UNIFYING THEMES OF BIOLOGY

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cells are the structural and functional units of
life
 Two distinct groups of cells exist
– Prokaryotic cells
– Simple and small
– Bacteria are prokaryotic

– Eukaryotic cells
– Possess organelles separated by membranes
– Plants, animals, and fungi are eukaryotic

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Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
DNA
(no nucleus)

Membrane

Nucleus
(contains DNA)

Organelles
Cells are the structural and functional units of
life (continued)
 Unicellular organisms

 Multicellular organisms

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Cells are the structural and functional units of
life (continued)
 Form generally fits function
– By studying a biological structure, you can determine
what it does and how it works (from molecules to
organisms!)
– Life emerges from interactions of structures
– Combinations of structures (components) provide
organization called a system

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In life’s hierarchy of organization, new
properties emerge at each level
 Life’s levels of organization define the scope of
biology
 Life emerges through organization of various levels
 With addition of each new level, novel properties
emerge—called emergent properties

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Biosphere

Ecosystem
Florida coast

Community
All organisms on
the Florida coast

Population
Group of brown
pelicans

Organism
Brown pelican

Spinal cord
Organ system
Nervous system

Brain Organ
Nerve
Brain

Tissue
Nervous tissue

Cell Nucleus Atom

Nerve cell

Organelle
Nucleus Molecule
DNA
Reproduction and Inheritance

 Organisms pass their traits from one generation to

the next generation via reproduction.
 DNA is the molecular basis of life (ALL life on Earth)

DNARNAProtein

 The inheritance of genetic material through

reproduction explains the continuity of life

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Reproduction and Inheritance (continued)

 Continuity of life is based on heritable

information in the form of DNA
 DNA–the genetic
material–carries
biological information
from one generation
to the next
 EVOLUTION--THE CORE THEME
OF BIOLOGY
“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of
evolution.”
--Theodosius Dobzhansky

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Evolution

 Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life.

 Unity
 What do organisms have in common?
 Why do similarities exist?

 Diversity
 Are there differences between organisms of the same
species?
 Unity
 Shared genetic code
 Evolutionary relationships
 Connected through a common ancestor

 Diversity
 Differences in DNA structure among organisms
 Natural selection: selection of some DNA
structures over others
 Adaptations: naturally selected traits
 Natural selection was inferred by connecting two
observations
 Individuals within a population inherit different
characteristics and vary from other individuals
 A particular population of individuals produces more
offspring than will survive to produce offspring of their
own

(Lamarckian evolution and giraffes)

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

In this example:
• Dark-colored
beetles are
selected for 1 Population with varied inherited traits
• Light-colored
beetles are
selected against
• Predation is the
selective agent
2 Elimination of individuals with certain traits
• Dark coloration
becomes an
adaptation for this
population of
beetles
3 Reproduction of survivors
 Natural selection is an editing mechanism
– It results from exposure of heritable variations to
environmental factors that favor some individuals over
others
– Over time this results in evolution of new species adapted to
particular conditions/environments
– Evolution is biology’s core theme and explains unity and
diversity of life

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Three-Domain System

Protists
Plants
Fungi
Animals
 Domain Eukarya
Domain Bacteria

Bacteria (multiple kingdoms)

Protists (multiple kingdoms) Kingdom Plantae

Domain Archaea

Archaea (multiple kingdoms)

Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Animalia

YOU ARE
HERE

Dr. R.M. Moody

 THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Scientists use two main approaches to learn
about nature
 Two approaches are used to understand natural
causes for natural phenomena
– Discovery science—uses verifiable observations and
measurements to describe science
– Hypothesis-based science—uses the data from
discovery science to explain science
– This requires proposing and testing of hypotheses

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Scientists use two main approaches to learn
about nature
 There is a difference between a theory and a
hypothesis
– A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a set of
observations
– A theory is supported by a large and usually growing
body of evidence

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

With hypothesis-based science, we pose and test
hypotheses
 We solve everyday problems by using hypotheses
– An example would be the reasoning we use to answer
the question, “Why doesn’t the flashlight work?”
– Using deductive reasoning we realize that the problem
is either the (1) bulb or (2) batteries.
– The hypothesis must be testable
– The hypothesis must be falsifiable

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Observations

Question

Hypothesis #1: Hypothesis #2:

Dead batteries Burned-out bulb
 Hypothesis #1: Hypothesis #2:
Dead batteries Burned-out bulb

Prediction: Prediction:
Replacing batteries Replacing bulb
will fix problem will fix problem

Test prediction Test prediction

Test falsifies hypothesis Test does not falsify hypothesis

 BIOLOGY AND EVERYDAY LIFE

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

CONNECTION: Biology, technology, and
society are connected in important ways
 Many of today’s global issues relate to biology
(science)
– Many of these issues resulted from applications of
technology
– Science and technology are interdependent, but their
goals differ
– Science wants to understand natural phenomena
– Technology applies science for a specific purpose

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolution is
connected to our everyday lives
 How is evolution connected to our everyday lives?
– It explains how all living species descended from
ancestral species
– Differences between DNA of individuals, species, and
populations reflect evolutionary change

– The environment matters because it is a selective force

that drives evolution
– An understanding of evolution helps us fight disease
and develop conservation efforts

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Inferences
Observations
Natural selection:
Individual unequal reproductive
variation success

Overproduction Evolution
of offspring of adaptations
in a population
Types of Inference (Reasoning)

 INDUCTIVE INFERENCE: Arriving at a

conclusion based on repeated observation.
 Repeated observation of the phenomenon supports
my hypothesis.
 The sun came up yesterday and today, so I predict it
will come up tomorrow.

 Can only say that our conclusion is probably

true.
Types of Inference (Reasoning)

 DEDUCTIVE INFERENCE: Logical process of

using accepted facts to draw conclusions.
 Expressed using syllogisms:
If A then B (Premise)
A (Premise)
therefore, B (Conclusion)

 Problem: If the premises are not true, then the

conclusions might be wrong.
1. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man, therefore
Socrates is mortal.

2. All mammals are warm-blooded. All dogs are

warm-blooded. Therefore, all dogs are mammals.

3. All people sweat profusely after running a

marathon. You are sweating a lot. Therefore, you
must have just run a marathon.
 Critical Thinking and Science

 Critical thinking is the deliberate process of judging

the quality of information before accepting it.
 Critical thinking should be a part of your everyday
life:
 When listening to the media
 Surfing the internet
 Listening to me, reading textbooks, etc.
 HOWEVER: YOU MUST BE KNOWLEDGEABLE ABOUT A
SUBJECT BEFORE YOU CAN EFFECTIVELY ARGUE OR
DISCUSS IT!
Scientists use two main approaches to learn about nature:

 Two approaches are used to understand natural

causes for natural phenomena:
– Discovery/observational science—uses verifiable
observations and measurements to describe natural
phenomena (e.g., fossil record, astronomy, etc.)
– Hypothesis-based /Experimental science—uses
the data from discovery science to explain natural
phenomena.

– This requires proposing and testing

hypotheses
Hypotheses

 A HYPOTHESIS is a testable explanation for a

natural phenomenon.

 Hypotheses are:
 Formed based on observation and current theory.

 “Rejected” or “Not rejected”, never “Proven”

 *Hypotheses guide the design of experiments*

 Often stated as an “If…then…” statement

Example: Effects of fertilizer and light on plant growth
 The Scientific Method: Testing Hypotheses
 Explore a phenomenon & make observations
 Construct a question to investigate based on your
observations
 Construct a hypothesis
 State a prediction based on the evidence
 Plan and test the hypothesis with an experiment
 Analyze the data and evidence
 Form a conclusion based on your results and construct new
knowledge
 Was the hypothesis rejected or supported?
 Form an explanation (model) based on your conclusions and
supporting evidence
 Connect your new knowledge to your prior knowledge and the
knowledge of others (existing theories)
 Consider follow-up questions for investigations
 Theories and Laws

 LAWS describe how a system behaves (e.g., the law of

gravity).
 Biological Rules are Biological laws

 Help describe patterns and relationships but not explain how they work.

 THEORIES explain those laws.

 Explains how laws work.

 In our everyday use of the word, it often means “imperfect fact” or

“speculation.”

 Used similarly to a hypothesis

 This is not accurate

 In science, a theory is something VERY SP ECI FI C!!!

Theories and Laws
 A SCIENTIFIC THEORY is something that has
been tested many different times, in many
different ways, and has not yet been refuted.
 Theories are supported or rejected by
testing hypotheses.
 Theories can change !
 HOWEVER, theories are rejected ONLY when
they:
 Are replaced by new theories that explain predictions
of the old theory
 AND make new predictions!
Societal Conflicts

 Society’s traditional views of nature sometimes

differ with scientific findings (e.g., Capernicus’
heliocentric model and Galileo).

 You have to remember that science can only

describe and attempt to explain the physical
w orld.
Science vs Pseudoscience

 “Pseudo” = false
 The only way to spot a fake is to know as much
as possible about the real thing!
 Pseudoscience…
Science vs Pseudoscience
Science…  Results are not verifiable and
 Results are verifiable and
cannot be reproduced
can be reproduced
 Methods are often unknown
 Clear what methods were
used to reach conclusions  Failed predictions are ignored,
 Focus on failed predictions of excused, or even hidden and lied
a theory about
 Progresses; more and more  No progress is made; nothing
is learned about the process
under study concrete is learned
 Convinces by appeal to  Convinces by appeal to belief
evidence
or faith
 No conflicts of interest; no
personal financial stake in  Pseudoscientists often earn
results of scientific studies some or all of their living selling
their “services”
Scientific Experiments
 Used to test hypotheses

 Conducted under carefully controlled conditions.

where experimental variables can be controlled.

 Ideally, conditions should be the same for all

groups; only change the variable you are interested
in.
Scientific Experiments

 The INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is the variable

the scientist changes in the experiment
 The DEPENDENT VARIABLE is what the
scientist observes/measures in the experiment (the
result)
 A CONTROL group is a group in which no
changes are made. It used as a standard for
comparison.
 A TREATMENT (experimental) group is
subjected to the same conditions as the control
group except for the variable(s) being studied.
 Qualitative vs Quantitative Data
 QUALITATIVE DATA
 Deals with descriptions (qualitative = quality)
 Data that can be observed but not measured
 E.g.) colors, textures, smells, tastes, appearance, relative
size, etc.

 QUANTITATIVE DATA
 Deals with numerical descriptions (quantitative =
quantity)
 Data that can be measured
 E.g.) length, height, area, volume, mass, temperature,
time, velocity, etc.
Fertilizer Experiment

1) State a hypothesis
2) State a prediction
3) Identify the experimental groups
4) What could be used as a control group?
5) Identify the dependent variable
6) Identify the independent variable
 Sampling Error and Replication

 It is important to conduct multiple trials with each

independent variable. This is called replication.
 Why replicate?
 What do you do with data from multiple trials/observations?

 Researchers cannot measure every individual in a

population; data collected from a sample of the population.

 Sampling errors occur when conclusions inferred from the

collected sample differ from the whole population.
 Occurs when sample sizes are small.
 Sampling error can be reduced by using a larger sample size
 Vitamin C and Cancer in Mice

It has been suggested that vitamin C supplements lower

the risk of cancer in mammals. You are given 100 mice
that have been bred to have an identical genetic make-up.
You are asked to design an experiment to address the
question of whether vitamin C lowers the risk of cancer in
mice.
1)Form a hypothesis
2)State a prediction
3)Design an experiment to test your hypothesis
4) Identify the following:
a) Control group; b) Treatment group, c)
Independent variable, and d) Dependent variable
Graphs

 Graphs help you interpret and communicate your

results.
 Graphs show the relationship between your
dependent and independent variables.
 Independent variable (X-axis): What you change
 Dependent variable (Y-axis): What is measured
 Type of graph used depends on the type of data being
presented:
 Continuous Data
 Discrete (categorical) Data
Graphs

 Include:
 Descriptive title
 Axes labels
 Appropriate scales
 Change appearance of points/lines if plotting more than
one data set on the same graph
 Use different colors
 Solid vs dashed lines