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AC Lecture

Lecture for AC

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35 views

AC Lecture

Lecture for AC

Uploaded by

Game Dex
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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2 Single-phase A.C. Circuits 1, Introduction to alternating current, 2. Generation and equations of alternating voltages and. currents. 3. Alternating voltage and current. 4. Single phase circuits: A.C. through pure ohmic resistance alone—A.C. through pure inductance alone—A.C. through pure capacitance alone— Phasor algebra—A.C. series circuits RL eireuit—R-C. eireuitR-L-C cireuit—A.C. parallel circuits. —Highlights Objective Type Questions—Theoretical Questions—Ecxercise. 1, INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT AC, means alternating current—The current or voltage which alternates its direction and magnitude every time. Now a days 95% of the total energy is produced, transmitted and distributed in AC, supply. ‘The reasons are the following (@ More voltage can be generated (upto 33000 V) than D.C. (650 V only). G@ AC. voltage can be increased and decreased with the help of a statie machine called the ‘transformer’ (ili) AC. transmission and distribution is more economical as line material (say copper) can be saved by transmitting power at higher voltage. (iv) A.C. motors for the same horse power as of D.C. motors are cheaper, lighter in weight, require less space and require lesser attention in operation and maintenance. (v) AC, can be converted to D.C. (direct current) easily, when and where required but D.C. cannot be converted to A.C. so easily and it will not be economical. However, D.C. entails the following merits and henee finds wide applications, (@ D.C, series motors are most suitable for traction purposes in tramway, railways, erains and lifts (Gi) For electroplating, electrolytic and electrochemical processes (battery charging ete.), D.C. is required. (iii) Arc lamps for search lights and cinema projectors work on D.C. (iv) Are welding is better than on A.C. (v) Relay and operating time switches, ete., and circuit-breakers, D.C. works more efficiently, (vi In rolling mills, paper mills, colliery winding, ete., where fine speed control of speeds in both directions is required, D.C. motors are required, 2, GENERATION AND EQUATIONS OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents Alternating voltages may be generated in the following two ways 1. By rotating « coil in a stationary magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 1. 2. By rotating @ magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. 2. 60 SINGLE-PHASE A.C, CIRCUITS 61 Back — \ os LO Wetion _ External connections Fig. 1. Rotating a col in a stationary Fig. 2. Rotating a magnetic field ‘magnetic field within a stationary eo. ‘The value of the voltage generated in each case depends upon the following factors (@) The number of turns in the coils ; (i) The strength of the field ; (i) The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates. ‘© Out of the above two methods the rofating-field method is mostly used in practice Equations of Alternating Voltages and Currents tenoose Yi Fig. 3 shows a rectangular coil of N turns eee Neo rotating clockwise with an angular velocity @ radians per second in @ uniform magnetic field. Since by Faraday’s law, the voltage is propor- tional to the rate at which the conductor its across the magnetic field or to the rate of change of flux link- ages, the shape of the wave of voltage applied to the external circuit will be determined by the flux distri- bution in the air gap. For a uniform field between the poles it is evident that: maximum flux will link with the coil when its plane is in vertical position ie., per- pendicular to the direction of flux between the poles. Also it is obvious that when the plane of eoil is hori- zontal no flux will link with the coil. If the position of the coil with reference to the vertical axis be denoted by 0 the flux linking with the Fig. 5. A col rotating in a magnet fed coil at any instant, as the coil rotates may be determined from the relation, ax 605 8 = Gas 608 0 O86 where, jae = Maximum flux which ean Tink with the coil, and ' Using Faraday’s law to eqn. (0), in order to determine the voltage equation, ime taken by the coil to move through an angle 0 from vertical position. o BASIC ELECTRICAL, AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING a = NTC nax 608 08) = ON pg 8 or 2 = UNG yg, Si cid) As the value of e will be maximum when sin 8 = Enna = ONG nae ‘The eqn. (ii) ean be written in simpler form as = Egg, sin ® ii) Similarly the equation of induced alternating current (instantaneous value) is E=Tygy $i 8 Gf the load is resistive) (Gv) Waveforms. A waveform (or wave-shape) is the shape of a curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate against time as abscissa. Fig. 4 (a, 6, ¢ d, ¢) shows irregular waveforms, but each eyele of currentivoltage is an exactly replica of the previous one. Alternating e.m_fs and currents produced by machines usually both have positive and negative half waves, the same shape as shown. Fig, 4() represents a sine wave of A.C. This is the simplest possible waveform, and alternators are designed to give as nearly as possible a sine wave of em, ° - eto - Beto = Feet @ (e ©) ° ° ei ° ® 2 xe eg eae @ () 0 Fig. 4. Waveforms. © In general, an alternating current or voltage is one the cireuit direction of which reverses at regularly recurring intervals, © The waves deviating from the standard sine wave are termed as distorted waves. © Complex waves are those which depart from the ideal sinusoidal form, All alternating complex waves, which are periodic and have equal positive and negative half eyeles can be shown to be ‘made up of a number of pure sine waves, having different frequencies but all these frequencies are integral multiples of that of the lowest alternating wave, called the fundamental (or first harmonic). These waves of higher frequencies are called harmonics. SINGLE-PHASE A.C, CIRCUITS 6 3, ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ‘Modern alternators produce an emf. which is for all practical purposes sinusoidal (ie., a sine curve), the equation between the e.m-f. and time being eB, Sin wt a where, ¢ = Instantaneous voltage ; £,,,, = Maximum voltage ; ot = Angle through which the armature has turned from neutral ‘Taking the frequency as f hertz (cycles per second), the value of w will be 2n/, so that the equation reads Eggs Sins Qnpt ‘The graph of the voltage will be as shown in Fig. 5. + Volts EMF. Time——> Fig. 5. The graph of the sinusoidal voltage. 1. Cycle. One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is ‘known as a cycle. A cycle may also sometimes be specified in terms of angular measure, In that case, one complete cycle is said to spread over 360° or 2r radians. 2. Amplitude. The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity, is known as its amplitude, 3. Frequency (f). The number of cycles/second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz (Hz) 4. Time Period (T). The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete the cycle is clad tn pr. Fora 0 ot slematingcoment hae atine pnd of Sand ‘Time period is reciprocal of frequency, ‘ 4) Snostmece ptr SL vaan Psa orci can arsg carat produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time, RMS. value is the value which is taken for power purposes of any description. This value is obtained by finding the square root of the mean value of the squared ordinates for a cycle or half- the power is proportional to the square of the voltage. 64 BASIC ELECTRICAL, AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING ‘The equation of sinusoidal alternating current is given as 12 Tyg, Sin 0 ‘The mean of squares of the instantaneous values of current over half eycle is * 2d0 = Pao elf tae2 [dpe sino? «2 Poa ttoane Pie (S82 2 Pras Prax |, _ sin 20 |* = 1 eos 20) de ah » 2a 2 by Pras [Tmax _ Jy = or I= = 2n 2 ve or 1= 0.707 Iyagye (3) Note. While solving probloms, the values of given current and voltage should always be taken as the m., values, unless indicated otherwise. 6. Average or mean value. The average value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternat. ing current during the same time. ‘The mean value is only of use in connection with processes where the results depend on the current only, irrespective of the voltage, such as electroplating or battery charging. Refer to Fig. 6. ‘The value of instantaneous current is given by E=Tpgy Sin 8 Refer to Fig. 6. The value of instantaneous current is given by Ina 8108 (= at] ao hi Limits are taken from 0 to x, since only first half eycle is considered. For whole eycle, the average value of sine wave is zero. 1 2 = Ings WE DI= S or Ty = 0.687 Ta (a) Note, In case of unsymmetrical alternating current viz, half wave rectified current the average value must always be taken over the whole eyele. 7. Form and Peak Factors Form factor. The ratio of .m.s. (or effective) value to average value is the form factor (K,) of the wave form. Tt has use in voltage generation and instrument correction factors. ILE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS 65 Peak factor. The ratio of maximum value to the rms. value is the peak factor (K,) of the 5 Na Mae om Trae nn “average value ~Tam.s. value i Jae ms Imax. 0.707 Imax Fimax verge = 2g = 0857 | Batwave ete sin waves | oreone—a] : t werage Value = — Imax = 0.3 ae & | Fa wave raed sine waves Inu RMS. value « “HE = 0707 Iypae Average value = 2 2 pax = 0697 Imax 0207 Imax = 444 0637 Fax 1, ‘7071, 66 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Form factor (K,) Peak factor (K,) S.No, Wave form __nm.s.value max. value ~ average value ~hm.scvalue 4. Rectangular wave : Time Fig. 10 RMS, value =... Average value =, 1 5. | ‘Triangular wave : 1 z) Time 05 Tmax *.” oar, =116 — ws Reasons for using alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form : (@ Mathematically, it is quite simple. An alternating current (or voltage) of sinusoidal form is normally used because of the following Gi) Its integrals and differentials both are sinusoidal. (iii) Tt lends itself to vector representation. (iv) A complex waveform can be analysed into a series of sine waves of various frequencies, and each such component can be dealt with separately. (v) This waveform is desirable for power generation, transmission and utilisation. 8, Phase and phase angle. The ‘phase’ of an A.C. wave may be defined as its position with respect toa reference axis or reference wave and ‘phase angle? as the angle of lead or lag with respect to the reference ‘axis or with respect to another wave. Examples. The phase of current at point L is 5 snd where Ti th tine rad eponed in terms of angle 6, itis 5 radian (Fig. 12). Similarly a Current SINGLE-PHASE A.C, CIRCUITS 67 phase of the rotating coil at the instant shown in Fig. 13 is ut which is therefore called its phase angle. ‘The e.m.f&, induced in both the coils (Fig. 13) will he of the same frequency and of sinusoidal shape, although the values of instantaneous e.m.f. induced will be different, However, the alternat- ing e.m.fs, would reach their maximum and zero values at the same time as shown in Fig, 13 (6). Such alternating voltages or curve are said to in phase with each other. t (Second) —> (@) ) Fig. 13 Refer to Fig. 14. M lags behind L by B and N lags behind L by («+ 8) because they reach their maximum later. LMN + (Second) —> © Fig. 14 Example 1. (a) What is the equation of a 25 cycle current sine wave having rim.s. value of 30. amps ? (B) A 60 cycle engine-driven alternator has a speed of 1200 r.p.m. How many poles are there in the alternator ? 68 BASIC ELECTRICAL, AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Solution. (a) We know that, i= Ig, sin ot = Tyg, Sin Saft = 30 VB sin nx 25 x 8) ( = 42.42 sin 187 t, (Ans Np (b) Using the relation, f 720 wrhece, fa frequency, N = peed in pam, and p=No, ofpoles 1200 p A : or p=6. 120 P > Example 2. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz has an rams, value 40 A. Find i) The instantaneous value 0.0025 seconds after passing through maximum positive value, and (ii) The time measured from a maximum value when the instantaneous current is 14.14 A. Solution, pac = VB x40 = 56.56 A (o= 2a = 2n x 50 = 100% radians has £08 after +ve maximum value 56.56 cos 100 xt 56.56 cos (100s x 0.0025) (t= 0.0025 s ..gven) 56.56 cos 45° (Taking x= 180°) =40 A. (Ans) w 14.14 = 56.56 cos (100 x 180 x) or UM cos (100 x 180 x1) 5656 or ‘cos! (0.25) = 100 x 180 xt 75.5° = 100 x 180 xt £ = 0.00419 s. (Ans.) Example 3. A sinusoidal alternating voltage of 50 Hz has an rms. value of 200 V. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value and find this value 0.0125 sec. after passing through «positive maximum value. At what time measured from a positive maximum value will the instanta: neous voltage be 141.4 volts ? Solution, Refer to Fig. 15. Vous = v2 x 200 = 262.2 volts (= Bf = Bn x 50 = 100 x rade, Equation for the instantancous voltage. V= Vg sin uf (with reference to point 0) 162.2 sin 100 o Since the time (0.0125 sec.) is given from the point L (ie, from postive maximum value) the equa tion (i) when referred to point L can be written as 0 = 2822 sin (0° + 100 x) 82.2 cos 100 xt SINGLE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS 9 Hence instantaneous value of the voltage 0.0125 see. after passing through + ve maximum f wena enna otnoa(- =~ 200 V (point M). (Ans.) or. cos"! (0.5) = 100 x 180 xt or t= sce. (point N). (Ans.) Example 4. (a) What is the peak value of a sinusoidal alternating current of 4.78 r.m.s. amps ? (b) What is the r.m.s. value of a rectangular wave with an amplitude of 9.87 volts ? (c) What is the average value over half a cycle of a sinusoidal alternating current whose r.m.s. value is31A? Solution. (a) Peak value, Ing = V2 x 4.78 = 6.76 A. (Ans) (b) Refer to Fig. 16. If the first half-cycle is divided into n equal parts each of value V, then v=9a7V V2+VeVie y rms. value .87 volts. (Ans.) © form factor Fig. 16 Example 5. The graph in Fig. 17 shows the variation of voltage with time. Use the graph to calculate the average and r.m.s, value of the voltage. What is the frequency of the voltage ? What would be the r.m.s. value of sine wave having the same peak value ? Solution. Refer to Fig. 17. ‘As the graph is symmetrical about time axis, considering only the positive half eyele, 0+ 10 +20-+ 40 + 100 + 120+ 100 + 40 +20 +10 Average value, V,,= 9*2O*204 40 1004 A202 100s oemen = 46 V. (Ans.) = vy — ,|O + 10% + 20? + 40? + 1007 + 120 + 100? + 40” + 20° + 107 ° 10 __ [= 100-400 + 1600 + 10000 + 14400 + 10000 + 1600 + 400 + 100 - 10 10 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING = (3860 = 62.1V. (Ans. T= 20 mill second Fig.17 Since the time period ‘T is 20 millisee. Pe 1 Frequency P= = FpnaF 750 Hs (Ans) RMS. value of a sine wave of the same peak value = 0.707 x 120 = 84.84 V. (Ans.) Example 6. Prove that if a D.C. current of Iyyyy, & superposed in a conductor by an A.C. ‘current of max. value Lamps, the r.m.s, value of the resultant is E Solution. Let the A.C. current be i = I sin 0 where i is the instantaneous value of the A.C, current and I the D.C. current. ‘The rms. value of (J + i) over one complete eycle is, = 2 (usteinot “(EE (I+ Tsin 0)? do T pes =z fave =f Fn 2in0s( E22) 0+sin? 0) 1 0 sing0f™ =1) i |0-2em0+3 - St [ 21 [Epmcaensa =1,/2. ns) 2 SINGLE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS n Example 7. A resultant current wave is made up of two components : a 4A D.C. component and a 50 Hz A.C, component, which is of sinusoidal waveform and which has a maximum value of 4A, (@ Sketch the resultant wave. Gi) Write an analytical expression for the current wave, reckoning t = 0 at a point where the A.C. component is at zero value and where difdt is positive. (ii) What is the average value of the resultant current over a cycle ? (iv) What is the effective or r.m.s. value of the resultant current ? Solution, (i) Sketch of the resultant wave : ‘The two current components and the result- ant current wave are shown in Fig. 18. (Ans.) i) Analytical expression. The instantane- ous value of the resultant current is given by i=(4+4sin of) =(444sin 0), (Ans.) (iii) Average value. Since the average value of the alternating current over one complete eycle is zero, hence the average value of the resultant cur rent is equal to the value of D.C. component i.e, 4A (Ans.) mesiet Current —> (iv) Bffective or r.m.s. value : 6 Ene at Mean value of ? over complete eycle is Fig 18 = 2 [* 20-2 f* 4 +4sino? -Eh HJ, Ara sino ao = «16 + 92 sin 0+ 16 sin? -xh (16 + 82 sin 0 + 16 sin? 0) do 1p es) = 2 [| 16 +2sin 0 + 16{ = 20870 zh [is s2sin0 6 + |ao 1 pe = Lf" 24+ s2sin 0-8 00820 a0 ane 2 = 5p (240-92 em 0-8 5829) 2a ls = sh tt48n ~ 32 c0s 2n~ 4 sin 4) ~ (32) = 8% 24. 2n on RMS. value, I= \24 =4.9A. (Ans) Example 8. Determine the average and effective values of the saw-tooth waveform shown in Fig. 19. n BASIC ELECTRICAL, AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING Solution, Refer to Fig. 19. Since the voltage increases linearly, therefore, 60+0 ‘wy ‘The slope, for the internal 0 <¢ <2 is given by OV. (Ans.) 0 Instantaneous voltage, ‘The r.m.s. or effective value of the voltage, or Via = $4.64V. (Ans) Example. 9. Determine the r.m.s, and average values of the waveform shown in Fig. 20. 1 ar Time —> Fig. 20 Solution. Refer to Fig. 20. MN _90-15 15 ‘The slope the curve LM B pel LN T Now consider the function y at any time ‘?, We have, PQ_MN_15 TQ INT 1515 or 7 *F Moansqurevave =f SINGLE-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS B 0a sel RMS. value = ¥525 = 22.9. (Ans.) Example 10. Find the r-m.s. and average value of the trapezoidal current wave-form shown in the Fig. 21. Fig. 21 ‘i ‘i ar Solution, Refer to Fig. 21. The equation ofthe current for 0 ean be found from the relation, Tas 20 Inge Flow ar + @T20 % ‘The equation ofthe current for S

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