ANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS 4. XYLEM ELEMENTS ‘Treachery elements — tracheids, vessel elements, fibres, 1. General Features of xylem @ (ii) (iii) (wy) o) (i) 2. Tracheary Elements “ Gi (iii) jw ©) wi (vii) (viii) (a) @) Thickening, perforation plates, xylem Xylem is a part of vascular system for conducting water and minerals. Xylem alongwith phloem forms a continuous system in side plant body. It is composed of tracheary elements (tracheids and vessels), wood parenchyma and fibres. (Fig. 4.1-4.4) Tracheary elements are concerned with conduction and to some extend they give mechanical support. Parenchyma cells are involved in storage and translocation. Fibres give support. Tracheids and vessels are two components of tracheary elements. (Fig. 4.1) Both cells are more or less elongated having rf) \ lignified secondary walls and different types B of pits. FIG. 4.1: Tracheids from secondary xylem, Both are non-living cells at maturity, A. Aristolochia, B. Ephedra, C. Pinus. ‘Tracheids develop from single cells and they possess pit pairs in their common walls. Vessels take origin from longitudinal file of cells and have Perforations on their end walls. Wall thickenings in tracheary elements are of different types annular, scalariform and reticulate in nature (Fig. 4.3), In the secondary xylem, the entire wall surface is thickened except for uniformly distributed thin areas known as pits. Pits are two types ~ simple pits and bordered pits. Simple pits are formed in the primary wall. The bordered pits are more complicated as the secondary wall forms a dome- shaped structure with a small perforation in the middle. The primary wall present between a pit pair develops a thickening in its central part which is called torus. The torus is surrounded by bundle of micro fibrils known as margo. Bordered pits may be arranged in longitudinal, horizontal or diagonal rows. spiral,18 DEGREE PRACTICAL BOTANY FIG. 4.2: Vessel types. A-B. Wide vessels with simple performation plate, C. Vessel with Scalaritorm perforation plate, D-E, narrofw vessels with simple performation plate and tail either on both (D) or one (E) end. F. a narrow vessel with reticulate perforation plate. Perforation Plates (@ Perforation or openings are confined to a specific areas. The region of the wall is known as the perforation plate. The area surrounding the perforation plate is knows as perforation rim (Fig 4.4) These openings are restricted to the end walls except in slender and tapering types. }: Types of wall thickenings in tracheary elements, A, annular, B. spiral FIG. 4.3 TM C. scalariform. D. reticulate. E, pitted, =e (i) When the perforation plate contains a large por it is unown as simple perforation plate, {A plate containing more than one pore, it is multiple perforation plate. (iti) Arrangement of multiple pores in parallel series, itis called seataritorm perforation plate.ANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS Perforation —— Scalariform A B Perforation plate PSD —“Scalarform —— = Simple Forminate fe FIG. 4.4: End walls of vessels with perforation. A. scalaeform vessel of Pteridium ; B. foraminate type of Ephedra; C, scalariform vessel of Vitis and_D, simple type of Vitis. (iv) In a reticulate perforation plate, the pores are arranged in a reticulate manner due to separation of pores by secondary thickening () In forminate type, the perforations are grouped together and perforations are circular in shape. Xylem Fibres (i Fibres are long, narrow, thick and lignified in nature with painted or blunt ends and non- living. (Fig. 4.5) (ii) The walls of fibre are made up of cellulose in some cases though lignin is the chief material in the cell wall thickening. (iii) In transverse section fibres appear rounded or polygonal in out line with a well defined lumen. Sometimes the lumen becomes very narrow and even obliterated due to excessive thickening of wall. (iv) There are rounded operatures, called pits on cell wall. A Bo ‘, FIG. 4.5: Xylem fibres and parenchyma cells. me xylem a occur as fibre tracheids and | "4 tisre trachold. B. lbriform fre. C, axial libriform fibres. parenchyma cell. D, E. ray parenchyma cells,DEGREE PRACTICAL BOTayy 20 (vi) Fibres may be septate and septate fibres are widely present in many dicotyledonoys, such as Anacardiaceae Meliaceae etc. / (vii). In some plants (dicotyledons), gelatinous fibres are found due to modification of origina, fibres. 5. WOOD TYPES (Ring porous; diffuse porous; tyloses; heart and sapwood). A. Ring Porous (Secondary growth in dicotyledonous plants leads to formation of secondary xylem or wood. (ii) The secondary wood which carries vessels in xylem is known as porous wood but vessels absent in gymnosperms and the wood is non-porous wood. (Fig. 5.1) (iii) The porous wood is referred as hard wood and the non-porous wood is soft wood. (iv) Porous wood contains small pores which may be circular or oval in outline. (») Distribution of porous in the growth ring becomes conspicuous like a ring or belt in the carly stage of secondary growth. This is called ring porus (e.g. Morus alba) (vi) When the vessels in secondary xylem is more or less uniformly distributed, it is called diffuse porous. FIG. 5.1; A. Ring P Porous with pores ——__ | B. Dituse porous in sottary Pores SOllary and radial muttipios _ —Slusters D. Sottary ports ©: TangentialANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS B. Tyloses 21 ()_ In many angiospermic plants, there are balloon or bladder like outgrowths in the lumen of the vessels. These are called tyloses (Fig. 5.2) (ii) Tylosis in a vessel is produced due to penetration of small part of ray or axial parenchyma through the pit of vessel into the lumen. (ii) The small protuberance of parenchyma in the lumen contains part of nucleus and cytoplasm. It expends into a voluminous bladder. (iv) The walls of tylosis may thin and membranous. (Fig. 5.3) (vy) The tylosis may remain very small or it may fill the entire lumen. (vi) They may be one or many (e.g., white oak). (vii) Tyloses prevent rapid entrance of water, air and fungus into the vessel 25 = ae e igs VAST. AY a rj Ce Xylem vessel vylosis. A, L.S. of vessel with , T.S. of vessel with tyloses FIG. 5.3: Tylosis, A-F. development of tyloses in xylem vessels depicted in L.S. and T.S._ C. Heart-wood and Sapwood Sapwood (i) The outer region of woody plants contains recently formed xylem elements, called sapwood or alburnum, Fig, 5.4.~ Kee DEGREE PRACTICAL BOrAyy, 22 (i) The sap wood is light in colour and contains some “ae all living cells along vessels and fibres. (it) It carries out conduction of water and nutrients. Heart Wood (i) The central part of old plant looks black due to deposition of tannins, resins and gums, (ii) This region contains hard and durable wood, x known as heart wood or duramen. (iii) The heart wood is composed of dead cells. } a (In same plants, the heart wood contains important FIG. 6.4: 7.5. branch of Fraxinus, shonin important pigments of commercial utility, such as : : 2 heart—and sap-wood. (diagrammatic), | haematoxylin, brasilin and santalin. a aa The sap wood changes into heart wood very gradually. During the process all the living cells of sap wood lose their protoplast, water contents are reduced and the vessel are blocked by ‘Ylosis. Substances like gum, tannin, suberin are deposited on the cell wall. 6. PHLOEM ELEMENTS (Sieve tubes-sieve plates; companion cells; phloem fibres) General Characteristics (Phloem is found in the plant in the vascular system, (®) Its a complex tissue having elements like sieve Parenchyma and phloem fibres. Fig. 6.1) Sap woog | (2lburnumny | Heart woog | (durarkey tubes, companion cells, phloem vascular cambium. A. Sieve Tubes (Sieve tubes occur in angiosperms, (Fig. 6.2) (OX single sieve tube contains specialized area than oth ers with si . The sieve areas are depressed wall areas w: th sieve areas ith clusters of perforat ialized area is found on the end walls to form sieve plates, POO"*HON. These specialize (iit) When a number of sieve elements are Joined end to end they form a sieve tube. () Leng rie tube elements have oblique end Walls, while short elements have transverse end walls (v) Special thickenings are obse tved on sieve elements, known, which glisten, as nacreous thickenings vi) Mature sieve elements are enucteate, ie eel om ‘ain parietal cytoplasm and a large centr vacuole, (vii) Connecting strands between sieve e called callose,ANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS ~ Siove tube Siove plato {= Phioom parenchyma colts : Companion call Siove plate Sieve tube FIG. 6.1: A. phloem tissue from the stem of Nicotiana tabacum showing sieve tubes. Sieve Plates (i) The wall part bearing the highly specialized sieve areas called sieve plates. (Fig. 6.3) (ii) If. single plate has only one area, it is known as simple sieve plate. Gili) More sieve areas on plate form a compound sieve plate. (Fig. 6.4) (iv) Sieve areas may be arranged in scalariform, reticulate, or any other manner. (v) Sieve plates may be found on the lateral walls. B. Companion cell (i) Companion cells are highly specialized parenchymatous cells in angiosperms. (ii) The companion cell and sieve elements take their origin from the same meristematic mother cell. (iii) Short companion cells are associated with a sieve tube (Fig. 6.2). (iv) In transverse section, They appear rounded or polygonal. (v) These cells are living with abundant dense granular cytoplasm, a prominent nucleus and minute vacuoles and all cell organelles. (vi) Companion cells are absent in piteridophytes and gymnosperms.DEGREE PRACTICAL Borany 24 a C. Phloem Fibres (0) Fibres occur in primary and secondary phloem. (Fig. 6.2) (id) In primary phloem they are in the outer most part. But in secondary Phloem they atise from fusiform cambial cell. (a) The phloem fibres cells are elongated, lignified and with simple pits. The pits are simple, linear and rounded. an (iv) The ends of the fibre are inter locked. ‘ (v) The fibres may be nonseptate or septate (e.g. Vitis) (vi) Rotation of cytoplasm in fibres tal kes place which gives evidence in support of their livingness. late Sieve area F ee Sieve plate . FIG. 6.2: Phioem tissue, ALB, 0) ae , Sleve tube members in transverse and longitudinal C. sieve plate. D. sclereid. E. phloem - | FG. unseptate and septate phloem bre ively. oe 8 Tesper 7. EPIDERMAL SYSTEM’ A. Cell type w@ Epidermis is eeneraly single layered in most plants but in some plants the epidermis has more than one layer of cells, multiple epidermis, (e. Pi ia 14 to 15 layered fermi, (e.g. in Peperomia 14 to 15 layANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS- ' ‘Compound sieve plate Sieve area Lateral sieve area ‘Compound cel ‘Compound sieve plate ——————_——+' ® 90 {000020 98S0° 000 0% ‘Compound sieve plate ) DQ B 720 00 080 A FIG. 6.3: A.A sieve tube member with ‘compound sieve plate. B. Compound sieve plate in surtace view, magnified FIG. 6.4: Phioem. Structure of sieve areas. A. Compound sieve plate of Nicotiana in surface view; B. Parts of sieve tube members and a phloem parenchyma cell (ii) Epidermis carries stomata and trichomes. (Fig. 7.1) (iii) Epidermal cells are living,. The cell wall is thin with a large central vacuole and a nucleus. (iv) The cells have no intercellular spaces and covered with a cuticle. o In leaves, the epidermal cells are equal in length and width. In stems, they have greater length than width. (vi) Variation in cell types is noticed in grasses. In case of rice, on margins of each vein there is a file of short cells in which suberized cells alternate with silica cells. On either side of silica cells there are band of long cells and stomata. (Fig. 7.2) (vi) In many grasses, there are specialized epidermal cells call bulliform cells. (viii) Outermost cell wall of the epidermal cell is usually thickest due to deposition of wax, resin, volatile gums etc. and the cuticle.26 DEGREE PRACTICAL Boray, Upper epidermis Xylem Phloem Druses of Upper epidermis Bulliform sg ca oxalate Stoma cells — Palisade parenchyma tissue ‘Spongy Mesophyil Lower epidermis sheath Trichome , Lower epidermis c Upper epidermis Bulliform cells 8 Be = Upper Bs epidermis ag 2 Mesophyi 5 Be ss os eae Vascular Stoma Bundle Lower epidermis Lower epidermis Bundle Vascular bundle ‘sheath ‘sheath bundie Oo D FIG. 7.1: Portion of vertical sections of leaves. A. Quercus, B. Malus, C. Avena, D. Zea. | (ix) In some plants, silicon, calcium oxalate or calcium carbonate are deposited in the cell walls or lumen of epidermal cells. Calcium oxalate crystals are found on the leaves of some plants. Crystals of calcium carbonate, known as cystoliths are found in specialized cells, lithocysts. (Fig. 73) B. Stomata Types Stomata are minute natural openings in the epidermis of most aerial parts of plant but mostly they are abundant on leaves. A stoma consists of an opening (pore) which is bounded by two kidney shaped special cells known as guard cells. The inner wall facing the stomatal opening is highly thickened and the wall away from the aperature is thin and extensible. The guard cells contain mitochondria, chloroplasts, dictyosomes, ribosomes, ER, and starch orgains. Guard cells are surrouned by a number of epidermal cells, known as subsidiary or accessory cells.|Stomatel ‘opening or closing is controlled by turgor pressure of the cells. Two guard cells, the apertures and adjoing accessory cells together constitute stomatal appar:itus. (Fig. 7.4]ANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS Types There are four main types of stomata which are found in dicotyledonous plants (Fig. 7-5) 1. Ranunculaceous or anomocytic type A 2. Cruciferous or anisocytic type B ; type C; 4. Rubiaceous or paracytic-type D. In monocots. 3. Caryophyllaceous or diacytic-t ‘ata are gramineous type. the stom , SC-since cells leaf surface of Cryza sativa. x 225. ; L-long & Short cells with ripple walls, S-slender hair, ing electron micrograph of the abaxial FIG. 7.2 (a): Scanmni ‘8-bulbous hair altenating with cells occluded by suberisation.DEGREE PRACTICAL Bor, Wy $69 go Cork cell Silica cell Long cell rstle Long cell “hair B| | Between veins over vein | FIG. 7.2(b): Epidermis —A, epidermis of sugarcane stem showing alternation of long cells with pairs of short cells, the Cork ceils and silica cells; B, lower epidermis from leaf blade of | Sugarcane, showing distribution of stomata and their epidermal celis. | 1. Type A. Ranunculaceous or Anomocytic (Irregular celled) (i) The stomata remains Surrounded by a limited number of subsidiary cell (five in number). (i) The subsidiary cells very much like that of epidermal cells, 2. Type B. Cruciferous or Anisocytic (unequal celled) () In cruciferous type, the stoma remains associated with three subsidiary or accessory cells. (® Out of three cells, one is distinctly smaller than other two, 3. Type C. Rubiaceous or Paracytic (Parallel-celled) (In Rubiaceous type, the stoma remains surrous inded by two subsidiary cells (i) The subsidiary cells remain parallel to the lo ng axis of the pore or guard cells, 4. Type D. Caryophyllaceous or Diacytie(cross-celled) (2) In this type there are two accessory or subsidi (ii) The two cells remain in such a wa cells. lary cells in the stoma, that the common wall is Tight angles to the guardANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS 29 Abaxial cystolith epidermis inital Stalk of the © PepijaY D Sith aystolith m Cras FIG. 7.3: Stage in cystolith development in Ficus glomerata. Guard cells Ordinary epidermal cells (subsidiary or accessory cells) FIG. 7.4(a): Epidermis—lower surface of leaf showing stomata. 5. Gramineous Stoma Gramineous-Stomata are found in families like Cyperaceous and Gramineae of monocotyledons. In the stoma, the middle portion is narrower than the ends so that the guard cells give a dump-bell shape in surface view. C. Trichomes (i) Trichomes are the outgrowths of epidermal cells, (ii) They may be unicellular or multi celJular in structure. (iii) Hairs may be living or dead. (iv) Trichomes are further divided into non-glandular and glandular trichomes.DEGREE PRACTICAL Botany Ordinary epidermal cells {subgidiany cals) a calls lagram showing surface view and cross section of stoma, Cuticle Outer stomatal le ridge Micro bodies Stomatal Endoplasmic reticulum, ‘Sub stomatal chamber Chloroplast FIG 7.4.4) Guard cols of Vila taba a8 soon olech = RP2 88 Seen ir __lnvaginati FIG. 7.4(c): Stomata. A-B, sma membrane “Seelton microscope, — Stomatal pore closed and open stomatal pores.ANATOMY OF. ANGIOSPERMS: 31 FIG. 7.5: Stomata-types of stomata. A, anomocytic oF irregular.celled type (ranuculaceous type; B, anisooytic or unequal celled type (cruciferous types); C, paracytic or parallel celled type (rubiaceous types); D. diacytic or cross-celled type (caryophyllaceous type); E, gramineous type. Unicellular Trichomes (Non-glandular) (i) In this case, trichomes are simply the elongation of epidermal cells. It may straight or curved. (Fig. 7.6). (ii) In some cases, the apex is bifurcated and it gives a Y-shaped structure. Sometimes, the apex gives a T-shaped structure. (iii) Silicified uichchomes are observed in Cannabis.2 DEGREE PRACTICAL BOTayy G »_C. capitate D. tufled E.Stellate F. Peltate G. Ve FIG. 7.6: Non-glandular mutticellar trichornes. A. Simple uniseriate filiform, B. capitrate uniseriate fesiculate Multicellular trichomes (Non-glandular) (0 Under this category, the trichome may contain a sin; multiseriate (several row of cells); it may be branched or Gi) A multicellular trichome has a foot cell and a projecti (iii) When the tip of a multicellular trichome is sw vesticulate trichome (e.g,, Chenopodium) or tl (iv) Multicellular trichomes have several forms: gle row of cells (uniseriate) or unbranched. ing stem, the body.. ollen into a bladder-like structure, known as he tip is sub-capitate in structure, (a) Ramulose trichomes ~ complex branching structure e.g. Platanus. (4) Tuffed- Several arms of the body diverse in various directions nearly right angles to the surface of the organ, e.g. Dombeya, (0) Stellate ~Several arms emege roughly as parallel to the body surface, (d) Peltate — Trichome with a multi cellular discoid head, e.g. Olea.ANATOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS. Glandular Trichomes Glandular trichomes may be unicellular, multicellular or peltate (Fig. 7.7). But a sticky substance is produced by them. A cuticle may be present or absent. The secretion may be in the form of oil resins or camphor's ete. FIG. 7.7: Glandular trichomes. A. stimgatic papillae, B-D, early development stages of glandular trichome. E-G, capitate glandular trichomes with unicellular (EF), and mmuicelular (G) heads. H-J. peltate trichomes, K-N, developmental stages of shagay gland of Tabrernaemontana, O. Shaggy gland of Viola.34 (a) Stigmatic papillae. The trichome is the extension of the protodermal cell. (6) Peltate. The trichome carries a discard shield of a variable number of glandular cells attached to a stalk. Shaggy glands. The trichome has a multicellular central core of cells which is surrounded by a layer of palisade-like elongated secretory cells. (©) (d) Stinging hairs. Stinging hairs are specialized glandular unicellular structure with a slightly swollen base and a narrow pyriform upper part. (Fig. 7.8) The epidermal hairs surround the base forming a collar around it. The apical portion is thickened and rough to touch with a stinging tip. When the tip is broken of the trichome by touch, an irritating substance is injected into the body, DEGREE PRACTICAL BOTANY e.g., Urtica.