72

3
N
CLIMATE
Namibia’s weather
patterns

amibia is among the most arid countries on Earth. The weather

is characterised by high daytime temperatures, short seasonal
summer rainfalls, high rates of evaporation and crystal-clear blue
winter skies. It is wettest in the northeast, where total annual rainfalls
can reach 650 millimetres or more, but half of the country receives less
than 350 millimetres of rainfall in a year. Farther south and west, rainfall
declines and becomes increasingly erratic; it is rare along the entire coast.
Yet potentially unbearable weather along the country’s western edge is
ameliorated by cool sea breezes, and fog which enshrouds the coastal belt
on about one in three days of the year providing an important water source
for desert plants and animals.
These weather patterns experienced across Namibia are strongly influenced
by a dominant high-pressure system over the ocean, and the cold Benguela
ocean current. Although these and other factors determine our broad climate,
the air and the oceans are part of one entire global system – a system that is
always in dynamic balance. Changes in one part of the system affect the rest
of it. Cyclical perturbations in atmospheric pressure in the eastern and western
tropics of the Pacific Ocean influence ocean surface temperatures causing
what is known as the El Niño Southern Oscillation when warm water builds
up in the equatorial region of South America. The influence of this event is
felt on weather patterns throughout the world. For Namibia specifically, El
Niño tends to increase the probability that the country will experience drier
conditions for a time. La Niña is the opposite side of this cycle; it occurs
when Pacific Ocean surface waters are cooler than normal and increases the
likelihood of wetter conditions in Namibia.
Seasons in Namibia are not equally divided across the year. Spring and
autumn are short transitional periods between the summer months (October–
March) and the mid-year winter months. Although summer is considered the
rainy season, for much of the country rainfall is low, variable and unpredictable.

In many ways Namibia can be thought of as a country that is perpetually

thirsty. Potential moisture loss through evaporation is many times greater
than the amount of water that falls as rain. Temperatures rise in spring, but it
is too soon for rain and there is little moisture to speak of – everywhere is dry.
With summer comes the welcome promise of moist air and a smattering of
early rain, but temperatures rise further and moisture quickly evaporates. The
long-awaited late-summer downpours bring some relief, but there is always
room for much more and the moist air swiftly abates to be replaced by dry
wintery winds. And although there is a bounty of fog at the coast, most of
this moisture remains tantalisingly suspended in the surrounding air.

CLIMATE | 73
 Why is Namibia so dry?
The flow of air around the planet – together with the which straddles the Tropic of Capricorn and is bounded
oceans and their currents – determines how thermal energy by the Atlantic Ocean with its powerful Benguela Current.
and moisture are redistributed around Earth. Although Namibia’s arid nature results from the persistent presence of
influenced by various factors from one year to the next, dry air for most of the year and high rates of evaporation.
these large-scale air movements are consistent in structure Moist, warm air that can fall as rain reaches Namibia
and are important factors in determining the climate at any infrequently. This aridity is the product of the three major
location in the world. This is especially true for Namibia circulation systems discussed below.

Atmospheric circulation
Namibia’s geographical position spans a zone roughly between as it is forced out from equator towards the poles, subsides
17 and 29 degrees south of the equator, along the southwestern in the subtropics forming centres of high pressure. Two
coast of Africa. This places Namibia in an area where it is high-pressure centres – the South Atlantic Anticyclone
exposed to air movements in three major circulation systems or and the Botswana Anticyclone dominate weather patterns
belts described below and illustrated opposite: over Namibia. In winter, the South Atlantic anticyclone is
positioned off the west coast of Namibia while the Botswana
1. The Intertropical Convergence Zone – or ITCZ as it is often anticyclone lies inland. The descending air from these high-
referred to – near the equator is where the air masses from pressure centres inhibits the formation of clouds and results
the northern and southern hemisphere come together. Air in in dry, clear winter days. Their influence weakens when the
the Intertropical Convergence Zone is moist and warm and centres of high pressure are pushed southwards in summer,
it spirals upwards creating a belt of low pressure. As it rises, making way for warm moist air to be drawn in from the
the air cools and the moisture condenses forming the great north and east to form clouds and rain.
band of cloud clearly visible in the images in figure 3.01.
This zone shifts seasonally, southwards towards Namibia in 3. The southernmost Temperate Zone, extending from
the southern hemisphere’s summer, retreating northwards Antarctica to the Tropic of Capricorn, is characterised by
in the southern winter. Its position follows that of the sun cold, moist air. The influence this zone has on Namibia
overhead, shifting annually between the Tropic of Cancer is greatest during the winter months when it moves
in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn northwards and prevailing winds carry a succession of
in the southern hemisphere (just south of Rehoboth). low-pressure systems and cold fronts from west to east
The positions of these two imaginary lines of the tropics that sweep across southern Africa. Although the impacts
are equidistant from the equator and determined by the of these fronts weaken as they move over the land, they
23.5-degree angle of tilt of the earth on its axis.1 are responsible for the small falls of rain over the southern
parts of Namibia in winter. These frontal weather systems
2. The middle belt is the Subtropical High-Pressure Zone. bring much more winter rain to the southern Cape in
The air in the upper atmosphere, becoming cold and dry South Africa.

Descending dry air from high-pressure cells create

Namibia’s cold and cloudless winter skies. One
can literally see forever …

74
 Shift in Namibian winter Shift in Namibian summer
High
pressure

Low pressure Low pressure

ITCZ
Cool air Warm air Warm air Cool air
sinks rises rises sinks

Low
pressure
High pressure High pressure

Namibia

Capricorn
Tropic of

Tropic of
Equator
Cancer

23.5° N 0° 23.5° S

ITCZ

ITCZ

H
H

H
L H

L
Winter (June) Summer (December)

3.01 Patterns of air circulation around southern Africa

The schematic representation of air circulation (top) illustrates the typical patterns of air circulation around southern Africa
the vertical and horizontal movements of air between the in winter (left) and summer (right) and the major air pressure
equator and the tropics and how this circulation shifts in relation and convergence zones.2 The dry high-pressure anticyclones
to Africa between summer and winter. Moist warm air from the (H) dominate over southern Africa in winter, with low-pressure
Intertropical Convergence Zone spirals upwards causing heavy cold fronts (L) bringing rain to the southwestern areas of the
precipitation over the equatorial region. It is visible as a broad continent. In summer, the Intertropical Convergence Zone
band of cloud in the two satellite images. Now cold and dry, this (ITCZ) – and other zones – migrate southwards allowing some
air is forced out from the equator to the poles where it subsides cloud development over Namibia. Note the drier cloudless
and forms centres of high pressure. It then moves towards the regions to the north and south of the ITCZ where the high-
equator completing the cycle. The two satellite images show pressure systems dominate.

CLIMATE | 75
 Ocean currents and upwelling centres
Earth’s oceans have a much greater capacity to absorb and this way, these ocean currents regulate the temperature of
store energy from the sun than the atmosphere above the the oceans and the temperature of the air above them, and
water surface. The natural flow of the oceans distributes have a major influence on the weather and climate. This is
this heat energy – cold dense water moves from the poles particularly true when the current that flows along the coast
towards the equator, while warm lighter water is carried is much colder than the tropical air above it, as is the case
from the equator polewards. By distributing the heat in with Namibia.

Norwegian
Current
t
urren
dC

an
Ea l
st Gr e e n nt
Alaskan rre
Cu
Current ntic nt
Atla rre
r th Cu
No io

ent
sh
ya

C urr
m O
Pacific C
urrent
Calif rea NORTH
Nor th orn St
ATLANTIC

ry
ia nt
NORTH rre

na
f

Cu
Gul

GYRE Cu

Ca
rre
PACIFIC n sh
io
GYRE ro
t

en
t Ku
Nor th E quatorial Current

rr
Cu
Nor th Equatorial Cur
rent
Eq

lia
Equatorial Counter ua ent
r ial Counter Curr

ma
Current to

So
South Equatorial Current
South Equatorial Current
South Equatorial Current nt
re
ur

nt

Australian C
re ur
e l a C u rre nt
tn

SOUTH SOUTH INDIAN

s tralian C
re
ur

nt
PACIFIC ATLANTIC OCEAN
il C

rre
rrent

az

Cu
GYRE GYRE GYRE

st
Br

Ea
as
ul h

t Au
Cu

gu

Ag
en

B
u

es
er

W
Antarctic Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Circum
po lar Curre
nt
Antarctic Subpolar Current Antarctic Subpolar Current

Due to the rotation of the earth, the waters of the world’s oceans form currents. The larger and more permanent currents form giant, rotating systems
called gyres responsible for regulating temperature, salinity and nutrient movements in Earth’s oceans. In the southern hemisphere the direction of
rotation is anticlockwise while in the northern hemisphere it is clockwise. There are five major gyres in circulation across the globe.

This is an image taken from an animation of

the world’s ocean currents generated by NASA’s
Goddard Space Flight Center. It is a synthesis of
modelled and empirical data assembled between
June 2005 and December 2007. The eddies,
known as the Agulhas rings (figure 3.02), are
clearly visible where the southerly moving Agulhas
Current of the Indian Ocean meets the northward
moving Benguela Current of the southern Atlantic.

76
3.02 The Benguela Current system warm
Angola
Current
Namibia’s coastal environment is dominated by the cold Benguela
Current which forms part of what is known as the South Atlantic
ront
gyre.3 The current moves in an anticlockwise direction on its path gu ela F
Ben
ola–
from south of the African continent towards the equator. Ang
Kunene
cell
The movement of surface waters results from the dragging
effect of the dominant southerly winds (figure 3.04). Although Northern
Namibia
cell
the impetus of the wind would tend to push the waters parallel
to the coast, the Coriolis force (resulting from the anticlockwise
rotation) deflects these surface waters towards the northwest. Central
Namibia
The speed of the water in the upper 100 metres decreases with cell

increasing depth and its direction of movement is influenced more

co
and more by the Coriolis effect so that farther down it is deflected

ld
B en
at right angles to the wind. This spiralling motion of the surface

gu
ela
Lüderitz
water and resulting perpendicular water movement at lower cell

Cur
depths is known as Ekman transport.

rent
Namaqua
W

cell
in
d

Ekman transport High

Columbine
cell
productivity
Surface flow
Cold current

Warm current
Peninsula Agulhas
cell cell
Cold to warm transition

Mixing of cold and warm

Agulhas
Upwelling warm currents
rings
Agulhas
Current
Upwelling cell

Continental shelf

The water that is forced to move away from the shore creates a
relative vacuum that causes deeper water to rise and replace it. This
is known as ‘upwelling’ and is the reason why the waters within 100
kilometres of the coast are rich in nutrients and bountiful with life.
Upwelling is most pronounced where the continental shelf is narrow.
Seven major upwelling cells or centres occur along the Atlantic
coast between southern Angola and the southern Cape.4 The
strongest upwelling cells off the Namibian coast are near Lüderitz
and Cape Frio. In both areas the winds are powerful, and the
inner continental shelf is relatively narrow. The Lüderitz cell is
by far the strongest and has the greatest impact on Namibia’s
marine life since the phytoplankton and zooplankton sustained by
the nutrient-rich waters here are subsequently distributed farther
northwards by the Benguela Current.
The Benguela Current is active as far north as the waters off
Angola where it meets the warm and southerly flowing Angola
Current. In addition to this, there is also a southerly flowing
countercurrent beneath the Benguela which flows parallel to
the Namibian coast, and which is strongest near the edge of the
continental shelf.

The nutrient-rich waters of the Benguela Current fuel a diverse ecoysystem

and sustain large populations of seabirds such as these cormorants.

CLIMATE | 77
 Sea surface temperatures
July August September

January February March

Average sea surface temperature (°C) 3.03 Monthly sea surface temperatures, 1982–20115
26.0

Although the Benguela is a cold-water warm-water events occurred in 1963,

system, surface temperatures vary 1984 and 1995. Water temperatures off
geographically, as well as over the course the northern Namibian coast in 1995
of the year. The coldest waters are in were about 8 degrees Celsius higher
the south and close to the coast. They than usual for that time of year, an event
are driven north in winter by strong known as a Benguela El Niño.
southwesterly winds of the South Atlantic Sea temperatures have been rising.
13.0 Anticyclone. In summer, warmer waters Over the 25-year period between
from the Angola Current push south, 1982 and 2007 average sea surface
but sea surface temperatures remain temperature in the coastal and offshore
cold close to the Namibian coast. Warm parts of the northern Benguela rose by
waters from Angola sometimes persist up to 1 degree Celsius.6
much longer than usual; such major

78
 October November December

April May June

Oysters are normally associated with warm ocean waters where they can breed. However there is a small but growing coastal oyster industry in
Namibia. The oysters are bred locally onshore and then transferred to ocean baskets that hang from floatation barrels (left). The greater levels of oxygen
and nutrients in the cold Benguela waters mean that the oysters can be harvested much earlier than their European counterparts.

CLIMATE | 79
 Wind
July October

Ondangwa Rundu Ondangwa Rundu

Walvis Windhoek Walvis Windhoek

Bay Bay
Gobabis Gobabis

Gobabeb Gobabeb

Lüderitz Lüderitz
Keetmanshoop Keetmanshoop

N N

Ondangwa Rundu NW
Ondangwa NE
Rundu
NW NE
50% 50%
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
W E W E

SW SE SW SE

Walvis Bay Windhoek Gobabis Walvis Bay S Windhoek Gobabis

S

Gobabeb Keetmanshoop Gobabeb Keetmanshoop

Lüderitz Lüderitz

3.04 Wind offshore and over Namibia7

Average wind speeds and directions for July, October, January proportion of calms (when wind speeds are less than 0.5 metres
and April are shown here for eight places in Namibia (wind per second) is higher.
roses) and offshore (maps). The cold Benguela Current fuels Two zones of strong winds, one around the Kunene River
the South Atlantic high-pressure cell located offshore (figure mouth and one at Lüderitz, coincide with upwelling cells
3.01). This anticyclone acts like a giant turbine blasting air in caused by the displacement of surface waters and the resulting
an anticlockwise rotation towards the coast. This, combined upward movement of deeper waters to replace them. Wind
with the Coriolis force (figure 3.02) that deflects the winds speeds are highest off the coast during the summer months when
northwestwards, produces the wind patterns we see off the temperature gradients are steepest between the cool ocean and
Namibian coast. The deflection of winds close to land results in the warm land. The coastal stretch from Lüderitz southwards to
the predominance of southeasterly, southerly and southwesterly the Orange River mouth is recognised as being the windiest area
winds along the entire coast. Over the land, wind speeds are in southern Africa and record wind speeds have been measured at
generally lower and wind directions are more variable, and the Pomona in the Sperrgebiet.8

80
 January April

Ondangwa Rundu Ondangwa Rundu

Walvis Windhoek Walvis Windhoek

Bay Bay
Gobabis Gobabis

Gobabeb Gobabeb
Average wind speed (m/s)
More than 9
Lüderitz Lüderitz
Keetmanshoop Keetmanshoop

Less than 5

N N

NW
Ondangwa NE
Rundu Ondangwa Rundu
NW NE
50% 50%
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
W E W E

SW SE SW SE
Walvis Bay S Windhoek Gobabis Walvis Bay Windhoek Gobabis
S

Gobabeb Keetmanshoop Gobabeb Keetmanshoop

Lüderitz Average wind speed

Lüderitz
(m/s) (km/h)
More than 9 More than 32.4
8–9 28.8–32.4
7–8 25.2–28.8
6–7 21.6–25.2
5–6 18.0–21.6
0.5–5 1.8–18.0

The wind roses below the maps contain several layers of Frequency of calms (%)
information. They show the direction from which the wind blows
(represented by the position of the arm) and how frequently it January April July October
blows from that direction (represented by the length of each arm). Gobabis 36 51 49 36
In addition, the colour gradient shows (proportionally) how strong Lüderitz 9 14 14 8
the winds are. In winter the influence of the Botswana Anticyclone Ondangwa 55 68 63 53
results in the prevalence of more easterly airflow in many areas. Rundu 56 59 62 49
These East Winds, as they are known, strengthen and become very Walvis Bay 17 17 18 13
warm as they descend from the escarpment and blow across the Windhoek 42 37 28 34
Namib Desert to the coast. The frequency of calms in the table
(right) represents the proportion of all records in the set of wind
measurements with values less than 0.5 metres per second.

CLIMATE | 81
 A B Shaping our sands 9

Wind has had – and continues to have – a major impact on

shaping Namibia’s landscapes by moving great amounts
of sand. Much of the sand is transported offshore to the
Atlantic, some sand is mixed into more fertile soils that attract
farmers, and other sands are moulded into the many forms
of dunes that are found in different areas of Namibia (pages
40–41). Wind patterns differ greatly, not only across the
landscape, but also between the seasons (see the wind roses
in figure 3.04). Some of the strongest and most persistent
winds are the southerly winds along the west coast that have
been instrumental in shaping the Namib Sand Sea. Linear
dunes (A), which characterise much of the sand sea and other
areas, are commonly considered to be shaped by the counter
influence of oblique winds against the dominant air flow.
[Image centre 24.19° S, 15.18° E]
Coastal residents are also only too familiar with fiery
blasts of air in the winter months. Namibians call them East
Winds (or sometimes Berg Winds); the winds are particularly
strong and hot. These winds from the east descend over the
escarpment, and pick up and carry large quantities of sand
over and into the Atlantic Ocean (B). [22.65° S, 13.82° E]
Inland, easterly winds are normally mild, and have
evidently been prevalent for many thousands, perhaps
millions, of years during which they have moulded landscapes
0 40 km 0 40 km
in surprising ways. For example, during long arid periods
easterly winds have blown alluvial sands out of drainage
C D courses such as the then-dry Kwando and Okavango rivers
and Omatako Omuramba (C) to form the parallel vegetated
dunes that we see across large parts of northern Namibia
today (page 41). [18.96° S, 19.58° E]
More locally, easterly winds have scoured alluvial silts from
ancient channels and pans in central-northern Namibia and
deposited them just west of the channels where they slowly
mix with sand to form the most fertile soils in the area. As a
result, people settle and farm crops along the western margins
of these old watercourses and pans, where each smallholding
is visible as a pale clearing in the surrounding woodland (D).
0 30 km 0 2 km
[17.49° S 16.95° E]
The easterly and westerly winds in contest with the
E F southerly winds continue to mould the mobile dunes of the
Namib, resulting in the multifaceted star dunes found around
Sossusvlei (E) and elsewhere in the eastern Namib Sand Sea.
[24.72° S, 15.51° E]
Southern Africa’s largest dune field stretches 850
kilometres from north to south and up to 200 kilometres
from east to west across much of southeastern Namibia and
into Botswana and South Africa. These linear dunes, with
a northwest–southeast alignment, were formed during two
phases 28,000 and 17,000 years ago by a more intense but
similar wind regime to that which occurs there today (F).
0 3 km 0 20 km
[23.72° S, 18.81° E]

82
 30 30 30
25 25 25
20 20 20
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5

Ondangwa
Rundu

Möwe Bay

30 30
25 25
20 Rundu 20
15 Ondangwa 15
10 10
Möwe 5
5
Bay

Windhoek Gobabis Gobabis

Walvis
Walvis Bay Bay
Gobabeb
30
Mariental
25
20 Average wind speed (km/h)
15
July
10 30
June August
5 Lüderitz 25
20
May 15 September
10
5
Gobabeb April October
30
25
20 Windhoek
March November
30 15
25 10
20 5 February December
15 January
10
5 Mariental
08h00 14h00

Luderitz
Lüderitz

3.05 Monthly wind speeds at 08h00 and 14h0010

As with seasonal effects on wind intensity, temperature gradients the rapid heating of the land surface (after the fog has dissipated)
also influence prevailing wind speeds during the day with stronger during the day results in pressure differences between the warm
winds experienced in the afternoon compared with the morning air over the land (low pressure) and the cool maritime air (high
and evening. At night the land surface cools and so too the air pressure) over the sea. This results in very strong coastal winds
above it; there is consequently less vertical air movement and with Lüderitz having average wind speeds of over 40 kilometres
mixing of air. As the land heats up during the day there is much per hour on summer afternoons. By contrast, wind speeds over the
more vertical air movement and mixing of air layers. At the coast, interior of the country are much more moderate.

The strong winds at the coast, particularly in the

southern parts attract the attention of wind surfers
and kite surfers in search of an adrenalin rush.
Winners of the annual Speed Challenge at Lüderitz
commonly record speeds in excess of
90 kilometres per hour.

CLIMATE | 83
 Fog
3.06 Annual and monthly frequency of fog and low cloud in the Namib Desert11

Fog defines much of the Namib Desert’s The central area of the coast Annual average
climate. It occurs during all months of the experiences the highest frequency of fog,
year in a band along the coast that may with a third of the days in each year having
extend more than 100 kilometres inland. some fog. Ground-based measurements at
The maps here, derived from satellite the coast suggest that, here, fog peaks in
0 100 200 km
and ground data, illustrate the average winter, between April and August.12
frequency of fog and low cloud along the While the satellites detect the presence
entire Namibian coast over the year and of all low cloud, the distinction between fog
from month to month. Inland fog or low and cloud is often difficult. The height of the
cloud occurs most frequently in the spring cloud base increases between August and
and summer months between September March, and much of the cloud at the coast
and March. Seasonal changes in airflow at this time (which is evident in the maps)
(figure 3.01) likely drive this pattern. would not be recorded as fog at ground level.

The presence of fog enables many of the plants and animals in the Namib to survive, despite the lack of
rain. In some areas, fog can also play an important role in soil water dynamics.13 Research has shown
that on average 3.5–5.0 litres of water per day can be harvested from fog on a square-metre collecting
surface.14 Many plants and at least 48 animal species are known to use free water from fog – for
example, by channelling water to their roots (plants) or drinking condensed water droplets (animals) –
but only a few animals, such as this tenebrionid beetle, actively harvest fog; it stands with its abdomen
facing the fog, which allows droplets to condense on its body and run down to its mouth.15

Fog frequency (% time)

More than 50
45–50
40–45
35–40
30–35
25–30
20–25
15–20
10–15
5–10
1–5
Less than 1

Fog in the Namib is often associated with extensive marine stratus clouds. These are low-level
clouds (below a few hundred metres) that typically form during the night and dissipate during
the day. The clouds form when moist air, trapped by a layer of sinking air produced by the South
Atlantic Anticyclone, is cooled by the low sea surface temperatures and becomes saturated. In
situations where stratus clouds extend over land, the altitude of the clouds and the local topography
determine whether fog occurs at the ground or not. It is still an open question as to how much of
the water in the fog is from marine sources and how much comes from condensation over the cool
night-time desert.

84
July August September October November December

January February March April May June

CLIMATE | 85
 The infamous Namib Desert
The Namib is a true dry desert formed by
the combined effects of at least three climatic
processes:
First, the cold Benguela Current, which
cools the maritime air as it blows across the
ocean and then inland, inhibits the formation
of rain along the entire coastal belt. Once
onshore, the moist maritime air is still so cold
that it cannot rise above warmer layers of air
that have been heated by the bare surface of
the desert. The maritime air therefore usually
remains trapped in an inversion layer within
a few hundred metres of the ground, where it
is unable to rise, cool and condense into rain
droplets, and often remains suspended in the
air as fog during the evening and morning.
Second, the moist tropical air that is drawn
in with the seasonal southward progression of
the Intertropical Convergence Zone precipitates
first in the north and east, and then in the
central parts of Namibia leaving less and
less water available to fall as rain across the
southern and western areas of the country.
Third, the escarpment drops sharply down
to the coastal plain (figures 2.07 and 2.08).
Any moist air approaching from the eastern
interior warms as it drops down over the
escarpment, causing any moisture to evaporate.
On the day this MODIS image was taken, most
of the moisture evaporated at the point where
land elevation dropped below 700 metres
above sea level, marked by the yellow contour
line. East of this line, the moisture is visible as
clouds; west of the line, there are no clouds.

Some features of the Namib Desert

(opposite page):
A Desert plains and flat-topped mountains
are iconic to the Etendeka Tablelands
(page 14) of northwestern Namibia.
B Fog shrouds the lagoon at Walvis Bay.
C Sossusvlei dunes rise above the fog, a rare
occurrence so far east.
D The sand sea meets the ocean at
Conception Bay.
E A nutritious melon of the Namib’s !nara
plant is highly sought after, in spite of its
thorny features (page 192).
F Sandy plains at Puros Conservancy
harbour seeds that will take advantage of
rain when it comes.
G Extensive plains of gravels have been
exposed where winds have blown away
the finer sands.
H One of many succulent plant species
that is adapted to survive the Namib,
Hartmanthus pergamentaceus.
I The iconic Welwitschia mirabilis, like
many desert plants, provides a refuge for
insects, birds and small mammals in the
central Namib.
J This lichen, photographed at Cape Cross,
is a symbiotic relationship between an alga
and fungus; a variety of lichens occur in
several discrete areas or ‘lichen fields’ in
the central Namib Desert.
K The coastal desert town of Swakopmund
is one of few hubs in the Namib’s vast,
arid wilderness.

86
A B

C D E

F G

H I J

CLIMATE | 87
 Rainfall patterns
In a country as arid as Namibia, rainfall is the single most freshwater supplies, supporting natural vegetation, and
important factor in sustaining life and livelihoods. It varies determining the yields of crops and the success of domestic and
dramatically seasonally, annually and geographically. Each wild animals in breeding and rearing their young.
year’s falls are essential for replenishing Namibia’s limited

13° E 15° E 17° E 19° E 21° E 23° E 25° E

Katima Mulilo
Rundu
Opuwo Ondangwa
18° S

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

20° S Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

22° S

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

24° S
Mariental Average annual rainfall (mm)
More than 650
600–650
550–600
500–550
450–500
26° S 400–450
Lüderitz Keetmanshoop 350–400
300–350
250–300
200–250
150–200
100–150
28° S Less than 100

Oranjemund
Noordoewer

3.07 Annual rainfall (left) and monthly rainfall (right)16

Average annual rainfall (above) is calculated for the rainfall The great majority of rain in Namibia results from convective
season, from the beginning of July of one year to the end of processes whereby heat causes moist air to rise, cool, condense and
June in the following year. Along the coast and for some way form dense cumulus clouds. Some inland areas, such as those around
inland rainfall is extremely low and highly variable (figure Otavi, Tsumeb and Grootfontein, have slightly higher rainfall than
3.10). Average rainfall within 40 kilometres of the coast is less their surrounding areas due to orographic rainfall, which results
than 20 millimetres per year, and most of this typically falls from moist air being forced up over hills or mountains and cooled.
for short periods on only a few rainy days. By contrast, the Slightly higher patches of rainfall in the far southwest are the result
northeastern areas of Namibia receive on average falls of more of frontal rain received during the winter months when substantial
than 650 millimetres a year. cold fronts farther south reach into Namibia (figure 3.01).

88
May–September October November

December January February

March April
Average monthly rainfall (mm)
More than 150
140–150
130–140
120–130
110–120
100–110
90–100
80–90
70–80
60–70
50–60
40–50
30–40
20–30
Less than 20

With the exception of the southwest, rainfall in Namibia is 3.01). However, they dominate weather in winter when they
strongly seasonal. As the maps of average monthly rainfall show, resume their northerly positions west and east of the country. Air
from October to February rainfall gradually increases across the descends in the anticyclones, drying as it subsides and spreads
country from the east and north, retreating again during March across Namibia and the rest of southern Africa. With the warm
and April. tropical air effectively blocked, the prevailing anticyclonic
But what makes Namibia so dry in-between times? As the conditions produce clear, cloudless skies day after day between
Intertropical Convergence Zone shifts south in summer, the May and September.
South Atlantic Anticyclone and Botswana Anticyclone push
south, where their impact on Namibia’s weather is limited (figure

CLIMATE | 89
90
3.08 Monthly rainfall in detail17

The maps in figure 3.07 provide an and west, with peak months from January
overview of rainfall patterns throughout onwards. On average, February and March
the summer rainy season. This more are the months with the highest falls over
detailed breakdown highlights east–west the southern and western thirds of Namibia.
and north–south differences in the Along the entire coast, rainfall is
distribution of rain. Each graph shows the generally very low. However, there are
average rainfall per month in each degree significant differences in the seasonal
square of latitude and longitude. spread of rainfall between the southern and
For most areas in Namibia, almost all northern coast, as shown in the inset map.
rain falls in spring and summer between In the extreme southern areas, precipitation
September and April. The only exception in winter sustains the Succulent Karoo
is in the southwest which lies in the winter vegetation (figures 6.01–6.03), which
temperate rainfall belt; here, monthly results in amazing desert blooms in August
totals are similar throughout the year. or September. Moving northwards up
Within the summer rainfall area there the coast, the chance of winter rainfall
is a clear trend linked to the movement decreases while that of summer rainfall
of moist air. In the northeast rains start increases with highest summer averages in
earlier, and peak months are December the far north which receives incursions of
to February. Rain starts later in the south moist tropical air from Angola.

West of the escarpment, average rainfall figures are not terribly meaningful. Years may go by
without a drop of rain. But, indigenous flora and fauna take advantage of a once-in-a-long-while
good rainfall or a good season that transforms the landscape. Here and elsewhere, these first rains
trigger the emergence and activity of invertebrates such as red velvet mites (top left) and dung
beetles (top right). The Succulent Karoo stretches from the Sperrgebiet in Namibia down the
west coast of South Africa (figure 6.01). Although rainfall in this biome is very low, it can receive
moisture all year round (figure 3.08). In spring, blooming wild flowers dress the landscape in a sea
of colour (bottom).

CLIMATE | 91
 Katima Mulilo
Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo Divundu

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe
Khorixas Number of days
Otjinene More than 55
50–55
Windhoek
45–50
Walvis Bay
40–45
35–40
Mariental
30–35
25–30 A rainstorm gathers over the Fish River
Keetmanshoop 20–25 Canyon in December 2010. This part of the
Lüderitz
15–20 country receives rain on only a handful of
10–15 days each year. Within hours after a downpour
Less than 10 shoots of green growth appear in what was
Noordoewer previously a barren landscape.

3.09 Number of days per year with 1 millimetre of rainfall or more18

How does the limited rain in the western 64 rain days at Katima Mulilo. Opuwo, intensity and/or duration of rainfall events
parts of Namibia fall – in light showers on the escarpment, receives an average increases eastwards in northern Namibia.
over many days or in heavier falls on just a rainfall of 285 millimetres which falls over In general, the pattern of this map mirrors
few days? Taking a cut-off of 1 millimetre 33 rain days on average. that of annual rainfall (figure 3.07). The
to exclude minor rainfall events, this map Interestingly, Ondangwa in northern higher frequency of rain days in some
shows that the average frequency of rainy Oshana Region receives 175 millimetres areas reflects the increase in rainfall caused
days rapidly increases eastwards of the less rain on average than Divundu by local relief, such as around Otavi–
coast. The coastal towns have significant in Kavango East, but its number of Tsumeb–Grootfontein (Otavi Mountains),
rain on fewer than seven days per season significant rain days is similar (50 and Windhoek (Auas Mountains) and west of
on average while this increases to about 55, respectively). This suggests that the Otjinene (Waterberg area).

Coefficient of variation (%)

More than 100
90–100
80–90
70–80
60–70
50–60
40–50
30–40
Less than 30

3.10 Variation in annual rainfall19

With the decline in rainfall from east In Namibia’s far western areas where
to west, the frequency of rainfall events variability is greatest, rainfalls may be
becomes more sporadic. This is reflected brief but intense and cause disruption to
in the increasing degree of variability in coastal towns. For example, the long-
annual rainfall compared to the long- term average annual rainfall at Lüderitz
The NamibRand Nature Reserve south of the
term average, and is expressed as the is just 16 millimetres but, in April 2006, Naukluft Mountains most commonly looks
coefficient of variation. As variability 102 millimetres fell on the town over a like the image taken in December 2000 (top).
increases, rain-fed cultivation and other three-day period. Such events are rare, The eastern margin of the reserve normally
receives around 100 millimetres of rainfall;
land-use practices become more marginal irregular and are not expected to occur about twice as much fell in the 2010/11 rain
and risk increases. more than once in a century.20 season, transforming the landscape (bottom).

92
 Rainfall (mm)
1,200
Five-year running average
1,000 Annual total

800

600

400

200

0
1901/02 1911/12 1921/22 1931/32 1941/42 1951/52 1961/62 1971/72 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12 2019/20

Rainfall season

3.11 Windhoek’s annual rainfall, 1901/02–2019/2021

The amount of rain that falls in one place each cycle has had its highs and lows, it have their origins in the Pacific Ocean
in Namibia differs each and every year; is the most recent cycle that has been the and are related to changes in sea surface
in the best seasons it can be several times most variable, and is perhaps linked to the temperature and atmospheric pressure.
higher than rainfall in the worst seasons. rapid change in climate over recent years In general, lower falls are received in
In this series of total annual rainfall for (figure 3.23). Namibia during El Niño years and higher
120 years, the five-year running average Global weather patterns influence falls during La Niña years (page 73).
highlights the cyclical nature of longer- rainfall variability between seasons,
term changes. Troughs of low rainfall and extended dry periods are associated
occur roughly every 14–15 years. While with well-known El Niño phases. These

Rainfall (mm) Khorixas Rainfall (mm) Tsumkwe Rainfall (mm) Katima Mulilo Katima Mulilo

2015/16 2015/16 2015/16 Tsumkwe

60 210 300

Khorixas
40 140 200

20 70 100

0 0 0

2016/17 2016/17 2016/17

60 210 300

40 140 200

20 70 100 3.12 Monthly rainfall totals

0 0 0 at three locations,
2017/18 2017/18 2017/18
2015/16–2019/2022
60 210 300

40 140 200 Rainfall from one season to the next is

erratic. This holds true for most places in
20 70 100
Namibia and is illustrated in these graphs
0 0 0 of monthly rainfall over five consecutive
2018/19 2018/19 2018/19
seasons from 2015/16–2019/20 at
60 210 300
Khorixas, Tsumkwe and Katima Mulilo.
40 140 200 They show a high degree of variation
20 70 100
in the amounts of rainfall received each
month, in the spread of rainfall over the
0 0 0
seasons and in the peak rain months
60
2019/20
210
2019/20
300
2019/20 each season. Successful crop farming
requires some stability in the timing and
40 140 200
consistency of rainfall events, and the
20 70 100 inherent variability of rainfall in Namibia
often leads to crop failures, or makes
0 0 0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
dryland cropping impractical.

CLIMATE | 93
 Sunshine hours and radiation
14 14 14
10 10 10
6 6 6
2 2 2

Ondangwa Rundu Katima Mulilo

11 Nov Katima Mulilo 1 Feb

Rundu
14 Nov 18° S 28 Jan
Ondangwa

18 Nov Grootfontein 25 Jan

22 Nov 14 20° S 21 Jan

10
27 Nov 6 16 Jan
2
3 Dec Windhoek 22° S 10 Jan
Walvis Bay
12 Dec 1 Jan

Tropic of Capricorn
22 Dec Grootfontein 22 Dec
14 14
10 10
6
Keetmanshoop
6
2 2

Oranjemund
Walvis Bay Windhoek

14

Average annual sunshine 10

Average monthly sunshine
(hours per day) 6
(hours per day)
2
July
More than 10 June 14 August
9–10 10
May September
8–9 6

Oranjemund 2
7–8 April October

6–7
March November
5–6
February December
Less than 5 January
Keetmanshoop
22 Dec Date the sun is directly
over the line of latitude Hours of sunshine recorded
Maximum hours possible

3.13 Number of sunshine hours per day23

The radial charts show the average cover is rare and there is no fog. Along just south of Rehoboth. This point
number of sunshine hours each month at the central coast the amount of sunshine then retreats northwards again with the
various locations as well as the maximum received increases slightly during the seasonal progression into the longer
amount of sunshine possible. The winter months when East Winds help nights of autumn and winter. These
predominance of fog and low cloud along clear away cloud and fog, but for the rest seasonal changes are due to the orbiting
the coastal belt limits sunshine along the of the year the average daily duration of of the tilted earth around the sun
coast. Averages of only 5–7 hours of sun sunshine varies little. because in summer more of the southern
are seen per day in the central coastal The map shows the average number hemisphere faces the sun, while in
areas around Walvis Bay compared to of sunshine hours over all months of winter more of the northern hemisphere
8–10 at Windhoek. During the rainy the year. It also shows how the position faces it. This causes day length to vary
season, cloud cover limits the amount of of the sun shifts during the year by by several hours between the shortest
sunshine received and this is evident by indicating the latitude at which the and longest days. For instance, there
the decrease in sunshine hours during the sun is positioned directly overhead at is a difference of approximately two
rainfall months (October–April) in the midday. This point gradually moves hours in day length between June and
northern and northeastern parts of the south in summer until Midsummer’s December at Ondangwa, while at
country. The southern central areas of Day on 22 December – the longest Keetmanshoop the difference in day
Namibia see the most sunshine. Here, the day of the year – when it is positioned length is about 3.5 hours.
days are the longest (in summer), cloud directly over the Tropic of Capricorn,

94
 Katima Mulilo
Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

Mariental
Average direct solar radiation
kWh/m²/day kWh/m²/year
More than 8.25 More than 3,013
8.00–8.25 2,922–3,013
Keetmanshoop 7.75–8.00 2,830–2,922
Lüderitz
7.50–7.75 2,739–2,830
7.25–7.50 2,648–2,739
7.00–7.25 2,557–2,648
6.75–7.00 2,465–2,557
6.50–6.75 2,374–2,465
Less than 6.50 Less than 2,374
Oranjemund
Noordoewer

3.14 Average solar irradiance, 2005–201524

Solar power – or solar irradiance – is and diffusely from the sun – known as and rainfall (figure 3.07). The arid
the amount of the sun’s electromagnetic global horizontal irradiance – across southern and western parts of the country,
energy falling onto the surface of the Namibia. This measure is important in the which have little cloud cover for much
earth. This is usually measured in the assessment of solar power potential for of the year, receive more solar radiation.
number of kilowatt-hours per square electricity generation (page 347). What is Close to the coast, however, irradiance
metre per day, or per year. most noticeable in this map is the general decreases sharply as the land surface is
Several factors influence how much inverse relationship between irradiance often shielded by fog and low cloud.
energy from the sun reaches the surface.
First, atmospheric conditions such as
cloud cover, dust and pollutants obscure
the sun’s direct rays. Second, is the
effect of latitude. At places farther north
or south of the equator the sunlight
is angled increasingly more obliquely
relative to the earth, so that solar
radiation reaching its surface is spread
diffusely across a greater area, and it
has to pass through thicker layers of the
atmosphere. Third, the seasons affect
day length, which determines the number
of hours the sun’s rays hit the earth (see
3.13). Fourth, topography influences how
shaded or exposed an area is to the sun.
This map shows the average amount
of solar radiation received both directly

CLIMATE | 95
 Temperature
Namibia is generally considered to be a hot
country. However, average temperatures
are surprisingly moderate because hot
weather is balanced by cold periods in
winter, low night-time temperatures even
in summer, and by fog and low cloud along
the coastal belt. The diurnal and seasonal
changes in temperature (considered first
below) are the result of variations in Adapted to widely ranging diurnal temperatures, these springbok huddle under the shade of a
lone tree in an attempt to find some relief from the midday heat. Temperatures can reach the mid-
sunshine and radiation, vegetation cover, forties in some areas in summer; the heat is accentuated by sharp reflection off sparsely vegetated
altitude, cloud cover, fog and humidity. pale soils and dry, dusty air.

Katima Mulilo
Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

Mariental

Average maximum temperature (°C)

More than 36
34–36
Lüderitz Keetmanshoop
32–34
30–32
28–30
26–28
24–26
22–24
Oranjemund
Noordoewer

3.15 Maximum and minimum temperatures, and annual temperature range25

Average maximum temperatures (the moderated by the presence of fog and low be expected, but during the winter
average of all monthly maximum cloud. Some of the hottest parts of the months (see the monthly charts in figure
temperatures over a selected time period) country are in the far south and southeast 3.16). This is when warm East Winds
during the hottest months are generally where average maximum temperatures sweep over the escarpment, becoming
above 30 degrees Celsius everywhere east are in excess of 36 degrees Celsius. In the hotter as they drop down towards the
of the escarpment. The central highlands central and northern coastal areas, the coast (figure 3.04).
around Windhoek are slightly cooler highest average maximum temperatures July is the coolest month over much
while temperatures in the coastal belt are are not experienced in summer, as might of the country. Average minimum

96
Some of the lowest monthly temperatures have been recorded in the south of the country (figure 3.16) which experiences the greatest range between
maximum and minimum temperatures. When frontal systems, originating over the southern Atlantic Ocean in winter, move northwards across Namibia,
extreme temperatures (below –10 degrees Celsius) can be experienced. Frost is then common (left and centre), and snow occasionally falls in some areas,
such as shown here in Aus (right).

Katima Mulilo
Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

Mariental

Temperature range (°C)

More than 32
Average minimum temperature (°C) 30–32
12–14 28–30
Lüderitz Keetmanshoop
10–12 26–28
8–10 24–26
6–8 22–24
4–6 20–22
2–4 18–20
Less than 2 Less than 18
Oranjemund
Noordoewer

temperatures in the coldest months are above 6 degrees Celsius, whereas close The northern Namib and coastal strip
less than 10 degrees Celsius in most to the coast, the moderating effects of the southern Namib experience the
areas (above). The coldest areas are of onshore winds (and the warm East smallest range in annual temperature of
along the southern escarpment, where Winds) keep temperatures above 10 22 degrees Celsius or less. The greatest
average minimum temperatures are less degrees Celsius. range in temperature – above 32 degrees
than 2 degrees Celsius. Inland and over The small map on the right shows the Celsius – occurs in the southeastern parts
much of northern Namibia, the average difference between the average maximum of the country around Karasburg and near
minimum temperatures are generally and average minimum temperature maps. the Botswana border.

CLIMATE | 97
 3.16 Temperatures at
40 40 40

30 30 30

20

10
20

10
20

10
selected locations26
0 0 0

Inland temperatures vary most

significantly in the minimums and
Möwe Bay ranges of temperatures recorded in the
Ondangwa Rundu winter months. At the coast there is a
40 40 much greater, yet opposite, seasonal
30 30

20
Rundu
20
shift in temperature from the cooler
Ondangwa
10 Grootfontein 10 summer months to the highest average
Möwe
0 Bay 0
temperatures in April, May, June and July
when hot East Winds are frequent.
Walvis Windhoek
Gobabeb in the Namib Desert
Walvis Bay Bay
Gobabeb
Rohrbeck Grootfontein
experiences little seasonal variation in
40

30 temperature. Although it is located at

20 Temperature (°C) the eastern edge of the coastal fog belt
Keetmanshoop
10 July

0
June
40
August (figure 3.06), Gobabeb lies in the sector
30

May 20 September
of the country that receives some of the
Oranjemund
10 highest levels of solar radiation (figure
0
40
April October 3.14). It experiences high temperatures
Gobabeb 30 all year round and holds claim to an
20
40
10
March November
official maximum record for Namibia of
30

20 0 February Windhoek December 45.5 degrees Celsius (in March 2013).27

January
10

0
Average monthly maximum
Average monthly average
Average monthly minimum
Keetmanshoop

Oranjemund

Rundu
Ondangwa

Daily range (°C)

24

20

16
Windhoek
Walvis Bay
12
Gobabeb
Average daily
8
temperature range (°C)
More than 18 4

16–18 0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Lüderitz 14–16
12–14 Rundu Gobabeb Lüderitz
Less than 12 Ondangwa Windhoek Walvis Bay

3.17 Daily temperature range28

The average daily temperature range Average daily temperature ranges are little during the year. Larger seasonal
is calculated as the difference between lowest at the coast and highest in the differences in daily temperature range are
mean maximum and minimum daily northern escarpment area, the northeastern felt elsewhere. For example, Ondangwa
temperatures in each month. This Namib Sand Sea and in southeastern and Rundu have a daily temperature range
differs from the annual temperature Namibia. Towns at the coast experience an of 18–20 degrees Celsius in the dry, winter
range map (figure 3.15) which is a average daily range of less than 10 degrees months, but the range drops to around
measure of the difference between the Celsius. This is quite consistent throughout 12 degrees Celsius when clouds moderate
maximums and minimums of the hottest the year. Windhoek’s temperature range heat loss and gain during the peak rain
and coldest months. of about 15 degrees Celsius also varies months.

98
 13° E 15° E 17° E 19° E 21° E 23° E 25° E

Katima Mulilo
Rundu
Opuwo Ondangwa
18° S

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

20° S Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

22° S

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

24° S
Mariental

26° S Average annual temperature (°C)

Lüderitz Keetmanshoop 24–26
22–24
20–22
18–20
16–18
14–16
28° S 12–14

Oranjemund
Noordoewer

3.18 Average annual temperature29

The average annual temperature for each year is calculated from insulate the land and help retain heat. Similarly, where humidity
the average of each day’s maximum and minimum temperatures. remains high along the coast, cool onshore winds and persistent
The central northern and northeastern areas along the northern fog or low cloud keep temperatures mild for most of the year,
escarpment of the country have the highest annual average with averages below 20 degrees Celsius. The lowest average
temperatures. Moist, humid air absorbs and retains heat longer temperatures occur in the southern Namib and around the
than dry air and so the greater levels of moisture during the southern escarpment. Although the western desert belt receives
rainy months, and the insulating effects of clouds, help maintain high levels of solar radiation during the day (figure 3.14), the
warmth day and night. In addition, the more vegetated Acacia generally dry air (figure 3.19) over these bare surfaces loses heat
and Broadleaved Tree-and-Shrub Savanna habitats (figure 6.02) rapidly at night.

CLIMATE | 99
 Humidity
Air moisture content – or humidity – is a measure of the at a given temperature, and it is this percentage saturation
amount of water vapour present. The temperature of the air that is used to compare air moisture levels. Relative humidity
affects its humidity since cold air can hold less water vapour values are usually highest early in the morning when the air
than warm air before it condenses. Relative humidity is thus is coldest.
the amount of water in the air in relation to what it can hold

Katima Mulilo Katima Mulilo

Ondangwa Rundu Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo Opuwo

Tsumeb Tsumeb

Tsumkwe Tsumkwe
Terrace Bay Khorixas Terrace Bay Khorixas
Otjiwarongo Otjiwarongo

Gobabis Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek Walvis Bay Windhoek

Humidity (%)
More than 90
80–90
Mariental Mariental
70–80
60–70
50–60
Lüderitz Keetmanshoop 40–50 Lüderitz Keetmanshoop

30–40
20–30
10–20
Less than 10
Oranjemund Oranjemund
Noordoewer Noordoewer

3.19 Relative humidity during the least (left) and most (right) humid months30
Over most of Namibia, average relative humidity values vary a per cent in northern Namibia and 50–60 per cent in the south.
great deal between the driest and wettest months. The exception Humidity values in the driest months are measured at 14h00
is the narrow belt along the entire coast that experiences moist while those in the most humid month are taken in the morning at
maritime air throughout the year. During the least humid months, 08h00, as these are the times when the lowest and highest values,
humidity east of the escarpment is generally less than 20 per cent. respectively, are recorded.
By contrast during the most humid months, values are around 80

The typical blue skies of winter are replaced in summer with convective cloud formation following the influx of moist air from the north and east.

100
 100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

100
80
60
40 Ondangwa
Rundu
20

100
80
Rundu
60
Ondangwa
40
20
Tsumeb
Walvis Bay
100
80
Gobabis
60
Walvis
40 Bay Tsumeb
Gobabeb
20

Average relative humidity (%)

Keetmanshoop July
100
June August
Lüderitz 80
60
Gobabeb May September
40
20
100 100
April October
80 80
60 60
40 40
March November
20 20 Gobabis

February December
January

Keetmanshoop
08h00 14h00

Lüderitz

3.20 Changes in relative humidity during the year31

When interpreting differences in relative humidity between the morning compared to those in the early afternoon at these
months, bear in mind that values are influenced both by air locations. Rundu, for example, has humidity levels in the morning
moisture and air temperature. At the same moisture levels, cold (08h00) that range between 50 and 70 per cent while at 14h00
air will be closer to saturation than warm air. For most inland they range between 20 and 40 per cent. By contrast, the coastal
locations, the months with the lowest average humidity values towns of Lüderitz and Walvis Bay have consistently high humidity
are August, September and October because the change from values throughout the year (70–90 per cent) and only vary a little
winter to spring brings warmer temperatures, but moisture between morning and afternoon. The lowest humidity values
levels in the air are still low. The daily temperature range (figure throughout the year are recorded in the southeast where solar
3.17) is reflected in the much higher humidity levels recorded in radiation and temperatures are high, but rainfall is low.

Areas close to the coast, in contrast to the interior,

have consistently high relative humidity levels
throughout the year and frequent fog. This
saturated air often extends further east from the
coast, especially along lower-lying ephemeral river
valleys. Here it casts an eerie grey backdrop over
the wildlife supported by this river course.

CLIMATE | 101
 Evaporation and aridity
Katima Mulilo
Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

Average annual potential evapotranspiration (mm)

Mariental More than 2,800
2,700–2,800
2,600–2,700
2,500–2,600
2,400–2,500
2,300–2,400
Lüderitz Keetmanshoop
2,200–2,300
2,100–2,200
2,000–2,100
1,900–2,000
1,800–1,900
Less than 1,800
Oranjemund
Noordoewer

3.21 Annual potential evapotranspiration32

Evapotranspiration is measured as the amount of moisture rainfall, average temperature, daily temperature range and
released to the atmosphere through evaporation from surfaces extraterrestrial radiation.
such as the soil, wetlands and standing water combined with In arid areas, potential evapotranspiration exceeds annual
transpired moisture lost from plants via their leaves, stems and precipitation and this is depicted clearly in this map where the average
flowers during photosynthesis. Potential evapotranspiration values in most areas are an order of magnitude higher than the
is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to remove water average levels of rainfall received (figure 3.07). To put this in context,
through evapotranspiration processes. Using potential rather than all the water in a full, uncovered, average size public swimming pool
actual evapotranspiration provides a means of determining the would evaporate before a year has past. The parts of the country
water balance of a particular area as it indicates the amount of with the greatest potential for evapotranspiration are in the east and
evaporation that would occur if sufficient water were available. southeast, which are also the areas that experience the greatest annual
The calculations make use of several parameters including and daily temperature extremes (figures 3.15 and 3.17).

The water deficit makes cattle farming a

hazardous exercise, particularly if faced with
consecutive years of low rainfall that result in
heavy losses.

102
 13° E 15° E 17° E 19° E 21° E 23° E 25° E

Katima Mulilo
Ondangwa Rundu
Opuwo
18° S

Tsumeb

Tsumkwe

20° S Terrace Bay Khorixas

Otjiwarongo

Semi-arid
Arid
22° S Hyperarid

Gobabis
Walvis Bay Windhoek

24° S Aridity index

Mariental More than 0.26
0.24–0.26
0.22–0.24
0.20–0.22
0.18–0.20
0.16–0.18
26° S 0.14–0.16
Lüderitz Keetmanshoop 0.12–0.14
0.10–0.12
0.08–0.10
0.06–0.08
0.04–0.06
0.02–0.04
28° S Less than 0.02

Oranjemund
Noordoewer

3.22 Namibia’s aridity index33

The Global Aridity Index is the ratio between rainfall and and in the Tsumeb area. In terms of the Global Aridity Index these
potential evapotranspiration. Consequently, an index value of 1 areas are considered semi-arid. The bulk of the rest of the country
would mean that the amount of potential moisture lost is exactly has an index of 0.02–0.20 and is considered arid, while the entire
offset by the amount of rainfall received. This classification system coastal belt is hyper-arid. It is of no surprise therefore that much
considers values above 0.5 as increasingly humid, while values of the country is ill-suited for many forms of livestock or crop
below 0.5 represent more arid conditions. farming, especially in combination with Namibia’s poor soils
In Namibia, the highest index values of 0.20 or more occur (figure 5.17).
along the far northern and northeastern margins of the country,

CLIMATE | 103
 Climate change
Two aspects of climate change are definite. First, the earth and environment are hard to project. This is not to deny
has been getting hotter and sea levels have been rising. the many possible and damaging effects of climate change,
Those trends are certain to continue. Second, the exact and thus the urgent need to reduce human-induced global
effects of climate change on other aspects of the weather warming.

Rainfall, 1960–1990 Projected rainfall, 2040–2060

Average annual rainfall (mm)

650–700
600–650
550–600
500–550
450–500
400–450
350–400
300–350
250–300
200–250
150–200
100–150
50–100
0–50

Projected change in average annual rainfall

Change in rainfall (mm)

150–180
120–150
Decrease in rainfall (mm) 90–120
increase
60–90
0–10
30–60
10–20
0–30
20–30
30–40 0–30
40–50 30–60 decrease
50–60 >60

3.23 Projected changes in rainfall by 206034

Total annual rainfall across Namibia, for the period 2040–2060, Much of the African continent, however, is expected to receive
is expected to decrease by nearly 9 per cent relative to historical higher rainfall than it currently does. Substantial changes in rainfall
(1960–1990) rainfall. All months of the year are expected to be over the East African Rift Valley could have serious implications. For
drier, with rainfall in the rainy season (October to April) expected example, Lake Victoria that feeds (and is the source of) the Nile River,
to drop by 8 per cent and in the dry season (May to September) receives more than 85 per cent of its water directly from precipitation;
by 20 per cent. with an increase in rainfall, floods would become a serious risk.

104
 Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios maps below depict Scenario 8.5 of the RCP. This scenario
are used to project changes to the climate. These models assumes that the current rate at which greenhouse gas
assess the influence of different greenhouse gas levels on emissions increase each year will continue throughout the
radiant energy received by, and radiated from, the earth. The twenty-first century.

Temperature, 1960-1990 Projected temperature, 2040–2060

Average annual temperature (°C)

26–27
25–26
24–25
23–24
22–23
21–22
20–21
19–20
18–19
17–18
16–17
15–16
14–15

Projected change in average annual temperature

Rise in temperature (°C)

3.6–3.8
3.4–3.6
Rise in temperature (°C) 3.2–3.4
3.2–3.4 3.0–3.2
3.0–3.2 2.8–3.0
2.8–3.0 2.6–2.8
2.6–2.8 2.4–2.6
2.4–2.6 2.2–2.4
2.2–2.4 2.0–2.2
2.0–2.2 1.8–2.0

3.24 Projected changes in temperature by 206035

Temperatures are expected to increase progressively as one Increases in temperature across central Africa are projected to
moves eastwards from the coast. Mean annual temperature be more moderate, while the greatest increases in temperatures
across Namibia is projected to increase by 3 degrees Celsius, across Africa are expected to occur in the Saharan region where
with all months of the year becoming substantially warmer. they might increase by as much as 3.8 degrees Celsius.

CLIMATE | 105
 Methane emissions (kilotonnes of CO2 equivalent) CO2 emissions (million tonnes)
10,000,000 100,000

10,000
1,000,000

1,000
100,000
100

10,000
10

1,000 1
1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019

United States China Germany South Africa Nigeria Namibia

3.25 Greenhouse gas emissions and renewable energy opportunities36

The main greenhouse gases contributing to climate change are to supply electricity to 70,000 homes. In the urban setting, many
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases. shopping malls and other buildings in Windhoek and elsewhere
Carbon dioxide and methane gases generated from human now have their rooftops decked with solar panels. Independent
activities come largely from combustion, especially of fossil fuels, power producers across the country already make a significant
solid waste and vegetation. Methane, considered a more potent contribution to the generation of energy and this is expected to
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, is produced by the livestock increase as more solar power plants are constructed (page 347).
industry and is a very significant contributor to emissions in Similarly, the energy from Namibia’s strong winds, particularly
countries such as the United States of America and China. those in the southern Namib Desert, is being harnessed through
In the global context, Namibia’s contribution to greenhouse gas the wind turbines of newly constructed wind farms, such as
emissions is insignificant. Its carbon dioxide emissions are hundreds the Ombepo Wind Farm positioned south of Lüderitz, further
of times lower than those of countries with the highest emissions, enhancing the national energy mix (figure 10.20). It is expected
and its methane production is thousands of times lower. Namibia’s that in coming years there will be four wind farms with a total
relative contribution to global climate change is thus minimal (note of 98 wind turbines located in the extreme southwestern reaches
the logarithmic scale of the y-axis in the graphs above). of the country. By 2030 NamPower expects that 70 per cent
High levels of solar radiation and powerful coastal winds of Namibia’s electricity requirements will be generated from
provide Namibia with the opportunity to become a frontrunner renewable sources. Renewable energy generation, however, also
in green energy production. For example, a 100-hectare solar comes at some cost, and there has been conflict between the
park built near Mariental in 2019 generates 45 megawatts of energy and environmental sectors as many of the prime locations
electricity which feeds into the NamPower grid and is sufficient for wind farms are in highly sensitive habitats.

The roof of Maerua Mall (left), one of Windhoek’s largest shopping centres, is installed with panels of photovoltaic cells that convert energy from the
sun to electricity; they are able to produce at least 1,800 megawatt-hours of electricity per year. Wind along Namibia’s southern coast (right) has great
potential for generating electricity and is expected to make a significant contribution to Namibia’s energy mix by 2030.

106
Key points

• Namibia’s climate is dominated by two anticyclonic • Coastal areas experience an average of 5–7 hours of
air systems, and the cold Benguela Current. Seasonal sunshine per day as a consequence of fog and cloud. Most
changes occur as the two anticyclones move in inland areas experience more than 8 hours of sunshine per
relation to the advancing and retreating Intertropical day. The difference in day length between the shortest and
Convergence Zone, which is a band of warm, humid longest days is about two hours in the north and three-and-
air. The influence of frontal weather systems is largely a-half hours in the south of the country.
limited to the southern parts of the country during the
winter months. • The southern and western parts of the country, with the
exception of the coastal margin, receive the most direct
• The cold ocean current and its associated upwelling centres solar radiation.
result in mild sea surface temperatures throughout the year
with the lowest temperatures recorded between the months • Average maximum temperatures range from 22 degrees
of July and September. Celsius to more than 36 degrees Celsius with the highest
average maximum temperatures recorded in the east.
• Winds at the coast are persistently strong and Some of the coldest temperatures are recorded in the south
predominantly from a southerly direction. Wind speeds of the country, particularly along the southern escarpment
in the afternoon are stronger than in the morning and where average minimum temperatures drop below
evening, and are lower and more variable further inland. In 2 degrees Celsius.
winter, hot, dry easterly winds are common; wind speeds
usually build up from the small hours, peak in the late • Average annual temperatures are highest in the north
morning and subside in the afternoon. and northeast, and are lowest along the southern
escarpment and in the southern desert areas. Average daily
• Fog occurs frequently along the coast and can extend more temperature range at the coast is less than 10 degrees
than 100 kilometres inland. Fog occurs when a layer of Celsius throughout the year, but inland it can be greater
moist air is trapped between subsiding anticyclonic air than 20 degrees Celsius in the winter months. Average
and the cold ocean surface. It usually forms at night and annual temperature can be misleading as it is moderated by
dissipates during the day. large diurnal and seasonal temperature ranges which are
experienced across much of the country.
• Average annual rainfall ranges from less than 20 millimetres
in the west to more than 650 millimetres in northeastern • Close to the coast relative humidity is high and fairly
Namibia. The extreme southwestern parts of the country consistent throughout the year due to the prevalence of
receive very little rainfall, which can fall at any time of the fog. Further inland, however, relative humidity is generally
year. The eastern parts of Namibia receive heavier and more less than 20 per cent in the dry season in the afternoon
frequent falls of rain than the rest of the country. increasing to over 70 per cent in the wet season early in
the day.
• In all, except the extreme southern parts of the country, rain
is strongly seasonal with most falling between November • The potential water loss through evapotranspiration far
and April. Peak rain months vary across the country exceeds the amount of water received through annual
between January in the east and March in the west. rainfall. As a consequence, the far northeastern areas of
the country are considered semi-arid, other areas east
• Rainfall seasons are highly variable both in total of the escarpment are considered arid and areas west of
amounts of rain received and the spread of rainfall the escarpment and the southwest corner of Namibia are
during the season. The highest variability in annual considered hyper-arid.
rainfall is seen in the northwestern and central-western
areas of Namibia, where average annual rainfall is low • Projected changes in rainfall over the next 40 years
(<100 millimetres). Although rainfall is similarly low in suggest a 9 per cent decrease across the country. Average
southern Namibia, variability here is moderated by rain temperatures are expected to increase, more so in the
from frontal weather systems. eastern parts of the country (by more than 3 degrees
Celsius) than in the west.

CLIMATE | 107