Fault Diagnostic in Mechanical Systems

4th year Mechanical Power Eng. Std.

Assiut University, Egypt
Spring 2021/2022

Lecture 1
Fault Diagnostic in Mechanical Systems
(an overview on maintenance)

Mohammed B. Effat, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department
Assiut University, Egypt

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Textbooks

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Accessing the course material

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Outline
• Impact of maintenance.

• Maintenance management methods.

• Examples of predictive maintenance.

• Vibration monitoring.
• Thermography.
• Tribology.
• Ultrasonic.

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This is knowledge/experience-
based course.
Thus, it may appear more
qualitative than quantitative.
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Impact of maintenance
• Maintenance costs are a major part of
the total operating costs (opex) of all
manufacturing or production plants.
• Depending on the specific industry,
maintenance costs can represent
between 15 and 60 percent of the cost of
goods produced.
• Recent surveys of maintenance management
effectiveness indicate that one-third of all
maintenance costs is wasted as the
result of unnecessary or improperly
carried out maintenance.
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Impact of maintenance
• The result of ineffective maintenance
management represents a loss of more
than $60 billion each year.
• The dominant reason for this ineffective
management is the lack of factual data
to quantify the actual need for repair
or maintenance of plant machinery,
equipment, and systems.
• The opinion that “Maintenance is a
necessary evil” or “Nothing can be done to
improve maintenance costs.” is now
obsolete.
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Impact of maintenance
• With the development of
microprocessor- or computer-based
instrumentation that can be used to
monitor the operating condition of plant
equipment, machinery, and systems has
provided the means to manage the
maintenance operation.
• This instrumentation has provided the
means to reduce or eliminate
unnecessary repairs, prevent
catastrophic machine failures, and
reduce the negative impact of the
maintenance operation on the
profitability of manufacturing and
production plants.

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Mean time to failure
• Majority of maintenance tasks are
based on elapsed time or hours of
operation. The figure illustrates an example
of the statistical life of a machine train. The
mean-time-to-failure (MTTF) or
bathtub curve indicates that a new machine
has a high probability of failure because of
installation problems during the first few
weeks of operation.
• After this initial period, the probability of
failure is relatively low for an extended period.
• After this normal machine life period, the
probability of failure increases sharply with
elapsed time.
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Maintenance management methods
Three methods for maintenance exist:

• Run-to-failure (reactive) maintenance.

• Preventive maintenance.

• Predictive maintenance.

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Maintenance management methods |
run-to-failure management
• The logic of run-to-failure management is simple
and straightforward: When a machine breaks
down, fix it.
• A plant using run-to-failure management does
not spend any money on maintenance until
a machine or system fails to operate.
• However, this is the most expensive method
of maintenance management. Few plants use
a true run-to-failure management philosophy.
• In almost all instances, plants perform basic
preventive tasks (i.e., lubrication, machine
adjustments, and other adjustments), even in a
run-to-failure environment.

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Maintenance management methods |
run-to-failure management
• The major expenses associated with this
type of maintenance management are high
spare parts inventory cost, high
overtime labor costs, high machine
downtime, and low production
availability.
• This reactive method of management forces
the maintenance department to maintain
extensive spare parts inventories that
include spare machines or at least all
major components for all critical
equipment in the plant.
• The alternative is to rely on equipment vendors Reactive or run-to-failure mode will
that can provide immediate delivery of all average about three times higher than
required spare parts. the same repair made within a
scheduled or preventive mode. 12
Maintenance management methods |
preventive maintenance
• The actual implementation of preventive maintenance varies greatly. Some
programs are extremely limited and consist of only lubrication and minor
adjustments.
• Comprehensive preventive maintenance programs schedule repairs,
lubrication, adjustments, and machine rebuilds for all critical plant
machinery.

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Maintenance management methods |
preventive maintenance
• The common denominator for all these preventive maintenance programs is the
scheduling guideline—time. (e.g., periodic maintenance of cars)
• The major advantage of preventive maintenance is the avoidance of catastrophic
failure.

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Maintenance management methods |
Predictive maintenance
• The common premise of predictive maintenance
is that regular monitoring of the actual
mechanical condition, operating efficiency, and
other indicators of the operating condition of
machine-trains and process systems will provide
the data required to ensure the maximum
interval between repairs and minimize the
number and cost of unscheduled outages
created by machine-train failures.
• Based on this actual data, schedules of all
maintenance activities can be done on an as-
needed basis.
• Predictive maintenance is a condition-
driven preventive maintenance program.
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Examples of predictive maintenance
• Five nondestructive techniques are normally used for predictive maintenance
management: vibration monitoring, process parameter monitoring,
thermography, tribology, and visual inspection.
• Each technique has a unique data set that assists the maintenance manager in
determining the actual need for maintenance.

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Examples of predictive maintenance
Thermography & tribology.

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Examples of predictive maintenance
Visual inspection

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Vibration monitoring
Because most normal plant equipment is mechanical, vibration monitoring provides
the best tool for routine monitoring and identification of incipient problems.
Examples include:
Drivers:
Motors
Steam turbines
Driven components:
Compressors
Fans
Pumps
Generators
Intermediate Drives:
Chains
Couplings
Gear boxes
V-belts 19
Examples of predictive maintenance |
Vibration monitoring
• Most vibration data are
represented in the frequency-
domain.
• The microprocessor-based
analyzers gather time-domain
data and automatically convert
it using Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) to
frequency domain data.
• A frequency-domain
signature shows the
machine’s individual frequency
components, or peaks.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Vibration monitoring
Predictive maintenance using
vibration signature analysis
depends on two basic facts:
(1) all common failure modes have
distinct vibration frequency
components that can be isolated
and identified,

(2) the amplitude of each distinct

vibration component will remain
constant unless the operating
dynamics of the machine train change.
(Fast) Fourier Transformed Data
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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Vibration monitoring
• Without a thorough understanding of machine dynamics, it is virtually impossible
to accurately diagnose the operating condition of critical plant production systems.
• The data typically depends on the load of the rotating machine. For instance, If
you were to acquire a vibration reading from a centrifugal compressor when it is
operating at full load, it may generate an overall level of 0.1 ips-peak (ips means inch per
second). The same measurement point will generate a reading in excess of 0.4 ips-peak
when the compressor is operating at 50 percent load.
• To achieve maximum benefits from vibration monitoring, the analyst must
understand the limitations of the instrumentation and the basic operating
dynamics of machinery. Without this knowledge, the benefits will be dramatically
reduced.
• The vibration-monitoring process requires a large quantity of data to be collected,
temporarily stored, and downloaded to a more powerful computer for permanent storage
and analysis (you need history).

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Vibration monitoring
• The location and orientation of each measurement point is an important
consideration during the database setup and analysis.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Thermography
• Thermography is a predictive maintenance technique that can be used to
monitor the condition of plant machinery, structures, and systems, not just
electrical equipment.
• It uses instrumentation designed to monitor the emission of infrared
energy (i.e., surface temperature) to determine operating condition.
• By detecting thermal anomalies (i.e., areas that are hotter or colder
than they should be), an experienced technician can locate and define
a multitude of incipient problems within the plant.
• Infrared technology is predicated on the fact that all objects
having a temperature above absolute zero emit energy or
radiation. Infrared radiation is one form of this emitted energy.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Thermography
• The intensity of infrared radiation from an object is a function of its surface
temperature; however, temperature measurement using infrared
methods is complicated because three sources of thermal energy
can be detected from any object: energy emitted from the object itself,
energy reflected from the object, and energy transmitted by the object.
• Only the emitted energy is important in a predictive maintenance
program. Reflected and transmitted energies will distort raw infrared data.
Therefore, the reflected and transmitted energies must be filtered
out of acquired data before a meaningful analysis can be completed.
• Variations in surface condition, paint or other protective
coatings, and many other variables can affect the actual
emissivity factor for plant equipment.
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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Thermography
In addition to reflected and transmitted energy, the user of thermographic techniques
must also consider the atmosphere between the object and the measurement
instrument. Water vapor and other gases absorb infrared radiation. Airborne dust, some
lighting, and other variables in the surrounding atmosphere can distort measured infrared
radiation. Because the atmospheric environment is constantly changing, using
thermographic techniques requires extreme care each time infrared data are acquired.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Thermography | Infrared thermometers
Two main types of instruments are generally used as part of an effective predictive
maintenance program: infrared thermometers, and infrared imaging
systems.
Infrared Thermometers
• Infrared thermometers or spot radiometers are
designed to provide the actual surface temperature at a
single, relatively small point on a machine or
surface.
• Within a predictive maintenance program, the point-of
use infrared thermometer can be used in conjunction
with many of the microprocessor-based vibration
instruments to monitor the temperature at critical
points on plant machinery or equipment.
• This technique is typically used to monitor bearing cap
temperatures, motor winding temperatures, spot
checks of process piping temperatures, and similar
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applications.
Examples of predictive maintenance |
Thermography | Infrared thermometers
• It also allows the measurement of hard-to-reach (risky) points.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Thermography | Infrared imaging
• Thermal or infrared imaging provides the means to scan the infrared emissions of
complete machines, process, or equipment in a very short time.
• Most of the imaging systems function much like a video camera. The user can view the
thermal emission profile of a wide area by simply looking through the instrument’s optics.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology
• Tribology is the general term that
refers to design and operating
dynamics of the bearing-
lubrication-rotor support
structure of machinery.

• Two primary techniques are being

used for predictive maintenance:
lubricating oil analysis and
wear particle analysis.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | (Lubricating) oil analysis
• Oil analysis is not a tool for determining the operating condition of
machinery or detecting potential failure modes. It should be limited to a
proactive program to conserve and extend the useful life of lubricants.
• Lubricating, hydraulic, and dielectric oils can be periodically analyzed to
determine their condition. The results of this analysis can be used to
determine if the oil meets the lubricating requirements of the
machine or application. Based on the results of the analysis, lubricants can be
changed or upgraded to meet the specific operating requirements.
• Oil analysis can be used to schedule oil change intervals based on the actual
condition of the oil. In midsize to large plants, a reduction in the number of oil
changes can amount to a considerable annual reduction in maintenance costs.
• Relatively inexpensive sampling and testing can show when the oil in a machine
has reached a point that warrants change.
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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Wear particle analysis
• Wear particle analysis is related to
oil analysis only in that the particles to
be studied are collected by drawing a
sample of lubricating oil.
• Whereas lubricating oil analysis
determines the actual condition of the oil
sample, wear particle analysis
provides direct information about
the wearing condition of the
machine-train.
• Particles in the lubricant of a machine can
provide significant information about the
machine’s condition. This information is
derived from the study of particle shape,
composition, size, and quantity. Size
Pattern
distribution

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Wear particle analysis
• Two methods are used to prepare
samples of wear particles.
• The first method, called spectroscopy
or spectrographic analysis, uses
graduated filters to separate solids
into sizes.
• Normal spectrographic analysis is limited
to particulate contamination with a
size of 10 microns or less. Larger
contaminants are ignored. This fact can
limit the benefits that can be derived
from the technique.
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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Wear particle analysis
• The second method, called ferrographic analysis,
separates wear particles using a magnet.
• Obviously, the limitation to this approach is that
only magnetic particles are removed for
analysis. Nonmagnetic materials, such as copper,
aluminum, and so on that make up many of the wear
materials in typical machinery are therefore excluded
from the sample.
• Wear particle analysis is an excellent failure
analysis tool and can be used to understand the
root-cause of catastrophic failures. The unique
wear patterns observed on failed parts, as well as those
contained in the oil reservoir, provide a positive means
of isolating the failure mode.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Limitations of Tribology
Three major limitations are associated with using tribology analysis in a
predictive maintenance program: equipment costs, acquiring accurate oil
samples, and interpretation of data.

Equipment (capital) cost

The capital cost of spectrographic analysis instrumentation is normally too
high to justify in-plant testing. Typical cost for a microprocessor-based
spectrographic system is between $30,000 and $60,000. Because of this,
most predictive maintenance programs rely on third-party
analysis of oil samples.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Limitations of Tribology
Recurring Cost
• Labor cost
• Testing cost

In addition to the labor cost associated with regular gathering of oil and grease
samples, simple lubricating oil analysis by a testing laboratory will range from
about $20 to $50 per sample. Standard analysis will normally include viscosity,
flash point, total insolubles, total acid number (TAN), total base number (TBN),
fuel content, and water content. More detailed analysis, using spectrographic,
ferrographic, or wear particle techniques that include metal scans, particle
distribution (size), and other data can cost more than $150 per sample.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Limitations of Tribology
Obtaining an accurate sample
• A more severe limiting factor with any method of oil analysis is acquiring accurate
samples of the true lubricating oil inventory in a machine.
• Sampling is not a matter of opening a port somewhere in the oil line and catching
a pint sample. Extreme care must be taken to acquire samples that truly
represent the lubricant that will pass through the machine’s bearings.
•

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Obtaining an accurate sample
• One example is to acquire oil samples
from a compressor. The lubricating oil (1) (3)
filter had a sample port on the clean (i.e.,
downstream, point 1) side; however, filter
comparison of samples taken at this
point and one taken directly from the
compressor’s oil reservoir (point 2) (2)
indicated that more contaminants existed
downstream from the filter than in the
reservoir.
• Which location actually represented the
oil’s condition? Oil tank

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Obtaining an accurate sample
• Neither sample was truly representative
of the oil’s condition. (1) (3)

• The oil filter had removed most of the filter

suspended solids (i.e., metals and other
insolubles) and was therefore not
representative of the actual condition.
(2)
• The reservoir sample was also not
representative because most of the
suspended solids had settled out in the
sump.
Oil tank

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Obtaining an accurate sample
• In a recirculating system, samples should be
drawn as the lubricant returns to the reservoir (1) (3)
and before any filtration occurs (point 3).
• Do not draw oil from the bottom of a sump filter
where large quantities of material build up over
time.
• Return lines are preferable to reservoir as the (2)
sample source, but good reservoir samples can
be obtained if careful, consistent practices are
used.
• Even equipment with high levels of filtration
can be effectively monitored as long as samples
are drawn before oil enters the filters. Oil tank

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Tribology | Obtaining an accurate sample
• Sampling techniques involve taking samples under uniform operating
conditions. Samples should not be taken more than 30 minutes after the
equipment has been shut down.
• For most industrial equipment in continuous service, however, monthly
sampling is adequate. The exception to monthly sampling is machines with
extreme loads.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Ultrasonics
• Ultrasonics, like vibration analysis, is a subset
of noise analysis. The only difference in
the two techniques is the frequency
band they monitor.
• In the case of vibration analysis, the
monitored range is between 1 Hertz
(Hz) and 30,000Hz; ultrasonics monitors
noise frequencies above 30,000Hz. These
higher frequencies are useful for selected
applications, such as detecting leaks that
generally create high-frequency noise caused
by the expansion or compression of air, gases,
or liquids as they flow through the orifice, or a
leak in either pressure or vacuum vessels.
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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Ultrasonics
• As it is being applied as part of a predictive
maintenance program, many companies
are attempting to replace what is perceived
as an expensive tool (i.e., vibration
analysis) with ultrasonics.
• For example, many plants are using
ultrasonic meters to monitor the health of
rolling-element bearings in the belief that
this technology will provide accurate
results.

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Examples of predictive maintenance |
Ultrasonics
• Unfortunately, this perception is invalid. Because this
technology is limited to a broadband (i.e., 30kHz to
1MHz), ultrasonics does not provide the ability to
diagnosis incipient bearing or machine problems.
• It certainly cannot define the root cause of abnormal
noise levels generated by either bearings or other
machine-train components.
• As part of a comprehensive predictive maintenance
program, ultrasonics should be limited to the
detection of abnormally high ambient noise
levels and leaks. Attempting to replace vibration
monitoring with ultrasonics simply will not work.

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Thanks

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