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DAR-ES-SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Year: Second Semester I 2021-2022

By: Nassoro S. Nassoro
ELECTRICAL MACHINES

 AC Transformers
o Single phase transformers
o Three-phase transformers
o Auto-transformers
o Instrument transformers
 Induction Motors

Recommended textbooks
 P.C. Sen, “Principles of Electrical Machines”
 Hughes," Electrical Te chnology", Prentice Hall
 B.L. Theraja, "A Textbook of Electrical Technology", Chand & Company LTD
Other Electrical Machine TextBooks
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Operating Principles and Construction

What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering
the voltage of an AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in
current.

The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Figure below.

Fig.3-1

Principle of Operation
A transformer in its simplest form will consist of a rectangular laminated
magnetic structure on which two coils of different number of turns are wound as
shown in Figure 3.2a.

Fig.3-
2a

The winding to which AC voltage is impressed is called the primary of the

transformer and the winding across which the load is connected is called the
secondary of the transformer.
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Fig.3-2b

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an
alternating emf (E2) is induced in the secondary. This induced emf (E2) in the
secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will
appear across the load. If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the
other hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux Φ

is set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces
emfs E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction. The emf E1 is termed as primary emf and emf E2 is termed as
Secondary emf.
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The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same
frequency as the input power.

Can DC Supply be used for Transformers?

The DC supply cannot be used for the transformers. This is because

the transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current
in one coil must change uniformly.If DC supply is given, the current will not
change due to constant supply and transformer will not work

There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large
current from the supply when connected to DC.

Thus DC supply should not be connected to the transformers.

Construction
We usually design a power transformer so that it approaches the characteristics
of an ideal transformer. To achieve this, following design features are
incorporated:
(i) The core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis loss and
high permeability. Further, core is laminated in order to reduce eddy
current loss. These features considerably reduce the iron losses and the
no-load current.
(ii) Instead of placing primary on one limb and secondary on the other, it
is a usual practice to wind one-half of each winding on one limb. This
ensures tight coupling between the two windings. Consequently,
leakage flux is considerably reduced.
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(iii) The winding resistances are minimized to reduce Copper loss and
resulting rise in temperature and to ensure high efficiency.

Transformers are of two types: (i) core-type transformer (see Fig.3-3) and
(ii) shell-type transformer (see Fig.3-4).

Core-Type Transformer: In a core-type transformer, half of the primary

winding and half of the secondary winding are placed round each limb to
reduce the leakage flux.

Fig.3-3

Shell-Type Transformer: This method of construction involves the use of a

double magnetic circuit. Both the windings are placed round the central limb
to ensure a low-reluctance flux path.

Fig.3-4
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Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transforms

Core Type Shell Type

The winding encircles the core. The core encircles most part of the windin
It has single magnetic circuit It has double magnetic circuit
The core has two limbs The core has three limbs
The multilayer disc or sandwich type
The cylindrical coils are used. coils are used.
The winding are uniformly distributed on two The natural cooling does not exist as the
limbs hence natural cooling is effective windings are surrounded by the core.
Preferred for low voltage transformers. Preferred for high voltage transformers.

Cooling of Transformers

When transformer supplies a load, two types of losses occur inside the
transformer. The iron losses occur in the core while copper losses occur in the
windings. The power lost due to these losses appears in the form of heat. This
heat increases the temperature of the transformer. To keep the temperature rise
of the transformer within limits, a suitable coolant and cooling method is
necessary.

The various cooling methods are designated witch depended upon:

A: cooling medium used and B: type of circulation employed.

The various coolant used such as Air, Gas, Mineral oil, and water.
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One of cooling method system is shown in figure below which is called Oil
Forced Water Forced cooling system;

EMF Equation of a Transformer

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary

as shown in Fig. 3-2b. The sinusoidal flux Φ produced by the primary can be
represented as:
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Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

From the above equations of induced emf, we have,

The constant K is called voltage transformation ratio. Thus if K = 5 (i.e.

N2/N1 = 5), then E2 = 5 E1.

Concept of Ideal Transformer

A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties:

i) It has no losses.
ii) Its windings have zero resistance.
iii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100 % flux produced by primary links with
the secondary.
iv) Permeabitity of core is so high that negilgiblc current is required to
establish the flux in it.

NOTE:
For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V1 is same as the
primary induced emf E1 as there are no voltage drops.
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For ideal transformer:

Volt-Ampere Rating

Transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current and called
VA rating.

The full load primaty and secondary currents which indicate the safe maximum
values of currents which transformer windings can carry can be given as:

Ideal Transformer on No Load

Consider an ideal transformer in Fig. 3-5. For no load I2 =0. I1

is just necessary to produce flux in the core, which is called magnetising current
denoted as Im. Im is very small and lags V1
by 90 as the winding is purely inductive.
0
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According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f.opposes the cause producing it

which is supply voltage V1. Hence E1 and E2 are in antiphase with V1 but equal
in magnitude and E1 and E2 are in phase.

Fig.3-5

This can be illustrated in the phase diagram as shown below:

Ideal Transformer on Load

Let us connect a load ZL across the secondary of an ideal transformer as shown

in Figure below:

The secondary emf E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load:
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The Phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on load is shown in Figure (ii)
above.

The secondary current I2 lags behind V2 (or E2) by Φ2. It causes a primary
currentI1 = KI2 = I2 (for K=1) which is in antiphase with it.
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Practical Transformer

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The
practical transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii)
magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.

(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there
occurs eddy current and hysteresis loss in it.

(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper

conductors, it immediately follows that both primary and secondary
will have winding resistance. The primary resistance R1 and
secondary resistance R2 act in series with the respective windings as
shown below:

(iii) Leakage reactance. Both primary and secondary currents produce

flux. The flux Φ which links both the windings is the useful flux
However, primary current would produce some flux Φ which would
not link the secondary winding and is called mutual flux (for more
information review Lecture Note 2) (See Fig. below).
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Practical Transformer on No Load

Consider the figure below:

The primary will draw a small current I0 to supply (i) the iron losses and (ii) a
very small amount of copper loss in the primary. Hence the primary no load
current I0 is not 90° behind the applied voltage V1 but lags it by an angle Φ0 <
90° as shown in the phasor diagram.

The no-load primary current I0 can be resolved into two rectangular

components:
Let us take the usual case of inductive load which causes the I2 to lag V2 by Φ2.

Practical Transformer on Load

Fig. above shows a practical transformer with the assumption that resistances
and leakage reactances of the windings are negligible. With this assumption, V2
= E2 and V1 = E1.
Let us take the usual case of inductive load which causes the I2 to lag V2 by Φ2.
The total primary current I1 must meet two requirements:

Phasor Diagram: Both E1 and E2 lag behind the

mutual flux f by 90°. The current I'2 represents
the primary current to neutralize the
demagnetizing effect of secondary current I2.
Now I'2 = K I2 and is antiphase with I2. I0 is the
no-load current of the transformer. The phasor
sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total primary current
I1. Note that in drawing the phasor diagram, the
value of K is assumed to be unity so that primary
phasors are equal to secondary phasors.

Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance

The total primary current I1 must meet two requirements:
Phasor Diagram:
Note that counter emf that opposes the applied voltage
V1 is -E1. Therefore, if we add I1R1 (in phase with I1)
and I1 X1 (90° ahead of I1) to -E1, we get the applied
primary voltage V1. The phasor E2 represents the
induced emf in the secondary by the mutual flux. The
secondary terminal voltage V2 will be what is left over
after subtracting I2R2 and I2X2 from E2.
 Modelling and Equivalent Circuits of Single Phase
Transformers

The term equivalent circuit of a transformer means the combination of fixed and
variable resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and
working of the transformer.

Impedance Ratio

Consider a transformer having impedance Z2 in the secondary as shown in the

figure below:
Shifting Impedances in a Transformer

NOTE:

Consider the following figure:

We can transfer the parameters from one winding to the other. Thus:

► A resistance R1 in the primary becomes K2 R1 when transferred to the

secondary.
► A resistance R2 in the secondary becomes R2/K2 when transferred to the
primary.
► A reactance X1 in the primary becomes K2 X1 when transferred to the
secondary.
► A reactance X2 in the secondary becomes X2/K2 when transferred to the
primary.
NOTE:

► When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary,

multiply it by K2
► When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary,
divide it by K2
► When transferring voltage or current from one winding to the other, only
K is used.

A- Referred to primary
► Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary

► Equivalent reactance of transformer referred to primary

► Equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary

► The value of primary current I1

B- Referred to secondary

► Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary

► Equivalent reactance of transformer referred to secondary

► Equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary

► The value of secondary voltage referred to primary

V2 = KV1
What i s the Importance of Shifting Impedances?

If we shift all the impedances from one winding to the other, the transformer is
eliminated and we get an equivalent electrical circuit. Various voltages and
currents can be readily obtained by solving this electrical circuit.
Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Loaded Transformer
The equivalent circuit for the transformer can be represented as shown in the
figure.

Where:
R1: primary winding resistance
R2: secondary winding resistance
X1: leakage reactance of primary winding
X2: leakage reactance of the secondary winding
Ro: represents the core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)
Xo: represents magnetising reactance of the core
Im: magnetizing current (to create magnetic flux in the core)

Iw: active current (required to supply the core losses)

Io = no load primary current
■ NOTE1: Parallel circuit R0 - X0 is the no-load equivalent circuit of the
transformer or called exciting circuit.
■ NOTE2: The equivalent circuit has created two normal electrical
circuits separated only by an ideal transformer whose function is to
change values according to the equation:
 ■ NOTE3: If ZL is the external load across the secondary circuit, voltage
E2 induced in the secondary by mutual flux will produce a secondary
current I2, hence:

Similarly supply voltage can be given as

■ NOTE5: When the transformer is loaded to carry the secondary current

I2, the primary current consists of two components:
► I0 to provide magnetizing current and the current required to
supply the core losses.
► primary current I'2 (= K I2) required to supply the load
connected to the secondary
Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a Loaded Transformer

If I0 of a transformer is small as compared to the rated primary current I1,

voltage drops in R1 and X1 due to I0 are negligible. Hence, the exact equivalent
circuit can be simplified by transferring the shunt circuit R0 - X0 to the input
terminals as shown below:

If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we can get the
simplified equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the primary as shown
below
From the above circuits:

where

Hence the phasor diagram can be obtained as:

Based on the above phasor diagram we can notice the following:

► The referred value of load voltage V'2 is chosen as the reference phasor.

► I'2 is lagging V'2 by phase angle ɸ2.

 ► I'2 R01 is in phase with I'2 and the voltage drop I'2 X01, leads I'2 by 90°.

► IW is in phase with V1 while Im lags behind V1 by 90°.

► The phasor sum of IW and Im is I0.

► The phasor sum of I0 and I'2 is the input current I1.

If all the primary quantities are referred to the secondary, we can get the
simplified equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the secondary as
shown below

From the above circuit:

Where
Hence the phasor diagram can be obtained as:

Based on the above phasor diagram we can notice the following:

► The referred value of load voltage V2 is chosen as the reference phasor.

► I2 is lagging V2 by phase angle ɸ2.

► I2 R02 is in phase with I2 and the voltage drop I2 X02, leads I2 by 90°.

► I'W is in phase with V'1 while I'm lags behind V'1 by 90°.

► The phasor sum of I'W and I'm is I'0.

► The phasor sum of I'0 and I2 is the input current I'1.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Loaded Transformer

The no-load current I0 in a transformer is only 1-3% of the rated primary current
and may be neglected without any serious error. The transformer can then be
shown as in the figure below:
If all the secondary quantities are referred to the primary, we can get the
approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the primary as
shown below

If all the primary quantities are referred to the secondary, we can get the
approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the secondary as
shown below

Approximate Voltage Drop in a Transformer

The approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary is

shown below

At no-load, the secondary voltage is K V1. When a load having a lagging p.f.
cos ɸ2 is applied, the secondary carries a current I2 and voltage drops occur in
(R2 + K2R1) and (X2 + K2 X1). Consequently, the secondary voltage falls from
KV1 to V2.
Hence, we have,

It is clear from the phasor diagram below that drop in secondary voltage is AC
= I2 Z02.

Approximate drop in secondary voltage

Approximate drop in secondary voltage is

For a load having a leading p.f. cos ɸ2, we have,

Note: If the circuit is referred to primary, then it can be easily established
that

Testing, Efficiency, and Voltage RegulationVoltage

Regulation of Transformer
The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference (not phasor
difference) between the no-load secondary voltage (0V2) and the secondary
voltage V2 on load expressed as percentage of no-load voltage i.e.

where

0V2 = No-load secondary voltage = K V1

V2 = Secondary voltage on load

The +ve sign is for lagging p.f. and -ve sign for leading p.f.

NOTE: It may be noted that % voltage regulation of the transformer will be the
same whether primary or secondary side is considered.

Losses in a Transformer

The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;

1. Core or Iron losses
2. Copper losses

NOTE: The above losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase
in temperature and (ii) a drop in efficiency.
1. Core or Iron losses (Pi)

These consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses and occur in the transformer
core due to the alternating flux. These can be determined by open-circuit test
(see next sections).

Both hysteresis and eddy current losses depend upon

► Maximum flux density Bm in the core and

► Supply frequency f.
NOTE: Since transformers are connected to constant-frequency, constant
voltage supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losses are
practically the same at all loads. Hence,

NOTE: The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon
content whereas eddy current loss can be reduced by using core of thin
laminations.
B- Copper losses (PC)

2. Copper Losses (Pcu)

These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their
ohmic resistance. These can be determined by short-circuit test

Total copper Cu losses:

Hence, total losses in a transformer are:

Efficiency of a Transformer

Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as

the ratio of output power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW) i.e.

In practice, open-circuit and short-circuit tests are carried out to find the
efficiency,

NOTE: The losses can be determined by transformer tests.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Output power = V2I2 cosϕ2

If R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary, then,

For a load of given pf, efficiency depends upon load current I2. Hence, the
efficiency to be maximum the denominator should be minimum i.e.

i.e., Iron losses = Copper losses

Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper losses are

equal to constant or iron losses.
From above, the load current I2 corresponding to maximum efficiency is:
NOTE: In a transformer, iron losses are constant whereas copper losses are
variable. In order to obtain maximum efficiency, the load current should be
such that total Cu losses become equal to iron losses.

Output kVA corresponding to Maximum Efficiency

Let PC = Copper losses at full-load kVA
Pi = Iron losses
x = Fraction of full-load kVA at which efficiency is maximum
Total Cu losses = x2 ×PC

for maximum efficiency x2 ×PC = Pi

or

⟹Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency:

NOTE: The value of kVA at which the efficiency is maximum, is independent

of pf of the load.

All-Day Efficiency

All-day efficiency is of special importance for those transformers whose

primaries are never open-circuited but the secondaries carry little or no load
much of the time during the day.

The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour
period is known as all-day efficiency i.e.:

NOTE: Efficiency of a transformer means commercial efficiency unless stated

otherwise.
Transformer Tests

The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage regulation of a transformer can

be determined by two simple tests:

(i) open-circuit test and (ii) short-circuit test

Open-Circuit Test

This test is conducted to determine:

► The iron losses (or core losses) and

► Parameters R0 and X0 of the transformer.

In this test (see Figure below), the rated voltage is applied to the primary
(usually low-voltage winding) while the secondary is left open-circuited.

As the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary, therefore, normal iron
losses will occur in the transformer core.

Cu losses in the primary under no-load condition are negligible as compared

with iron losses.

For the figure above:

o Iron losses, Pi = Wattmeter reading = W0
o No load current = Ammeter reading = I0
o Applied voltage = Voltmeter reading = V1
o Input power, W0 = V1 I0 cosϕ0
⟹

Short-Circuit or Impedance Test

This test is conducted to determine:

► Full-load copper losses of the transformer and

► R01 (or R02), X01 (or X02).

In this test (see Figure below), the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is
short-circuited by a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the
primary.

The low input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage VSC, full-load current I1
flows in the primary. Then I2 in the secondary also has full-load value since
I1/I2 = N2/N1. Under such conditions, the copper loss in the windings is the same
as that on full load.

For the figure above:

o Full load Cu loss, PC = Wattmeter reading = WS

o Applied voltage = Voltmeter reading = VSC
o F.L. primary current = Ammeter reading = I1

⟹
where R01 is the total resistance of transformer referred to primary

Total impedance referred to primary,

Total leakage reactance referred to primary,

Short-circuit pf

Efficiency from Transformer Tests

The full-load efficiency of the transformer at any pf can be obtained as:

where: Pi = Iron loss can be obtained from open-circuit test

Pc = Copper loss can be obtained from short-circuit test
F.L. = Full Load

Also the efficiency for any load,

where xx= Fraction of full-load

NOTE: Iron loss remains the same at all loads.