). The former being composed of early plants while the latter consists of plants which
had developed a vascular system.

Figure 1. Plant classification

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Topic 3: Subkingdom Thallophyta

Thallophyta or Thalloid Plants are a subdivision of Kingdom Plantae which

consists of the simplest plants, and are hence also called Lower plants. Thallophyta is
considered to be a defunct division in modern taxonomy as it includes algae, fungi, molds
and lichens which are now included in separate Kingdoms.
Characteristics of Division Thallophyta

 Members of division Thallophytes are the most primitive and simple plants. The
plant body is not differentiated into roots, stem and leaves. They are in the form
of an undivided thallus. This group is commonly called as algae.
 They have cellulose cell walls around their cells
 The size and form of algae the microscopic unicellular forms like
Chlamydomonas to colonial forms like Volvox and to the filamentous forms like
Ulothrix and Spirogyra. A few of the marine forms such as kelps are massive
plant bodies
 Algal cells are covered by mucilageIt protects the thallus from dessication,
epiphytic growth and from decaying underwater.
 They are mostly aquatic (both freshwater and marine) organism
 They may occur in other habitats: moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them
also occur in association (symbiotic relationship) with fungi (lichen) and animals
(on sloth bear) (symbiotic)

Plants that do not have well-differentiated body design fall in this group. The plants
in this group are commonly called algae. These plants are predominantly aquatic.
Examples are Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora and Chara.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Thallophyta:

Divisions 1-7 are in the algae group. Algae include about 20,000 known species,
all of which are autotrophic. Although they contain chlorophyll, many plants in these
phyla are brown, red, or of some other hue as a result of the presence of pigments which
mask the green color of chlorophyll.
Division 1- Cyanophyta( blue-green algae)
Division 2- Euglenophyta (Euglenoids)
Division 3- Chlorophyta (green algae)
Division 4- Chrysophyta (yellow-green algae, golden-brown algae, diatoms)
Division 5- Pyrrophyta (crytomonads, dinoflagellates)
Division 6- Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Division 7- Rhodophyta (red algae)
Division 8- Schizomycophyta (bacteria)
Division 9- Myxomycophyta (slime molds)
Division 10- Eumycophyta (true fungi)

*See and download the uploaded PowerPoint Presentation about the different
divisions of Thallophyta in our FB group.

Topic 4: Subkingdom Embryophyta

The embryophytes are the most familiar group of plants, including trees,
flowers, ferns, mosses, and various others. All are complex multicellular organisms with
specialized reproductive organs and, with very few exceptions, they obtain their energy
through photosynthesis, i.e. by absorbing light, and synthesize food from carbon dioxide.
They may be distinguished from multicellular algae by having sterile tissue within the
reproductive organs. Further, embryophytes are primarily adapted for life on land,
although some are secondarily aquatic. Accordingly, they are often called higher
plants or land plants.
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Note the higher-level classification of plants varies considerably. Some authors

have restricted the kingdom Plantae to include only embryophytes, others have given
them various names and ranks. The groups listed here are often considered divisions or
phyla, but have also been treated as classes, and they are occasionally compressed into
as few as two divisions.
Some Examples of Embryophyte

Purple cone flower Coniferous trees Strawberry cactus

Embryophytes developed from complex green algae during the Palaeozoicera.

Their closest living relatives are the Charales or stoneworts. These algae undergo
an alternation between haploid and diploid generations, respectively called
called gametophytes and sporophytes. In the first embryophytes, however, the
sporophytes became very different in structure and function, remaining small and
dependent on its parent for its entire brief life. Such plants are called bryophytes; they
include three surviving groups: Bryophyta (mosses) Anthocerotophyta (hornworts) and
Hepaticophyta (liverworts). All bryophytes are relatively small and are confined to moist
environments, relying on water to disperse their spores.
Other plants better adapted to terrestrial conditions appeared during the Silurian,
and during the Devonian they diversified and spread tomany different land
environments. These are called vascular plants or tracheophytes. Unlike bryophytes,
tracheophytes have tissues called xylem that transport water and food to tissues called
phloem. Together the xylem and the phloem are called vascular tissue. They have
vascular tissues or tracheids, which transport water throughout the body, and an outer
layer or cuticle that resists desiccation.

*See and download the uploaded PowerPoint Presentation about the different
divisions of Thallophyta in our FB group.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Topic 5:
Embyophyta: Division Bryophyta

The first classification of plants is the non-vascular plants; As their name implies,
nonvascular plants lack vascular tissues that can help them transport water and
nutrients. Nonvascular plants are considered to be the earliest living plants in the planet.
However, fossils have not been found because these types of plants fossilized poorly.
The most common non-vascular plants include the members of the Phylum Bryophyta
and is described below.
The Phylum Bryophyta, are the most diverse group with more than 10,000 plant
species. This phylum includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
 Among all plant phyla, the members of the Phylum Bryophyta are considered
as the simplest. Regarding physical appearance, mosses are small and
inconspicuous. Bryophytes lack vascular tissue and wood that can render them
structural support. They also lack true leaves, stem, and roots that can help
them transport water and nutrients. Because of this, they are limited to a narrow
range of habitats.
 Despite lacking some essential plant organs, bryophytes play an important role
in minimizing erosion along bodies of water, carrying out water and nutrient
cycling in forests, and regulating temperature in permafrost. Also see
the biological weathering article.
 Regarding habitats and physical structures, bryophytes are related to lichens
(symbiotic relationship between a fungus and algae). For instance, both of them
utilize the moisture in the environment to transport minerals and nutrients.
 Because of that, bryophytes live in moist places and somehow have adapted
several methods that can help them thrive in dry periods.
 Bryophytes reproduce through spores.
 At present, the classification of some species of bryophytes remains arbitrary
and is up for further studies.

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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Bryophytes Example

Mosses Liverworts Hornworts

Topic 6:
Embyophyta: Division Tracheophyta

Also the next classification of plants is also known as the tracheophytes, vascular
plants have been allowed by evolution to possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
that aid them to transport water and minerals. The majority of visible plants in the world
have been classified into this group. We must not forget that the mosses and lycopods,
the ferns and pines belong here because they have developed trachea. So too do the
majority of fruit, nut and vegetable-producing flowering plants.
Tracheophytes characteristics
1. They have root, stem, and leaves.
2. They have vascular systems in stems, roots, and leaves.
3. Tracheophytes have protected sporangia, leading to the evolution of the seed.
4. They develop a pollen tube. So, they do not require water for the transmission of
male gametes to female gametes.
5. They develop flowers and fruits.
6. The show heteromorphic alternation of generation.

Sub-divisions of Tracheophytes
The tracheophytes are further sub-divided into four sub-divisions:
 Subdivision Psilopsida- Psilopsids
 Subdivision Lycopsida- Club mosses
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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 Subdivision Sphenopsida- horsetails

 Subdivision Pteropsida- (Spore-producing plants)
 Class Filicinenae- ferns
 Subdivision Spermopsida (Seed-producing plants)
 Class Gymnospermae- conebearing plants
 Class Angiospermae- trueflowering plants
o Subclass Monocoyledonae
o Subclass Dicotyledonae

All other plants like the members of the Class Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms
are classified as vascular plants. The said plant phyla are described below.
Gymnosperms, as compared with other plant phyla, include the tallest, the thickest,
and the oldest living plants. They are widely distributed in the planet but dominate the
temperate and arctic regions.

 Members of this phylum include pines, hemlocks, firs, and spruces, which all are
characterized by having wood, and green needle-like or scale-like foliage.
 The name “gymnosperm” literally means “naked seed“, which is exhibited by the
members by having cones (or strobilus, plural: strobili) instead of seeds to
reproduce.
 Gymnosperms are considered to be heterosporous. This means that they produce
two distinct types of cones for the male and female. Usually, male cones are
smaller as compared to the large cone of the female.
 In relation to what was alluded above, gymnosperms are good sources of wood
and paper. Aside from that, they provide food and habitat for animals, and in return,
these animals become important in the dispersal of their propagules.

Gymnosperm Examples

Giant Sequioa Tree Sago Palm Maidenhair

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Angiosperms, also referred to as the flowering plants, are the most diverse plant
phylum with at least 260,000 living plant species.

 Angiosperms display a vast diversity of plants as they include trees, herbs,

shrubs, bulbs, epiphytes (parasitic plants), and plants living in both marine and
freshwater habitats.
 The largest families in this phylum are the Orchidaceae (family of
orchids), Asteraceae (family of daisies), and Fabaceae (family of legumes).
 Despite their diversity, this phylum is united by several distinguishing
characteristics:
1. ovules/seeds that are enclosed within the carpel/fruit.
2. double fertilization, which is the process that leads to the formation of
the nutritive tissue called the endosperm.
3. male reproductive tissue composed of two pairs of pollen sacs, and
many more.
 The oldest known angiosperms were a group of plants known as
the magnoliids, which are composed of small inconspicuous flowering plants.
Scientists think that this group gave rise to the monocots and eudicots.
 Because of their many types, angiosperms offer a wide variety of uses for
animals, especially humans. Most angiosperms are good sources of food,
medicine, clothing fibers, and wood.

Angiosperm Examples

Water Lily Cosmos Flower Sunflower

Other groups, which first appeared towards the end of the Palaeozoic, reproduce
using desiccation-resistant capsules called seeds. They are accordingly are
called spermatophytes or seed plants. In these forms the gametophyte is completely

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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reduced, taking the form of single-celled pollen and ova, and the sporophyte begins its
life enclosed within the seed. Some seed plants may survive in extremely arid conditions.
Tracheophytes can be broken down into three classes: ferns, gymnosperms,
and angiosperms. Ferns are the least evolved of the tracheophytes; they have vascular
systems, and specialized leaf and root structures, but are still dependent on moist
environments for reproduction.Gymnosperms, cone bearing plants, have embryonic
sporophyte that is not enclosed until after pollination. In contrast, the flowering plants or
angiosperms the pollen has to grow a tube to penetrate the seed coat. They were the
last major group of plants to appear, developing from gymnosperms during
the Jurassic and spreading rapidly during the Cretaceous.They have dominated the land
habitat. The vascular plants show the evolution of following complex vegetative and
reproductive characteristics. These characteristics have made them the predominant
plants of land.

Topic 6:
Terrestrial and Aquatic Plants

Land/Terrestrial plants belong to the category of terrestrial plants where the

plants are found in soil based environments. Land plants have a strong root system that
can either be a tap root system or a fibrous root system. Plants require water and
nutrients for its survival.
Meanwhile, water/aquatic
plants live in aquatic environments.
They can be freshwater plants or
marine plants. The plants can be fully
submerged in water or floating on
water. Due to this the adaptations
shown by water plants, they vary from
other plants. The root system in water
plants primarily uses for the
anchorage of the plant. Water plants
readily obtain their nutrient
requirement from dissolved nutrients
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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in them, hence the primary role of the root system is to anchor the plant. Water plants
have difficulty in obtaining air, especially the fully submerged plants. Hence their stomata
are situated on the upper side of the leaf so that they can easily exchange gases during
respiration.

Marine Plants
There are two main types of marine plants: seagrasses and algae. Like plants on
land, most plants under the sea need sunlight for photosynthesis. This means that they
normally live in the top-most layers of the ocean. However, some marine plants, such as
kelp and coralline algae, are adapted to live in deeper waters. Unlike terrestrial (land)
plants, marine plants get their nutrients from the water around them, not through their
roots. Instead, their roots are used to anchor them to the seafloor and stop them floating
away.
Plants particularly phytoplankton are important to all aquatic ecosystems,
providing fish and other marine life with food and shelter. The carbohydrates produced
by plants under the sea form the basis of the entire marine food web, supporting
everything from tiny zooplankton to huge whales. What's more, marine plants and
algae provide over half the oxygen you breathe as they photosynthesize in the
ocean.

Mangrove: These are shrub and tree species that live along shores, rivers, and
estuaries in the tropics and subtropics. Mangroves are remarkably tough. Most live
on muddy soil, but some also grow on sand, peat, and coral rock. They live in water
up to 100 times saltier than most other plants can tolerate. They thrive despite twice-
daily flooding by ocean tides; even if this water were fresh, the flooding alone would
drown most trees. Growing where land and water meet, mangroves bear the brunt of
ocean-borne storms and hurricanes. They also serve as breeding ground for different
species of aquatic organisms.
These amazing trees and shrubs cope with salt, hoard fresh water and breathe
in a variety of ways. Like desert plants, mangroves store fresh water in thick succulent
leaves. Some mangroves grow pencil-like roots that stick up out of the dense, wet
ground like snorkels. These breathing tubes, called pneumatophores, allow
mangroves to cope with daily flooding by the tides. Oxygen enters a mangrove
through lenticels, thousands of cell-sized breathing pores in the bark and roots.
Lenticels close tightly during high tide, thus preventing mangroves from drowning.
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
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The mangroves' niche between land and sea has led to unique methods of
reproduction. Seed pods germinate while on the tree, so they are ready to take root
when they drop. If a seed falls in the water during high tide, it can float and take root
once it finds solid ground. If a sprout falls during low tide, it can quickly establish itself
in the soft soil of tidal mudflats before the next tide comes in. A vigorous seed may
grow up to two feet (about 0.6 m) in its first year. Roots arch from the seedling to
anchor it in the mud. Some tree
species form long, spear-shaped
stems and roots while still attached to
the parent plant. After being
nourished by the parent tree for one
to three years, these sprouts may
break off. Some take root nearby
while others fall into the water and are
carried away to distant shores.

Berg, L. R. (2013). Introduction to Botany. Fourth edition, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd. Ortigas
Ave., Pasig City, Philippines 1605
Fuller, H. J. and Ritchie, D. D. (1967). General Botany, Fifth Edition. Barnes and Noble, Inc.
Evangelista, E. V. and Evangelista, L. T. (2009). Worktext in General Botany. C & E Publishing,
Inc.
Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., and Jackson, R. B.
(2014). Campbell biology, Tenth edition. Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department,
1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025
Kirsten, J. (2016). "History of Botany," in Bio Explorer.
https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/botany/.
Kirsten, J. (2018). "Top 12 Botany News For 2017," in Bio Explorer.
https://www.bioexplorer.net/botany-news-2017.html/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-biology2/chapter/plant-structures/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331430118_Introduction_to_Botany_Module_1
https://microbenotes.com/vascular-vs-non-vascular-plants/
https://www.twinkl.com.ph/teaching-wiki/marine-plants
https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/biodiversity/mangroves-the-roots-of-the-sea/what-is-a-
mangrove#:~:text=These%20are%20mangroves%E2%80%94shrub%20and,most%20other%20pl
Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo
ants%20can%20tolerate.
Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
 38
Assessment for Lesson 9

Name: Date:
Year and Bloc:

1. Briefly explain how does the four climatic factors affects plant growth and development.
(4pts)

2. Briefly explain four edaphic factors that affects the growth and development of plant. (4pts)

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
 39

3. Briefly explain how does the three topographic factors affects plant growth and
development. (3pts)

4. Explain two positive relationship and two negative relationship that exist with plants.
(4pts)

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo
 40

Assessment for Lesson 10

Name: Date:
Year and Bloc:

1. Explain how the different groups of plants differ from each other ( 2pts each)

a. Thallophyta vs. Embryophyta

b. Bryophyta vs. Trachaeophyta

c. Pterpsida vs. Spermopsida

d. Gymnospermae vs. Angiospermae

e. Monocot vs. Dicot

2. Unlike terrestrial plants, cite two ways on how aquatic plants use their roots as discussed
above.(2 pts)

Module in Botany – 1st Semester SY 2022-2023 Emily F. Muyo

Course Facilitator: Claudine M. Fronda Xyrra Jeremiah C. Mazo