Stoichiometric

Relationships
Part three
IB CHEMISTRY SL/HL
Syllabus objectives
Understandings
• Reactants can be either limiting or excess.
• The experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield.
• Avogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes
of the gases.
• The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure.
• The molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the
volume of solution.
• A standard solution is one of known concentration.

Applications and skills

• Solution of problems relating to reacting quantities, limiting and excess reactants,
theoretical, experimental and percentage yields.
• Calculation of reacting volumes of gases using Avogadro’s law.
• Solution of problems and analysis of graphs involving the relationship between
temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas.
• Solution of problems relating to the ideal gas equation.
• Explanation of the deviation of real gases from ideal behavior at low temperatures and
high pressures.
• Obtaining and using experimental values to calculate the molar mass of a gas from the
ideal gas equation.
• Solution of problems involving molar concentration, amount of solute and volume of
solution.
• Use of the experimental method of titration to calculate the concentration of a solution
by reference to a standard solution.

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Limiting reactant and excess reactant
• The limiting reactant (reagent) is the reactant that limits the amount of product(s) that
can be made.
• The excess reactant is the reactant that remains when the limiting reactant is consumed.

• How many sandwiches can be made with 12 pieces of bread and 7 slices of ham?

• Which is the limiting reactant?

• Which is the excess reactant?

How to determine the limiting and excess reactant.

1. Determine the amount (in mol) of each reactant.
2. Divide the amount of each reactant by its coefficient in the balanced equation.
3. The lowest value is the limiting reactant and the highest is the excess reactant.

Exercises:
1. 50.0 g of N2H4 is reacted with 75.0 g of N2O4 according to the following equation.

2N2H4(l) + N2O4(l) → 3N2(g) + 4H2O(g)

a. Determine the limiting and excess reactants.

b. Determine the amount of excess reactant that remains at the end of the reaction.

2. 3.00 g of Zn is reacted with 50.0 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm-3 HCl according to the following
equation.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

a. Determine the limiting and excess reactants.

b. Determine the amount of excess reactant that remains at the end of the reaction.

3. 30.0 g of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) and 50.0 g of sodium phosphate (Na3PO4) are
reacted together. Determine the limiting and excess reactants.

3NH4NO3 + Na3PO4 → (NH4)3PO4 + 3NaNO3

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Theoretical yield and percentage yield
• The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be formed in a chemical
reaction (based on the stoichiometry of the reaction and amount of the limiting reactant).
• The actual yield is the actual amount of product that is formed in a chemical reaction.
• The percentage yield is the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield.

actual yield
Percent yield = × 100 %
theoretical yield

Exercises:
1. A 15.0 g sample of pure K2O produces 7.62 g of K2CO3. Determine the percentage yield of
K2CO3 in the reaction.
4K2O(s) + 2CO2(g) → 2K2CO3(s) + 3O2(g)

2. Aluminium reacts with excess oxygen according to the following equation. Determine the
percentage yield if 20.0 g of Al reacts with oxygen to produce 32.7 g of Al2O3.

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)

3. A 20.0 g sample of pure Fe3O4 produces 5.98 g of Fe. Determine the percentage yield of
Fe in the reaction.
Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) → 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l)

4. 100.0 g of iron(II) oxide is reacted with 100.0 g of carbon. 46.73 g of iron is produced.
Calculate the % yield of Fe.
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + CO2(g)

5. 15.0 g of CaCO3 is reacted with 50.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm-3 HCl. 1.85 g of CO2 is produced.
Calculate the % yield of CO2.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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Real gases vs ideal gases
Pressure and temperature of gases

• The particles in a gas are in constant motion, colliding with the

walls of the container.
• The forces exerted by the particles on the walls of the container
gives rise to pressure.
• Increasing the temperature increases the average kinetic energy
of the particles, causing them to move faster.

Ideal gas behavior

• An ideal gas is one which abides by the kinetic molecular theory (and the gas laws).
• According to the kinetic molecular theory of gases:
1. The particles of an ideal gas are in constant, random, straight line motion.
2. The collisions between ideal gas particles are elastic; total kinetic energy is conserved.
3. The volume occupied by ideal gas particles is negligible relative to the volume of the
container.
4. There are no intermolecular forces acting between the particles in an ideal gas.

How does a real gas differ from an ideal gas?

• Under normal conditions, real gases behave very much like ideal gases.
• Real gases differ the most from ideal gases under two conditions; high pressures and low
temperatures.
• For one mole of an ideal gas, the product of PV/RT is equal to one.
• Under conditions of high pressure and low temperature, the product of PV/RT is no
longer equal to one.
𝟓𝟓
𝒏𝒏 = 𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ×𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦
𝟖𝟖.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

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Pressure
• At high pressures, the values of PV/RT are less than one, mainly because of the effects of
intermolecular forces; intermolecular forces acting between gaseous particles cause the
pressure inside the container to decrease.
• At very high pressures, the values of PV/RT are greater than one, mainly because of the
effects of molecular volume; the volume of the gaseous particles becomes significant as
the space between them decreases.

Temperature
• At high temperatures, the kinetic energy of the particles overcomes the intermolecular
forces between the particles.
• At low temperatures, the particles have insufficient kinetic energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces between the particles.

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Molar volume of a gas, Vm
• The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of an ideal gas under
standard conditions (STP).
• At STP (273 K and 1.00 × 105 Pa), one mole of an ideal gas occupies a volume of:

22.7 dm3 or 0.0227 m3

• The equations below can be used to calculate amount (in mol) of gas or the volume (in
dm3) of gas.

𝑽𝑽 (𝐝𝐝𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) = 𝒏𝒏 (𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦) × 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 𝐝𝐝𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) 𝑽𝑽 = 𝒏𝒏 × 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕

𝑽𝑽 (𝐝𝐝𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) 𝑽𝑽
𝒏𝒏 (𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦) = 𝒏𝒏 =
𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎 (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕 𝐝𝐝𝐦𝐦𝟑𝟑 ) 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕

Exercises
1. Calculate the volume occupied by 16.00 g of O2 at STP.

2. Calculate the amount in mol of 54.5 dm3 of CH4 at STP.

3. A sample of gas at STP contains 0.754 mol of Cl2. Calculate the following:
a. the volume occupied by the gas

b. the mass of Cl2 present

c. the number of Cl2 molecules in the sample of gas

d. the number of Cl atoms present in the sample

4. A sample of O2 gas at STP contains 3.01 × 1023 molecules. Calculate the following:

a. the amount of O2 in mol

b. the mass of O2 present

c. the volume occupied by the gas

d. the number of oxygen atoms present in the sample

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 5. A sample of N2 gas at STP has a mass of 25.0 g. Calculate the following:

a. the amount of N2 in mol

b. the volume occupied by the gas

c. the number of nitrogen molecules present in the sample

6. A sample of gas at STP contains 5.72 mol of NH3. Calculate the following:

a. the volume occupied by the gas

b. the number of NH3 molecules present in the sample

c. the number of hydrogen atoms present in the sample

7. 3.54 g of magnesium is reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. Calculate the volume of
hydrogen gas produced at STP.

8. 139 g of calcium carbonate is reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. Calculate the volume
of carbon dioxide produced at STP.

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Avogadro's law
• Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number
of particles.

At STP (273 K and 100 kPa)

H2 N2 O2

Amount (mol) 1 mol H2 1 mol N2 1 mol O2

Volume (dm3) 22.7 22.7 22.7
Mass (g) 2.02 28.02 32.00
Number of 6.02 × 1023 6.02 × 1023 6.02 × 1023
particles

Example: 40 cm3 of CO reacts with 40 cm3 of O2. What volume of CO2 is produced? What volume
of the excess reactant remains?

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

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Exercises:

1. What volume of sulfur trioxide, in cm3, can be prepared using 40 cm3 sulfur dioxide and
20 cm3 oxygen gas by the following reaction? Assume all volumes are measured at the
same temperature and pressure.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

2. 5 dm3 of carbon monoxide, CO(g), and 2 dm3 of oxygen, O2(g), at the same temperature
and pressure are mixed together. What is the maximum volume of carbon dioxide,
CO2(g), in dm3, that can be formed? What volume of the excess reactant remains?

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

3. 100 cm3 of ethene, C2H4, is burned in 400 cm3 of oxygen, producing carbon dioxide
and some liquid water. Some oxygen remains unreacted (excess).

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced and the volume of oxygen remaining.

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Ideal gas equation

PV = nRT
P is pressure in Pa
V is volume in m3
n is amount in mol
R is the gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T is temperature in kelvin (K)

• The ideal gas equation can be rearranged to calculate amount (in mol), volume (in m3),
pressure (in Pa), temperature (in K) or molar mass (g mol-1).

𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏

𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑷𝑷 =
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝑻𝑻 = 𝑴𝑴 =
𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
Unit conversions
• Temperature in kelvin (K): oC + 273
25 oC = 298 K
• Pressure in Pa: 1.00 × 105 Pa = 100 kPa
• 1 cm3 = 1 × 10-3 dm3 = 1 × 10-6 m3
• 1 m3 = 1 × 103 dm3 = 1 × 106 cm3
• 1 atm = 101325 Pa

Convert the following quantities:

a. 100 cm3 to m3 b. 5 dm3 to m3 c. 12 m3 to cm3

d. 0 oC to K e. 300 K to oC f. 34 oC to K

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Exercises:

1. Calculate the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at 25.0 oC and 100.0 kPa.

2. Calculate the pressure of a gas given that 0.200 moles of the gas occupy 10.0 dm3 at
20.0 oC.

3. Calculate the amount in mol of carbon dioxide which occupies 20.0 dm3 at 27.0 oC and
100.0 kPa.

4. Calculate the molar mass of a gas if a 500.0 cm3 sample at 20.0 oC and 1.00 atm has a
mass of 0.666 g.

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The gas laws
Boyle’s law – the relationship between volume and pressure
• The volume occupied by a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (at constant
temperature).
• If the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is doubled (at constant temperature) then the
volume of the gas will halve.

1
PV = k P ∝ 𝑉𝑉
P1V1 = P2V2

Exercise: Explain what happens to the pressure when the volume of the gas in the container is
halved.

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Charles’s law – the relationship between volume and temperature
• The volume occupied by a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (at
constant pressure).
• If the temperature of a fixed mass of a gas is doubled, the volume also doubles (at
constant pressure).

V1 V2
= V∝T
T1 T2

Exercise:
Imagine a balloon filled with a gas. Explain what happens when the balloon is placed into a
freezer (at constant pressure).

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Gay Lussac’s law – the relationship between temperature and pressure
• The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (at constant
volume).
• If the temperature of a fixed mass of gas is doubled, the pressure of the gas is also
doubled.

P1 P2
= P∝T
T1 T2

Exercise: Explain why the pressure inside a car tyre increases on a hot day.

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The combined gas law

1
P∝T V∝T P∝V
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
Example: the molar volume of a gas is 22.7 dm3 at STP. Calculate the volume occupied by a gas
at 25oC.

P1 V1 T2
V2 =
T1 P2

100000 × 22.7 × 298

V2 = = 24.8 dm3
273 × 100000
• Note that this value is greater than the molar volume of a gas at 273 K (0 oC).

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Additional practice examples
1. What is the final volume if the pressure of 10 dm3 of gas is doubled at constant
temperature?

2. The absolute temperature of a gas at 100.0 kPa is doubled at constant volume. What is
the new pressure of the gas?

3. The absolute temperature of 150 dm3 of gas is doubled at constant pressure. What is the
new volume of the gas?

4. What happens to the volume of a fixed mass of gas when its pressure and its absolute
temperature are both doubled?

5. The volume of an ideal gas at 27.0 °C is increased from 3.00 dm3 to 6.00 dm3. At what
temperature, in °C, will the gas have the original pressure?

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Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
• A solution is composed of a solute (usually a solid) dissolved in a solvent (usually water).
• Solutions can be dilute (less solute, more solvent) or concentrated (more solute, less
solvent).

Standard solutions
• A standard solution is a solution that has a concentration that is known accurately.
• A primary standard solution is prepared using a substance of high purity which is
dissolved in a known volume of solvent.
• A secondary standard solution refers to a solution that has its concentration determined
by titration with a primary standard solution.
• When making up a standard solution it is important that the correct mass of substance
is accurately measured. In addition, it is important that all the solute is transferred to
the volumetric flask used to make up the solution.

Calculating the concentration of a solution

• The concentration of a solution can be expressed in mol dm-3 or g dm-3
• The equation for calculating concentration in mol dm-3 is shown below.
• In this equation, volume must be in dm3 (to convert from cm3 to dm3, divide by 1000).

amount of solute (mol)

c (mol dm-3) = volume of solution (dm3 )

𝑛𝑛 c = concentration in mol dm-3

𝑐𝑐 = n = amount in mol
𝑉𝑉 V = volume in dm3
𝑛𝑛
n = cV 𝑉𝑉 =
𝑐𝑐
• The equations for calculating concentration in g dm-3 and ppm are shown below.

mass of solute (g)

c (g dm-3) = volume of solution (dm3 )

mass of solute (g)

c (ppm) = mass of solution (g) × 106

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Example:
50.0 g of NaCl are dissolved in 100 cm3 of water which is then made up to 500.0 cm3 in a
volumetric flask. Calculate the concentration of the solution in mol dm-3 and g dm-3.

Exercises:

1. Calculate the concentration (in mol dm-3 and g dm-3) of these solutions:
a) 10.6 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in 1.00 dm3 of solution.

b) 117 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) in 5.00 dm3 of solution.

c) 0.830 g of potassium iodide (KI) in 25.0 cm3 of solution.

2. Calculate the amount (in mol) of solute in each of the following solutions:
a) 0.250 dm3 of 0.400 mol dm-3 ammonium chloride solution.

b) 200.0 cm3 of 0.800 mol dm-3 sodium carbonate solution.

c) 300.0 cm3 of 4.00 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution.

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3. Calculate the mass of solute in the following solutions:
a) 2.00 dm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3 potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.

b) 200.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm-3 sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution.

c) 25.0 cm3 of 0.0500 mol dm-3 copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4 5H2O) solution.

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Parts per million (ppm) exercises

1. 25.0 grams of a chemical is dissolved in 75.0 grams of water. Calculate the concentration of the
solution in ppm.

2. 17.0 grams of sucrose is dissolved in 183 grams of water. Calculate the concentration of the
solution in ppm.

3. 35.0 grams of ethanol is dissolved in 115 grams of water. Calculate the concentration of the
solution in ppm.

4. The solubility of NaCl is 284 grams per 100.0 grams of water. Calculate the concentration of
the solution in ppm.

5. The solubility of AgCl is 0.008 grams per 100.0 grams of water. Calculate the concentration of
the solution in ppm.

6. A certain pesticide has a toxic solubility of 5.00 grams per kg (1000 g). Calculate the
concentration of the solution in ppm.

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More practice examples

1. What volume of 2.00 mol dm-3 HCl reacts completely with 5.00 g of magnesium? What
volume of hydrogen gas will be produced at STP?

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

2. What volume of 1.00 mol dm-3 HCl reacts completely with 10.00 g of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)? What volume of carbon dioxide gas will be produced at STP?

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

3. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) according to the following
equation:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

What volume of 0.500 mol dm-3 HCl reacts with 25.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm-3 NaOH solution?

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