ANALOG ELECTRONICS

19EC2302

B.Tech III semester

 INTRODUCTON
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order
of 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structure of
a material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range of
electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the electric
current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where electrons are
free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band gap.
It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the energy
required for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because
of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor.
Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to
CB.

CB
CB CB

Forbidden band gap Eo ≈6eV Eo =≈6eV o

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

FiG:1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The
resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10 -4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore
at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the conductor.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 10 4 Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance electrons
acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These are now
free electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room temperature there
are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of conducting some current at
room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or
current. Typical resistivity values for various materials’ are given as follows.

Semiconductor Types

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in

intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important
semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.
Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig.
1.2a shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.
The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as
hole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar to that
of free electron. In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.
 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of
current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be
increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding
impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as
doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.

N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is
called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth,
Antimony etc.

P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is
called P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium , indium etc. Thus in
P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each trivalent impurity
atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The following fig 1.5b
shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

 The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of electron
is greater than that of hole.

 For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an N type
sc is around twice that of a P type sc.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode
does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-
voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described its operation by simply using an equation
such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width
of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or
decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the
diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the
electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One
of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage)
characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage
is altered as shown below.
 Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to
firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, “Reverse
Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage
which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction
diode’s width.
3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and
negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the PN
junction diodes width.
Zero Biased Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the
PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the
P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction
against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse
Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN
junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.
 Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-
region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium
can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation of
minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current cannot flow
since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the
junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created
thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias
 This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage
current does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently
high enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect
around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum
circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are
commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium,
the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them
the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the
junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this
voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with
little increase in the external voltage as shown below.
 Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential
difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its
maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat
than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.
Junction Diode Summary
 The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping),
 so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.
 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for
silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and
the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases
and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small
leakage current).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V
characteristic are polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage, VD the diode
is either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we can model these current-
voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a real silicon diode as shown:

Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

RECTIFIERS:

INTRODUCTION

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage
into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier,
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.
 Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier,
filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to
provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the
input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as
voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.

RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to
the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-
zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating
d.c. voltage (Unidirectional).

Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:

Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to
the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-
zero average component.
A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They
are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.
Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of
the curve divided by the base.
i) Effective (or) R.M.S current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared of a periodic function of time is given by the area of one
cycle of the curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

1T 2
Vrms  T V d (wt)
0

ii) Peak factor:

It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iii) Form factor:

It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

iv)Ripple Factor:
It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the output is known
as “Ripple Factor”.

v) Efficiency :
It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the rectifier circuit
converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

o / p power
  i / p power

vi) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction.
vii) Transformer Utilization Factor (UTF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF  pac(rated)

viii) % Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The
percentage regulation is defined as

VNL  VFL
% Re gulation  *100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS
Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 1.2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage
using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

Fig 1.2: Basic structure of Half-Wave Rectifier

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-
n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer

V=Vm sin (wt)

The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts.
Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle
no power is delivered to the load.

Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.

Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be
idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON
state and Rr (=∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current ‘i’ in the diode (or) in
the load resistance RL is given by V=Vm sin(wt)

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the
applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this circuit.
The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer
is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of
phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer.

Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to
the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows
in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.
i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE
 ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

1T
Vrms
T 0V d (wt)
2

2
1
Vrms
2  (V sim(wt)) d (wt)
m
2

IV) RMS CURRENT

 2Im
I rms


vi) FORM FACTOR

Rms value
Form factor=
averagevalue

Form factor= (Vm /2)

2Vm /

Form Factor =1.11

vii) Ripple Factor:

V) Efficiency:

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used
in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
pdc
TUF
Pac(rated)
ix)Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction.
The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave rectifier,
PIV is 2Vm.
x) % Regulation

Advantages:

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.
 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogues to
vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used as amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as
a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern
communication systems.

CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three terminals
are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively. There are
two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act as
either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's ability to
change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching" (digital electronics)
or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within
three different regions:

1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through
them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a
current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is
exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for
each type.
Bipolar Transistor Construction

Fig 3.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor Symbol

 The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional
current flow" between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow
always points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor
types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS:

Fig 3.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor Current Components

The above fig 3.2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased emitter
junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current I E consists of hole current IPE (holes
crossing from emitter into base) and electron current I nE (electrons crossing from base into emitter).The
ratio of hole to electron currents, I pE / InE , crossing the emitter junction is proportional to the ratio of the
conductivity of the p material to that of the n material. In a transistor, the doping of that of the emitter is
made much larger than the doping of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p transistor) that the emitter
current consists an almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since the current which results
from electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter do not contribute carriers, which can
reach the collector.

For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across JC from left to right (base to collector) and
electrons crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for I CO i.e. from right to left,
then for a p-n-p transistor, ICO is negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is positive.The basic operation will
be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the roles
played by the electron and hole are interchanged. One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased,
whereas the other is forward-biased.
Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect
it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each
method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static
characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.
1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
2 Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION

Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the : base is common to both input and output of
t configuration. base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Majority carriers can cross
the reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-
type material. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic
symbols have a direction defined by this convention.

Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction indicated
for each branch.

Fig 3.4 CB Configuration

To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

1. Input or driving point characteristics.

2. Output or collector characteristics

The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:

 Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements

 Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
 Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

Fig 3.5 CB Input-Output Characteristics

 Fig 3.6 CE Configuration

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
Common-Emitter Configuration

It is called common-emitter configuration since : emitter is common or reference to both input and
output terminals. Emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Almost amplifier
design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage. Two set of
characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and output
(collector terminal) parameters. Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region.

Fig 3.8 CE Configuration

Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

Fig 3.9a Input characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor

Fig 3.9b Output characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor

Relationship analysis between α and β

COMMON – COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Also called emitter-follower(EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal
source and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection point. The output voltage is
obtained at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is similar
with common-emitter configuration. Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the
load resistor connected from emitter to ground. It is used primarily for impedance- matching
purpose since it has high input impedance and low output impedance.

Fig 3.10 CC Configuration

For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of I E vs VCE for a range
of values of
IB .

Fig 3.11 Output Characteristics of CC Configuration for npn Transistor

Limits of operation

Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of operations. At
least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet.

There are:

a)
Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax or PD

b)
Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO) orVCEO.

c)
Maximum collector current: ICmax

There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:

transistor need to be operate in active region! IC < ICmax PC < PCmax

 Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICMAX=ICEO) in the cutoff region. IC is at
maximum and VCE is at minimum (VCE max = Vcesat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The
transistor operates in the active region between saturation and cutoff.

BJT HYBRID MODEL

Small signal low frequency transistor Models:
All the transistor amplifiers are two port networks having two voltages and two currents. The positive
directions of voltages and currents are shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1
A two-port network is represented by four external variables: voltage V 1 and current I1 at the input port,
and voltage V2 and current I2 at the output port, so that the two-port network can be treated as a black box
modeled by the relationships between the four variables, V 1,V2, I1,I2 . Out of four variables two can be
selected as are independent variables and two are dependent variables. The dependent variables can be
expressed interns of independent variables. This leads to various two port parameters out of which the
following three are important:

1. Impedance parameters (z-parameters)

2. Admittance parameters (y-parameters)
3. Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)
Z-parameters
A two-port network can be described by z-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

Where
Input impedance with output port open circuited

Reverse transfer impedance with input port open circuited

Forward transfer impedance with output port open circuited

Output impedance with input port open circuited

Y-parameters
A two-port network can be described by Y-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

Input admittance with output port short circuited

Reverse transfer admittance with input port short circuited

Forward transfer admittance with output port short circuited

Output admittance with input port short circuited

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)

If the input current I1 and output voltage V2 are taken as independent variables, the dependent
variables V1 and I2 can be written as

Where h11, h12, h21, h22 are called as hybrid parameters.

 Input impedance with o/p port short circuited

Reverse voltage transfer ratio with i/p port open circuited

Forward voltage transfer ratio with o/p port short circuited

output impedance with i/p port open circuited

THE HYBRID MODEL FOR TWO PORT

NETWORK:

Based on the definition of hybrid parameters the mathematical model for two pert networks known as
h-parameter model can be developed. The hybrid equations can be written as:

(The following convenient alternative subscript notation is recommended

by the IEEE Standards:
i=11= input o = 22 = output

f =21 = forward transfer r = 12 = reverse transfer)

If these parameters are specified for a particular configuration, then suffixes e,b or c are also

included, e.g. hfe ,h ib are h parameters of common emitter and common collector amplifiers

Using two equations the generalized model of the amplifier can be drawn as shown in fig. 2.

ANALYSIS OF A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER USING H-PARAMETERS:

To form a transistor amplifier it is only necessary to connect an external load and signal source as

indicated in and to bias the transistor properly.

Current gain:

For the transistor amplifier stage, Ai is defined as the ratio of output to input currents.

Input impedance:
The impedance looking into the amplifier input terminals ( 1,1' ) is the input impedance Z i
Voltage gain:

The ratio of output voltage to input voltage gives the gain of the transistors.

Output Admittance:

It is defined as

Av is the voltage gain for an ideal voltage source (Rv = 0).

Consider input source to be a current source IS in parallel with a resistance RS as shown in fig. 3.

In this case, overall current gain AIS is defined as

h-parameters:
To analyze multistage amplifier the h-parameters of the transistor used are obtained
from manufacture
data sheet. The manufacture data sheet usually provides h-parameter in CE
configuration. These parameters may be converted into CC and CB values. For
example fig. 4 hrc in terms of CE parameter can be obtained as follows.

hybrid model for transistor in three different configurations

Typical h-parameter values for a transistor

Parameter CE CC CB
hi 1100 Ω 1100 Ω 22 Ω
hr 2.5 × 10-4 1 3 × 10-4
hf 50 -51 -0.98
ho 25 µA/V 25 µA/V 0.49 µA/V
Analysis of a Transistor amplifier circuit using h-parameters
A transistor amplifier can be constructed by connecting an external load and signal source and
biasing the transistor properly.

Fig.1.4 Basic Amplifier Circuit

The two port network of Fig. 1.4 represents a transistor in any one of its configuration. It is
assumed that h-parameters remain constant over the operating range. The input is sinusoidal and I 1,V-
1,I2 and V2 are phase quantities.

Fig. 1.5 Transistor replaced by its Hybrid Model

Current Gain or Current Amplification (Ai)

For transistor amplifier the current gain Ai is defined as the ratio of output current to input
current.
Input Impedance (Zi)

In the circuit of Fig , RS is the signal source resistance .The impedance seen when looking into
the amplifier terminals (1,1’) is the amplifier input impedance Zi,

Zi = V1 / I1
From the input circuit of Fig V1 = hi I1 +

hrV2 Zi = ( hi I1 + hrV2) / I1

= hi + hr V2 / I1
 Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Zi = hi + hr A1I1ZL / I1
= hi + hr A1ZL

Substituting for Ai

Zi = hi - hf hr ZL / (1+ hoZL)

= hi - hf hr ZL / ZL(1/ZL+ ho)

Taking the Load admittance as

YL =1/ ZL Zi = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho)

Voltage Gain or Voltage Gain Amplification Factor(Av)

The ratio of output voltage V2 to input voltage V1 give the voltage gain of the transistor i.e,

Av = V2 / V1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Av = A1I1ZL / V1 = AiZL / Zi

Output Admittance (Yo)

Yo is obtained by setting VS to zero, ZL to infinity and by driving the output terminals from a generator
V2. If the current V2 is I2 then Yo= I2/V2 with VS=0 and RL= ∞.

From the circuit of fig

I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Dividing by V2,

I2 / V2 = hf I1/V2 + ho
With V2= 0, by KVL in input circuit,

RSI1 + hi I1 + hrV2 = 0

(RS + hi) I1 + hrV2 = 0

Hence, I2 / V2 = -hr/ (RS + hi)

= hf (-hr/( RS + hi)+ho

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi)

The output admittance is a function of source resistance. If the source impedance is resistive then Y o is
real.

Voltage Amplification Factor(Avs) taking into account the resistance (Rs) of the source

Fig. 5.6 Thevenin’s Equivalent Input Circuit

This overall voltage gain Avs is given by

Avs = V2 / VS = V2V1 / V1VS = Av V1/ VS

From the equivalent input circuit using Thevenin’s equivalent for the source shown in Fig. 5.6

V1 = VS Zi / (Zi + RS)

V1 / VS = Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Then, Avs = Av Zi / ( Zi +

RS) Substituting Av = AiZL /

 Zi

Avs = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

Avs = AiZL RS / ( Zi + RS) RS

Avs = AisZL / RS

Current Amplification (Ais) taking into account the source Resistance(RS)

Fig. 1.7 Norton’s Equivalent Input Circuit

The modified input circuit using Norton’s equivalent circuit for the calculation of A is is shown in Fig.
1.7
Overall Current Gain, Ais = -I2 / IS = - I2I1 /I1 IS = Ai I1/IS
From Fig. 1.7 I1= IS RS / (RS +
Zi) I1 / IS = RS/ (RS + Zi)
and hence, Ais = Ai RS / (RS +Zi)

Operating Power Gain (AP)

The operating power gain AP of the transistor is defined as
AP = P2 / P1 = -V2 I2 / V1 I1 = AvAi = Ai AiZL/ Zi
AP = Ai 2(ZL/ Zi )

NEED FOR TRANSISTOR BIASING:

If the o/p signal must be a faithful reproduction of the i/p signal, the transistor must be operated
in active region. That means an operating point has to be established in this region . To establish an
operating point (proper values of collector current Ic and collector to emitter voltage VCE) appropriate
supply voltages and resistances must be suitably chosen in the ckt. This process of selecting proper
supply voltages and resistance for obtaining desired operating point or Q point is called as biasing and
the ckt used for transistor biasing is called as biasingckt.
 There are four conditions to be met by a transistor so that it acts as a faithful ampr:
1)
Emitter base junction must be forward biased (VBE=0.7Vfor Si, 0.2V for Ge) and
collector base junction must be reverse biased for all levels of i/p signal.
2)
Vce voltage should not fall below VCE (sat) (0.3V for Si, 0.1V for Ge) for any part of the i/p
signal. For VCE less than VCE (sat) the collector base junction is not probably reversebiased.
3)
The value of the signal Ic when no signal is applied should be at least equal to the max. collector
current t due to signal alone.
4)
Max. rating of the transistor Ic(max), VCE (max) and PD(max) should not be exceeded at any value of
i/p signal.

Consider the fig shown in fig1. If operating point is selected at A, A represents a condition when no
bias is applied to the transistor i.e, I c=0, VCE =0. It does not satisfy the above said conditions necessary
for faithful amplification.

Point C is too close to P D(max) curve of the transistor. Therefore the o/p voltage swing in the positive
direction is limited.

Point B is located in the middle of active region .It will allow both positive and negative half cycles
in the o/p signal. It also provides linear gain and larger possible o/p voltages andcurrents

Hence operating point for a transistor amplifier is selected to be in the middle of active region.

DC LOAD LINE
Referring to the biasing circuit of fig 4.2a, the values of VCC and RC are fixed and Ic and VCE are
dependent on RB.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector circuit in fig. 4.2a, we get

Fig 4.2a CE Amplifier circuit (b) Load line

 The straight line represented by AB in fig4.2b is called the dc load line. The coordinates of the end
point A are obtained by substituting V CE =0 in the above equation. Then . Therefore The
coordinates of A are VCE =0 and .

The coordinates of B are obtained by substituting Ic=0 in the above equation. Then Vce = Vcc.
Therefore the coordinates of B are VCE =Vcc and Ic=0. Thus the dc load line AB can be drawn if the
values of Rc and Vcc are known.

As shown in the fig4.2b, the optimum POINT IS LOCATED AT THE MID POINT OF THE
MIDWAY BETWEEN a AND b. In order to get faithful amplification, the Q point must be well within
the active region of the transistor.

Even though the Q point is fixed properly, it is very important to ensure that the operating point
remains stable where it is originally fixed. If the Q point shifts nearer to either A or B, the output voltage
and current get clipped, thereby o/p signal is distorted.

In practice, the Q-point tends to shift its position due to any or all of the following three main
factors.

1) Reverse saturation current, Ico, which doubles for every 10oC raise in temperature
2) Base emitter Voltage ,VBE, which decreases by 2.5 mV per oC
3) Transistor current gain, hFE or β which increases withtemperature.

If base current IB is kept constant since IB is approximately equal to Vcc/RB. If the transistor is
replaced by another one of the same type, one cannot ensure that the new transistor will have identical
parameters as that of the first one. Parameters such as β vary over a range. This results in the variation of
collector current Ic for a given I B. Hence, in the o/p characteristics, the spacing between the curves
might increase or decrease which leads to the shifting of the Q-point to a location which might be
completely unsatisfactory.

AC LOAD LINE

After drawing the dc load line, the operating point Q is properly located at the center of the dc
load line. This operating point is chosen under zero input signal condition of the circuit. Hence the ac
load line should also pas through the operating point Q. The effective ac load resistance R ac, is a

combination of RC parallel to RL i.e. || . So the slope of the ac load line CQD will be .
To draw the ac load line, two end points, I.e. VCE(max) and IC(max) when the signal is applied are
required.

, which locates point D on the Vce axis.

, which locates the point C on the IC axis.

By joining points c and D, ac load line CD is constructed. As RC > Rac, The dc load line is less steep
than ac load line.

STABILITY FACTOR (S):

The rise of temperature results in increase in the value of transistor gain β and the leakage current
Ico. So, IC also increases which results in a shift in operating point. Therefore, The biasing network
should be provided with thermal stability. Maintenance of the operating point is specified by S, which
indicates the degree of change in operating point due to change in temperature.

The extent to which IC is stabilized with varying IC is measured by a stability factor S

For CE configuration

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t IC , We get

S should be small to have better thermal stability.

Stability factor S’ and S’’:

S’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with VBE, keeping IC and VBE constant.

S’’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with β, keeping ICO and VBE constant.
METHODS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

1) Fixed bias (base bias)

Fig 4.3 Fixed Biasing Circuit

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the fig 4.3 shown, the single
power source (for example, battery) is used for both collector and base of a
transistor, although separate batteries can also be used.
In the given circuit, Vcc = IBRB + Vbe
Therefore, IB = (Vcc - Vbe)/RB
Since the equation is independent of current ICR, dIB//dICR =0 and the
stability factor is given by the equation….. reduces to
S=1+β
Since β is a large quantity, this is very poor biasing circuit. Therefore in
practice the circuit is not used fo biasing.
For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As Vcc is
of fixed value, on selection of R the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is
called fixed bias type of circuit.
Also for given circuit, Vcc = ICRC +
Vce Therefore, Vce = Vcc - ICRC

Merits:
It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by
merely changing the base resistor (RB).
A very small number of components are required.
Demerits:
The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature
or power supply voltage. Therefore the operating point is unstable.
Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause RE to change. This in turn
will alter the gain of the stage.
When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the
value ofβ can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.
EMITTER-FEEDBACK BIAS:

The emitter feedback bias circuit is shown in the fig 4.4. The fixed bias
circuit is modified by attaching an external resistor to the emitter. This resistor
introduces negative feedback that stabilizes the Q-point. From Kirchhoff's voltage
law, the voltage across the base resistor is
VRb = VCC - IeRe - Vbe.

Fig 4.4 Self Biasing Circuit

From Ohm's law, the base current is
Ib = VRb / Rb.
The way feedback controls the bias point is as follows. If Vbe is held
constant and temperature increases, emitter current increases. However, a larger Ie
increases the emitter voltage Ve = IeRe, which in turn reduces the voltage VRb
across the base resistor. A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current,
which results in less collector current because Ic = ß IB. Collector current and
emitter current are related by Ic = α Ie with α ≈ 1, so increase in emitter current with
temperature is opposed, and operating point is kept stable.
Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there may be a change in
IC (corresponding to change in β-value, for example). By similar process as above,
the change is negated and operating point kept stable.
For the given circuit,
IB = (VCC - Vbe)/(RB + (β+1)RE).
Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against changes in
temperature and β-value.
Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be
met:
 which is approximately the case if ( β + 1 )RE >> RB.
As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either
by keeping RE very large, or making RB very low. If RE is of large value, high
VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions necessary while
handling. If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be used in the base
circuit. Using two supplies of different voltages is impractical. In addition to the
above, RE causes ac feedback which reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier.

COLLECTOR TO BASE BIAS OR COLLECTOR FEED-BACK BIAS:

Fig 4.5 Collector to Base Biasing Circuit

This configuration shown in fig 4.5 employs negative feedback to prevent
thermal runaway and stabilize the operating point. In this form of biasing, the base
resistor RB is connected to the collector instead of connecting it to the DC source
Vcc. So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across the RC resistor that
will throttle the transistor's base current.
From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor Rb is

By the Ebers–Moll model, Ic = βIb, and so

From Ohm's law, the base current , and so

Hence, the base current Ib is

 If Vbe is held constant and temperature increases, then the collector current
Ic increases. However, a larger Ic causes the voltage drop across resistor Rc to
increase, which in turn reduces the voltage across the base resistor Rb. A lower
base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current Ib, which results in less collector
current Ic. Because an increase in collector current with temperature is opposed, the
operating point is kept stable.
Merits:
Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β
(i.e. replacement of transistor)
Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of β, the following condition must be
met:

which is the case when

As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this

relation can be satisfied either by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rb very low. If
Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling. If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region
is small, which limits the range of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor
in active mode. The resistor Rb causes an AC feedback, reducing the voltage gain of
the amplifier. This undesirable effect is a trade-off for greater Q-point stability.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier as
seen from the base, which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from
feedback, this biasing form is used only when the trade-off for stability is warranted.

COLLECTOR –EMITTER FEEDBACK BIAS:

Fig 4.6 Collector-Emitter Biasing Circuit

 The above fig4.6 shows the collector –emitter feedback bias circuit that can
be obtained by applying both the collector feedback and emitter feedback. Here the
collector feedback is provided by connecting a resistance RB from the collector to
the base and emitter feedback is provided by connecting an emitter Re from emitter
to ground. Both feed backs are used to control collector current and base current IB
in the opposite direction to increase the stability as compared to the previous biasing
circuits.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS OR SELF BIAS OR EMITTER BIAS:

The voltage divider as shown in the fig 4.7 is formed using external resistors
R1 and R2. The voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper
selection of resistors R1 and R2, the operating point of the transistor can be made
independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage divider holds the base voltage fixed
independent of base current provided the divider current is large compared to the
base current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector current varies with
temperature (for example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point,
similar to the above circuits with emitter resistor.

Fig 4.7 Voltage Divider Biasing Circuit

In this circuit the base voltage is given by:

voltage across

provided .

Also For the given circuit,

Let the current in resistor R1 is I1 and this is divided into two parts – current
through base and resistor R2. Since the base current is very small so for all practical
purpose it is assumed that I1 also flows through R2, so we have
 Applying KVL in the circuit, we have

It is apparent from above expression that the collector current is independent of ? thus the
stability is excellent. In all practical cases the value of VBE is quite small in comparison to
the V2, so it can be ignored in the above expression so the collector current is almost
independent of the transistor parameters thus this arrangement provides excellent stability.
Again applying KVL in collector circuit, we have

The resistor RE provides stability to the circuit. If the current through the collector rises, the
voltage across the resistor RE also rises. This will cause VCE to increase as the voltage V2 is
independent of collector current. This decreases the base current, thus collector current
increases to its former value.
Stability factor for such circuit arrangement is given by

If Req/RE is very small compared to 1, it can be ignored in the above

expression thus we have
 Which is excellent since it is the smallest possible value for the stability. In
actual practice the value of stability factor is around 8-10, since Req/RE cannot be
ignored as compared to 1.
Merits:
 Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.
 Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
 Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.
Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be
met:

which is approximately the case if

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in
parallel. As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either
by keeping RE fairly large, or making R1||R2 very low. If RE is of large value, high
VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions necessary while
handling. If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low. A low
R1 raises VB closer to VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and
limiting how large RC can be made without driving the transistor out of active
mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector current. Lowering both
resistor values draws more current from the power supply and lowers the input
resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.

AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces the AC voltage

gain of the amplifier. A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback
is discussed below.
Usage: The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for
linear circuits.
 MOSFET:-
We now turn our attention to the insulated gate FET or metal oxide semi conductor FET which is having
the greater commercial importance than the junction FET.
Most MOSFETS however are triodes, with the substrate internally connected to the source. The circuit
symbols used by several manufacturers are indicated in the Fig below.

(a) Depletion type MOSFET (b) Enhancement type MOSFET

Both of them are P- channel

Here are two basic types of MOSFETS
(1) Depletion type (2) Enhancement type MOSFET.
D-MOSFETS can be operated in both the depletion mode and the enhancement mode. E MOSFETS are
restricted to operate in enhancement mode. The primary difference between them is their physical
construction.
The construction difference between the two is shown in the fig given below.

As we can see the D MOSFET have physical channel between the source and drain terminals(Shaded area)
 The E MOSFET on the other hand has no such channel physically. It depends on the gate voltage to
form a channel between the source and the drain terminals.
Both MOSFETS have an insulating layer between the gate and the rest of the component. This
insulating layer is made up of SIO2 a glass like insulating material. The gate material is made up of metal
conductor .Thus going from gate to substrate, we can have metal oxide semi conductor which is where the
term MOSFET comes from. Since the gate is insulated from the rest of the component, the MOSFET is
sometimes referred to as an insulated gate FET or IGFET. The foundation of the MOSFET is called the
substrate. This material is represented in the schematic symbol by the center line that is connected to the
source. In the symbol for the MOSFET, the arrow is placed on the substrate. As with JFET an arrow pointing
in represents an N-channel device, while an arrow pointing out represents p-channel device.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN N-CHANNEL MOSFET:-

The N- channel MOSFET consists of a lightly doped p type substance into which two heavily doped n+
regions are diffused as shown in the Fig. These n+ sections, which will act as source and drain. A thin layer
of insulation silicon dioxide (SIO2) is grown over the surface of the structure, and holes are cut into oxide
layer, allowing contact with the source and drain. Then the gate metal area is overlaid on the oxide, covering
the entire channel region. Metal contacts are made to drain and source and the contact to the metal over the
channel area is the gate terminal. The metal area of the gate, in conjunction with the insulating dielectric
oxide layer and the semiconductor channel, forms a parallel plate capacitor. The insulating layer of sio2
Is the reason why this device is called the insulated gate field effect transistor. This layer results in an
extremely high input resistance (10 10 to 10power 15ohms) for MOSFET.

DEPLETION MOSFET
The basic structure of D –MOSFET is shown in the fig. An N-channel is diffused between source and
drain with the device an appreciable drain current IDSS flows foe zero gate to source voltage, Vgs=0.

Depletion mode operation:-

1. The above fig shows the D-MOSFET operating conditions with gate and source terminals shorted
together(VGS=0V)
2. At this stage ID= IDSS where VGS=0V, with this voltage VDS, an appreciable drain current IDSS
flows.
3. If the gate to source voltage is made negative i.e. VGs is negative .Positive charges are induced in the
channel through the SIO2 of the gate capacitor.
4. Since the current in a FET is due to majority carriers(electrons for an N-type material) , the induced
positive charges make the channel less conductive and the drain current drops as Vgs is made more
negative.
 5. The re distribution of charge in the channel causes an effective depletion of majority carriers ,
which accounts for the designation depletion MOSFET.
6. That means biasing voltage Vgs depletes the channel of free carriers This effectively reduces the width
of the channel , increasing its resistance.
7. Note that negative Vgs has the same effect on the MOSFET as it has on the JFET.

8. As shown in the fig above, the depletion layer generated by Vgs (represented by the white space
between the insulating material and the channel) cuts into the channel, reducing its width. As a
result
,Id<Idss. The actual value of ID depends on the value of Idss,Vgs(off) and Vgs.
Enhancement mode operation of the D-MOSFET:-
 This operating mode is a result of applying a positive gate to source voltage Vgs to the device.
 When Vgs is positive the channel is effectively widened. This reduces the resistance of the channel
allowing ID to exceed the value of IDSS
 When Vgs is given positive the majority carriers in the p-type are holes. The holes in the p
type substrate are repelled by the +ve gate voltage.
 At the same time, the conduction band electrons (minority carriers) in the p type material
are attracted towards the channel by the +gate voltage.
 With the build up of electrons near the channel , the area to the right of the physical
channel effectively becomes an N type material.
 The extended n type channel now allows more current, Id> Idss

Characteristics of Depletion MOSFET:-

The fig. shows the drain characteristics for the N channel depletion type MOSFET
1) The curves are plotted for both Vgs positive and Vgs negative voltages
2) When Vgs=0 and negative the MOSFET operates in depletion mode when Vgs is positive ,the
MOSFET operates in the enhancement mode.
3) The difference between JFET and D MOSFET is that JFET does not operate for positive values
of Vgs.
4) When Vds=0, there is no conduction takes place between source to drain, if Vgs<0 and Vds>0
then Id increases linearly.
5) But as Vgs,0 induces positive charges holes in the channel, and controls the channel width. Thus the
conduction between source to drain is maintained as constant, i.e. Id is constant.
 6) If Vgs>0 the gate induces more electrons in channel side, it is added with the free electrons
generated by source. again the potential applied to gate determines the channel width and maintains
constant current flow through it as shown in Fig

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:-

The combination of 3 operating states i.e. Vgs=0V, VGs<0V, Vgs>0V is represented by the D
MOSFET transconductance curve shown in Fig.

 Here in this curve it may be noted that the region AB of the characteristics similar to that of JFET.
 This curve extends for the positive values of Vgs
 Note that Id=Idss for Vgs=0V when Vgs is negative,Id< Idss when Vgs= Vgs(off) ,Id is reduced to
approximately omA.Where Vgs is positive Id>Idss.So obviously Idss is not the maximum possible
value of Id for a MOSFET.
 The curves are similar to JFET so thet the D MOSFET have the same transconductance equation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF E MOSFET:-
o DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

The volt ampere drain characteristics of an N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET are given in the fig
 TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:-

 The current Idss at Vgs≤ 0 is very small beinf of the order of a few nano amps.
 As Vgs is made +ve , the current Id increases slowly at forst, and then much more rapidly with an
increase in Vgs.
 The standard transconductance formula will not work for the E MOSFET.
 To determine the value of ID at a given value of VGs we must use the following
2
relation Id =K[Vgs-Vgs(Th)]

Where K is constant for the MOSFET . found as

 K=

From the data specification sheets, the 2N7000 has the following ratings.
Id(on)= 75mA(minimum).
And Vgs(th)=0.8(minimum)

APPLICATION OF MOSFET

One of the primary contributions to electronics made by MOSFETs can be found in the area of digital
(computer electronics). The signals in digital circuits are made up of rapidly switching dc levels. This
signal is called as a rectangular wave ,made up of two dc levels (or logic levels). These logic levels are
0V and +5V. A group of circuits with similar circuitry and operating characteristics is referred to as a
logic family. All the circuits in a given logic family respond to the same logic levels, have similar speed
and power-handling capabilities , and can be directly connected together. One such logic family is
complementary MOS (or CMOS) logic. This logic family is made up entirely of MOSFETs.

Common Source (CS) Amplifier

 Fig. 7.1 (a) CS Amplifier (b) Small-signal equivalent circuit
A simple Common Source amplifier is shown in Fig. 7.1(a) and associated small signal equivalent circuit
using voltage-source model of FET is shown in Fig. 7.1(b)
Voltage Gain
Source resistance (RS) is used to set the Q-Point but is bypassed by CS for mid-frequency operation. From the
small signal equivalent circuit ,the output voltage
VO = -RDµVgs(RD + rd)
Where Vgs = Vi , the input voltage,
Hence, the voltage gain,
AV = VO / Vi = -RDµ(RD + rd)
Input Impedance
From Fig. 7.1(b) Input Impedance is
Zi = RG
For voltage divider bias as in CE Amplifiers of BJT
RG = R1 ║ R 2
Output Impedance
Output impedance is the impedance measured at the output terminals with the input voltage V I = 0
From the Fig. 7.1(b) when the input voltage Vi = 0, Vgs = 0 and hence
µ Vgs = 0
The equivalent circuit for calculating output impedance is given in Fig. 7.2.
Output impedance Zo = rd ║ RD
Normally rd will be far greater than RD . Hence Zo ≈ RD
After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has several voltage amplifications done,
after which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done just before the loud speaker
stage. This is clearly shown in the below figure.
While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power amplifier raises the
power level of the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can also be said that a power amplifier
is a device which converts DC power to AC power and whose action is controlled by the input
signal.
The DC power is distributed according to the relation,
DC power input = AC power output + losses

Power Transistor
For such Power amplification, a normal transistor would not do. A transistor that is manufactured
to suit the purpose of power amplification is called as a Power transistor.
A Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in the following factors.
 It is larger in size, in order to handle large powers.
 The collector region of the transistor is made large and a heat sink is placed at the collector-
base junction in order to minimize heat generated.
 The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are heavily doped.
 Due to the low input resistance, it requires low input power.
Hence there is a lot of difference in voltage amplification and power amplification. So, let us now
try to get into the details to understand the differences between a voltage amplifier and a power
amplifier.

Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifiers

Let us try to differentiate between voltage and power amplifier.

Voltage Amplifier
The function of a voltage amplifier is to raise the voltage level of the signal. A voltage amplifier is
designed to achieve maximum voltage amplification.
The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by
Av=β(RcRin)Av=β(RcRin)
The characteristics of a voltage amplifier are as follows −
 The base of the transistor should be thin and hence the value of β should be greater than 100.
 The resistance of the input resistor Rin should be low when compared to collector load RC.
 The collector load RC should be relatively high. To permit high collector load, the voltage
amplifiers are always operated at low collector current.
 The voltage amplifiers are used for small signal voltages.
Power Amplifier
The function of a power amplifier is to raise the power level of input signal. It is required to deliver
a large amount of power and has to handle large current.
The characteristics of a power amplifier are as follows −
 The base of transistor is made thicken to handle large currents. The value of β being (β >
100) high.
 The size of the transistor is made larger, in order to dissipate more heat, which is produced
during transistor operation.
 Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.
 Collector resistance is made low.
The Power amplifiers amplify the power level of the signal. This amplification is done in the last
stage in audio applications. The applications related to radio frequencies employ radio power
amplifiers. But the operating point of a transistor, plays a very important role in determining the
efficiency of the amplifier. The main classification is done based on this mode of operation.
The classification is done based on their frequencies and also based on their mode of operation.

Classification Based on Frequencies:

Power amplifiers are divided into two categories, based on the frequencies they handle. They are as
follows.
 Audio Power Amplifiers − The audio power amplifiers raise the power level of signals that
have audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). They are also known as Small signal
power amplifiers.
 Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers or tuned power amplifiers raise the
power level of signals that have radio frequency range (3 KHz to 300 GHz). They are also
known as large signal power amplifiers.

Classification Based on Mode of Operation

On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle during which collector
current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as follows.
 Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times during the full
cycle of signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
 Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the positive half
cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier.
 Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the
input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.
There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A and class B
amplifiers so as to utilize the advantages of both.
Before going into the details of these amplifiers, let us have a look at the important terms that have
to be considered to determine the efficiency of an amplifier.
Terms Considering Performance
The primary objective of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output power. In order to achieve
this, the important factors to be considered are collector efficiency, power dissipation capability
and distortion. Let us go through them in detail.

Collector Efficiency
This explains how well an amplifier converts DC power to AC power. When the DC supply is
given by the battery but no AC signal input is given, the collector output at such a condition is
observed as collector efficiency.
The collector efficiency is defined as
η=averagea.cpoweroutputaveraged.cpowerinputtotransistorη=averagea.cpoweroutputaveraged.cpow
erinputtotransistor
For example, if the battery supplies 15W and AC output power is 3W. Then the transistor
efficiency will be 20%.
The main aim of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum collector efficiency. Hence the higher the
value of collector efficiency, the efficient the amplifier will be.

Power Dissipation Capacity

Every transistor gets heated up during its operation. As a power transistor handles large currents, it
gets more heated up. This heat increases the temperature of the transistor, which alters the operating
point of the transistor.
So, in order to maintain the operating point stability, the temperature of the transistor has to be kept
in permissible limits. For this, the heat produced has to be dissipated. Such a capacity is called as
Power dissipation capability.
Power dissipation capability can be defined as the ability of a power transistor to dissipate the
heat developed in it. Metal cases called heat sinks are used in order to dissipate the heat produced in
power transistors.

Distortion
A transistor is a non-linear device. When compared with the input, there occur few variations in the
output. In voltage amplifiers, this problem is not pre-dominant as small currents are used. But in
power amplifiers, as large currents are in use, the problem of distortion certainly arises.
Distortion is defined as the change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of the
amplifier. An amplifier that has lesser distortion, produces a better output and hence considered
efficient.
CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER:
We have already come across the details of transistor biasing, which is very important for the
operation of a transistor as an amplifier. Hence to achieve faithful amplification, the biasing of the
transistor has to be done such that the amplifier operates over the linear region.
A Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows for the entire cycle of the AC
input supply. Hence the complete signal present at the input is amplified at the output. The
following figure shows the circuit diagram for Class A Power amplifier.
From the above figure, it can be observed that the transformer is present at the collector as a load.
The use of transformer permits the impedance matching, resulting in the transference of maximum
power to the load e.g. loud speaker.The operating point of this amplifier is present in the linear
region. It is so selected that the current flows for the entire ac input cycle. The below figure
explains the selection of operating point.

The output characteristics with operating point Q is shown in the figure above. Here (I c)Q and
(Vce)Q represent no signal collector current and voltage between collector and emitter respectively.
When signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q 1 and Q2. The output current increases to (I c)max and
decreases to (Ic)min. Similarly, the collector-emitter voltage increases to (V ce)max and decreases to
(Vce)min.
D.C. Power drawn from collector battery Vcc is given by
Pin=voltage×current=VCC(IC)QPin=voltage×current=VCC(IC)Q
This power is used in the following two parts −

 Power dissipated in the collector load as heat is given by

PRC=(current)2×resistance=(IC)2QRCPRC=(current)2×resistance=(IC)Q2RC
  Power given to transistor is given by
Ptr=Pin−PRC=VCC−(IC)2QRCPtr=Pin−PRC=VCC−(IC)Q2RC
When signal is applied, the power given to transistor is used in the following two parts −
 A.C. Power developed across load resistors RC which constitutes the a.c. power output.

(PO)ac=I2RC=V2RC=(Vm2–

√)21RC=V2m2RC(PO)ac=I2RC=V2RC=(Vm2)21RC=Vm22RC
Where I is the R.M.S. value of a.c. output current through load, V is the R.M.S. value of a.c.
voltage, and Vm is the maximum value of V.
 The D.C. power dissipated by the transistor (collector region) in the form of heat, i.e., (PC)dc
We have represented the whole power flow in the following diagram.

This class A power amplifier can amplify small signals with least distortion and the output will be
an exact replica of the input with increased strength.
Let us now try to draw some expressions to represent efficiencies.

Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of the amplifier circuit is given by
(η)overall=a.cpowerdeliveredtotheloadtotalpowerdeliveredbyd.csupply(η)overall=a.cpowerdelivered
totheloadtotalpowerdeliveredbyd.csupply
=(PO)ac(Pin)dc=(PO)ac(Pin)dc
Collector Efficiency
The collector efficiency of the transistor is defined as
(η)collector=averagea.cpoweroutputaveraged.cpowerinputtotransistor(η)collector=averagea.cpowero
utputaveraged.cpowerinputtotransistor
=(PO)ac(Ptr)dc=(PO)ac(Ptr)dc
Expression for overall efficiency
(PO)ac=Vrms×Irms(PO)ac=Vrms×Irms
=12–√[(Vce)max−(Vce)min2]×12–
√[(IC)max−(IC)min2]=12[(Vce)max−(Vce)min2]×12[(IC)max−(IC)min2]
=[(Vce)max−(Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8=[(Vce)max−(Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8
Therefore
(η)overall=[(Vce)max−(Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8×VCC(IC)Q(η)overall=[(Vce)max−(Vce)mi
n]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8×VCC(IC)Q
Advantages of Class A Amplifiers
The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −

 The current flows for complete input cycle

 It can amplify small signals
 The output is same as input
 No distortion is present
Disadvantages of Class A Amplifiers
The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −

 Low power output

 Low collector efficiency

TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER

The class A power amplifier as discussed in the previous chapter, is the circuit in which the output
current flows for the entire cycle of the AC input supply. We also have learnt about the
disadvantages it has such as low output power and efficiency. In order to minimize those effects,
the transformer coupled class A power amplifier has been introduced.
The construction of class A power amplifier can be understood with the help of below figure.
This is similar to the normal amplifier circuit but connected with a transformer in the collector load.

Here R1 and R2 provide potential divider arrangement. The resistor Re provides stabilization, C e is
the bypass capacitor and Re to prevent a.c. voltage. The transformer used here is a step-down
transformer. The high impedance primary of the transformer is connected to the high impedance
collector circuit. The low impedance secondary is connected to the load (generally loud speaker).
Transformer Action
The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance matching. R L is the load connected in
the secondary of a transformer. RL’ is the reflected load in the primary of the transformer.
The number of turns in the primary are n 1 and the secondary are n2. Let V1and V2 be the primary
and secondary voltages and I 1 and I2 be the primary and secondary currents respectively. The below
figure shows the transformer clearly.

We know that
V1V2=n1n2andI1I2=n1n2V1V2=n1n2andI1I2=n1n2
Or
V1=n1n2V2andI1=n1n2I2V1=n1n2V2andI1=n1n2I2
Hence
V1I1=(n1n2)2V2I2V1I1=(n1n2)2V2I2
But V1/I1 = RL’ = effective input resistance
And V2/I2 = RL = effective output resistance
Therefore,
R′L=(n1n2)2RL=n2RLRL′=(n1n2)2RL=n2RL
Where
n=numberofturnsinprimarynumberofturnsinsecondary=n1n2n=numberofturnsinprimarynumberoftur
nsinsecondary=n1n2
A power amplifier may be matched by taking proper turn ratio in step down transformer.

Circuit Operation
If the peak value of the collector current due to signal is equal to zero signal collector current, then
the maximum a.c. power output is obtained. So, in order to achieve complete amplification, the
operating point should lie at the center of the load line.
The operating point obviously varies when the signal is applied. The collector voltage varies in
opposite phase to the collector current. The variation of collector voltage appears across the
primary of the transformer.
Circuit Analysis
The power loss in the primary is assumed to be negligible, as its resistance is very small.
The input power under dc condition will be
(Pin)dc=(Ptr)dc=VCC×(IC)Q(Pin)dc=(Ptr)dc=VCC×(IC)Q
Under maximum capacity of class A amplifier, voltage swings from (Vce)max to zero and current
from (Ic)max to zero.
Hence
Vrms=12–√[(Vce)max−(Vce)min2]=12–√[(Vce)max2]=2VCC22–√=VCC2–
√Vrms=12[(Vce)max−(Vce)min2]=12[(Vce)max2]=2VCC22=VCC2
Irms=12–√[(IC)max−(IC)min2]=12–√[(IC)max2]=2(IC)Q22–√=(IC)Q2–
√Irms=12[(IC)max−(IC)min2]=12[(IC)max2]=2(IC)Q22=(IC)Q2
Therefore,
(PO)ac=Vrms×Irms=VCC2–√×(IC)Q2–
√=VCC×(IC)Q2(PO)ac=Vrms×Irms=VCC2×(IC)Q2=VCC×(IC)Q2
Therefore,
Collector Efficiency = (PO)ac(Ptr)dc(PO)ac(Ptr)dc
Or,
(η)collector=VCC×(IC)Q2×VCC×(IC)Q=12(η)collector=VCC×(IC)Q2×VCC×(IC)Q=12
=12×100=50%=12×100=50%
The efficiency of a class A power amplifier is nearly than 30% whereas it has got improved to 50%
by using the transformer coupled class A power amplifier.

Advantages
The advantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.

 No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.

 Excellent impedance matching is achieved.
 Gain is high.
 DC isolation is provided.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.

 Low frequency signals are less amplified comparatively.

 Hum noise is introduced by transformers.
 Transformers are bulky and costly.
 Poor frequency response.
Applications
The applications of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
 This circuit is where impedance matching is the main criterion.
 These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers.
CLASS –B POWER AMPLIFIER:
Class B Operation
The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero signal condition, there
will be no collector current. The operating point is selected to be at collector cut off voltage. So,
when the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
The figure below shows the input and output waveforms during class B operation.

When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle of the input and
hence the collector current flows. But during the negative half cycle of the input, the circuit is
reverse biased and the collector current will be absent. Hence only the positive half cycle is
amplified at the output.
As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion will be high. Also, when the
applied signal increases, the power dissipation will be more. But when compared to class A power
amplifier, the output efficiency is increased.
Well, in order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high efficiency and high
output power, the push-pull configuration is used in this class B amplifier.

Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only one half cycle of
the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not completely utilized. In order to
compensate these problems, the push-pull configuration is introduced in class B amplifier.

Construction
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical transistors T1 and
T2 whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input transformer T r1. The
emitters are shorted and the collectors are given the V CC supply through the primary of the output
transformer Tr2.
The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier, is same as that of class A push-pull
amplifier except that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of using the biasing resistors. The
figure below gives the detailing of the construction of a push-pull class B power amplifier.
The circuit operation of class B push pull amplifier is detailed below.

Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that both the
transformers are center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T1 and T2 are
in cut off condition and hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn from V CC, no
power is wasted.
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer T r1 which splits the signal into two
signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals are given to the two identical
transistors T1 and T2. For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor T 1 becomes positive and
collector current flows. At the same time, the transistor T 2 has negative half cycle, which throws the
transistor T2 into cutoff condition and hence no collector current flows. The waveform is produced
as shown in the following figure.

For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor T 2 gets into
conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts alternately.
The output transformer Tr3 serves to join the two currents producing an almost undistorted output
waveform.

Power Efficiency of Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

The current in each transistor is the average value of half sine loop.
For half sine loop, Idc is given by
 Idc=(IC)maxπIdc=(IC)maxπ
Therefore,
(pin)dc=2×[(IC)maxπ×VCC](pin)dc=2×[(IC)maxπ×VCC]
Here factor 2 is introduced as there are two transistors in push-pull amplifier.
R.M.S. value of collector current = (IC)max/2–√(IC)max/2
R.M.S. value of output voltage = VCC/2–√VCC/2
Under ideal conditions of maximum power
Therefore,
(PO)ac=(IC)max2–√×VCC2–√=(IC)max×VCC2(PO)ac=(IC)max2×VCC2=(IC)max×VCC2
Now overall maximum efficiency
ηoverall=(PO)ac(Pin)dcηoverall=(PO)ac(Pin)dc
=(IC)max×VCC2×π2(IC)max×VCC=(IC)max×VCC2×π2(IC)max×VCC
=π4=0.785=78.5%=π4=0.785=78.5%
The collector efficiency would be the same.
Hence the class B push-pull amplifier improves the efficiency than the class A push-pull amplifier.

Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier

The push pull amplifier which was just discussed improves efficiency but the usage of center-
tapped transformers makes the circuit bulky, heavy and costly. To make the circuit simple and to
improve the efficiency, the transistors used can be complemented, as shown in the following circuit
diagram.

The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP transistor connected in push pull
configuration. When the input signal is applied, during the positive half cycle of the input signal,
the NPN transistor conducts and the PNP transistor cuts off. During the negative half cycle, the
NPN transistor cuts off and the PNP transistor conducts. In this way, the NPN transistor amplifies
during positive half cycle of the input, while PNP transistor amplifies during negative half cycle of
the input. As the transistors are both complement to each other, yet act symmetrically while being
connected in push pull configuration of class B, this circuit is termed as Complementary
symmetry push pull class B amplifier.

Advantages
The advantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.
 As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight and cost are reduced.
 Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.
 It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have similar characteristics.
 We require both positive and negative supply voltages.

Cross-over Distortion
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get into conduction, one after the other
and the output produced will be the combination of both. When the signal changes or crosses over
from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage point, it produces an amount of distortion to the
output wave shape. For a transistor in order to conduct, the base emitter junction should cross 0.7v,
the cut off voltage. The time taken for a transistor to get ON from OFF or to get OFF from ON state
is called the transition period. At the zero voltage point, the transition period of switching over the
transistors from one to the other, has its effect which leads to the instances where both the
transistors are OFF at a time. Such instances can be called as Flat spot or Dead band on the output
wave shape.

The above figure clearly shows the cross over distortion which is prominent in the output
waveform. This is the main disadvantage. This cross over distortion effect also reduces the overall
peak to peak value of the output waveform which in turn reduces the maximum power output. This
can be more clearly understood through the non-linear characteristic of the waveform as shown
below.

It is understood that this cross-over distortion is less pronounced for large input signals, where as it
causes severe disturbance for small input signals. This cross over distortion can be eliminated if the
conduction of the amplifier is more than one half cycle, so that both the transistors won’t be OFF at
the same time. This idea leads to the invention of class AB amplifier, which is the combination of
both class A and class B amplifiers, as discussed below.
Class AB Power Amplifier
As the name implies, class AB is a combination of class A and class B type of amplifiers. As class
A has the problem of low efficiency and class B has distortion problem, this class AB is emerged to
eliminate these two problems, by utilizing the advantages of both the classes.
The cross over distortion is the problem that occurs when both the transistors are OFF at the same
instant, during the transition period. In order to eliminate this, the condition has to be chosen for
more than one half cycle. Hence, the other transistor gets into conduction, before the operating
transistor switches to cut off state. This is achieved only by using class AB configuration, as shown
in the following circuit diagram.

Therefore, in class AB amplifier design, each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly
more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of conduction of
class A. The conduction angle of class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180 o to 360o depending
upon the operating point selected. This is understood with the help of below figure.

The small bias voltage given using diodes D1 and D2, as shown in the above figure, helps the
operating point to be above the cutoff point. Hence the output waveform of class AB results as seen
in the above figure. The crossover distortion created by class B is overcome by this class AB, as
well the inefficiencies of class A and B don’t affect the circuit.

So, the class AB is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of efficiency and
linearity having the efficiency reaching about 50% to 60%. The class A, B and AB amplifiers are
called as linear amplifiers because the output signal amplitude and phase are linearly related to the
input signal amplitude and phase.
Class C Power Amplifier
When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is
known as class C power amplifier. The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is
poor. The conduction angle for class C is less than 180 o. It is generally around 90o, which means
the transistor remains idle for more than half of the input signal. So, the output current will be
delivered for less time compared to the application of input signal. The following figure shows the
operating point and output of a class C amplifier.

This kind of biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to the amplifier, but
introduces heavy distortion in the output signal. Using the class C amplifier, the pulses produced at
its output can be converted to complete sine wave of a particular frequency by using LC circuits in
its collector circuit.
 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
Feedback is a common phenomenon in nature. It plays an important role in electronics & control
systems. Feedback is a process whereby a portion of the output signal of the amplifier is feedback
to the input of the amplifier. The feedback signal can be either a voltage or a current, being applied
in series or shunt respectively with the input signal.
The path over which the feedback is applied is the feedback loop. There are two types of feedback
used in electronic circuits. (i) If the feedback voltage or current is in phase with the input signal and
adds to its magnitude, the feedback is called positive or regenerative feedback.(ii) If the feedback
voltage or current is opposite in phase to the input signal and opposes it , the feedback is called
negative or regenerative feedback.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS:
Before analyzing the concept of feedback, it is useful to classify amplifiers based on the
magnitudes of the input & output impedances of an amplifier relative to the sources & load
impedances respectively as (i) voltage (ii) current (iii) Tran conductance (iv) Tran resistance
amplifiers.

VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER:
The above figure shows a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of an amplifier. If the input resistance of
the amplifier Ri is large compared with the source resistance Rs, then Vi = Vs. If the external load
RL is large compared with the output resistance R0 of the amplifier, then V0 = AV VS .This type

of amplifier provides a voltage output proportional to the input voltage & the proportionality factor
doesn’t depend on the magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Hence, this amplifier is
known as voltage amplifier. An ideal voltage amplifier must have infinite resistance Ri and zero
output resistance.
CURRENT AMPLIFIER:

Above figure shows a Norton’s equivalent circuit of a current amplifier. If the input resistance of
the amplifier Ri is very low compared to the source resistance RS, then Ii = IS. If the output
resistance of the amplifier R0 is very large compared to external load RL, then IL = AiIi = Ai IS.
This amplifier provides an output current proportional to the signal current and the
proportionally is dependent of the source and load resistance. Hence, this amplifier is called a
current amplifier. An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance & infinite output
resistance.
TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER:

The above figure shows the equivalent circuit of a transconductance amplifier. In this circuit, the
output current I0 is proportional to the signal voltage VS and the proportionality factor is
independent of the magnitudes of source and load resistances. An ideal transconductance amplifier
must have an infinite resistance Ri & infinite output resistance R0.
TRANSRESISTANCE AMPLIFIER:
Figure above shows the equivalent circuit of a transconductance amplifier. Here, the output voltage
V0 is proportional to the signal current IS and the proportionality factor is independent of
magnitudes of source and loads resistances. If RS >>Ri , then Ii = IS , Output voltage V0 = RmIS
An ideal transconductance amplifier must have zero input resistance and zero output resistance.
THE FEEDBACK CONCEPT:
In each of the above discussed amplifiers, we can sample the output voltage or current by means of
a suitable sampling network & this sampled portion is feedback to the input through a feedback
network as shown below.

RL

All the input of the amplifier, the feedback signal is combined with the source signal through a unit
called mixer. The signal source shown in the above figure can be either a voltage source VS or a
current source. The feedback connection has three networks.
1. Sampling network
2. Feedback network
3. Mixer network
SAMPLING NETWORK:
There are two ways to sample the output, depending on the required feedback parameter. The
output voltage is sampled by connecting the feedback network in shunt with the output. This is
called as voltage sampling.
FEEDBACK NETWORK:
This is usually a passive two-port network consisting of resistors, capacitors and inductors. In case
of a voltage shunt feedback, it provides a fraction of the output voltage as feedback signal Vf to the
input of the mixer.
MIXER:
There are two ways of mixing the feedback signal with the input signal with the input signal as
shown in figure . below.

When the feedback voltage is applied in series with the input voltage through the feedback network
as shown in figure 6.7 (a) above, it is called series mixing. Otherwise, when the feedback voltage is
applied in parallel to the input of the amplifier as shown in figure (b) above, it is called shunt
feedback.
GAIN OR TRANSFER RATIO:
The ratio of the output signal to the input signal of the basic amplifier is represented by the symbol
A , with proper suffix representing the different quantities.
TYPES OF FEEDBACK:
Feedback amplifiers can be classified as positive or negative feedback depending on how the
feedback signal gets added to the incoming signal. If the feedback signal is of the same sign as the
incoming signal, they get added & this is called as positive feedback. On the other hand, if the
feedback signal is in phase inverse with the incoming signal, they get subtracted from each other; it
will be called as negative feedback amplifier. Positive feedback is employed in oscillators whereas
negative feedback is used in amplifiers.
FEATURE OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS:
 Overall gain is reduced
 Bandwidth is improved
 Distortion is reduced
 Stability is improved
 Noise is reduced
ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER:
The analysis of the feedback amplifier can be carried out by replacing each active element (BJT,
FET) by its small signal model and by writing Kirchoff’s loop or nodal equations. Consider the
schematic representation of the feedback amplifier as shown below.
The four basic types of feedback are:
 Voltage –Series feedback
 Current – Series feedback
 Current – Shunt feedback
 Voltage – Shunt feedback
GAIN WITH FEEDBACK:
Consider the schematic representation of negative feedback amplifier as shown in fig.6.8.The
source resistance RS to be part of the amplifier & transfer gain A (AV,Ai ,Gm ,Rm ) includes the
effect of the loading of the network upon the amplifier.The input signal XS, the output signal X0,
the feedback signal Xf and the difference signal Xd , each represents either a voltage or a current
and also the ratios A and as summarized below.
The gain, A = X0 / XS (1)
The output of the mixer,
Xd = Xs + (-Xf ) = Xi (2)
The feedback ratio , = Xf / X0 (3)
The overall gain (including the feedback)
Af = X0 / XS (4)
From equation (2), XS = Xi + Xf Af = X0 / (Xi + Xf)
Dividing both numerator and denominator by Xi and simplifying, we get Af = A / (1 + A) (5)
Equation (5) indicates that the overall gain Af is less the open loop gain. The denominator term (1
+ A) in equation (5) is called the loop gain. The forward path consists only of the basic amplifier,
whereas the feedback is in the return path.
GAIN STABILITY:
Gain of an amplifier depends on the factors such as temperature, operating point aging etc. It can be
shown that the negative feedback tends to stabilize the gain. The ratio of fractional change in
amplification with feedback to the fractional change in without feedback is called the
sensitivity of the gain
REDUCTION IN FREQUENCY DISTORTION:
If the feedback network is purely resistive, the overall gain is then not a function of frequency even
though the basic amplifier gain is frequency dependent. Under such conditions a substantial
reduction in frequency & phase distortion is obtained.
NONLINEAR DISTORTION:
Negative feedback tends to reduce the amount of noise and non-linear distortion. Suppose that a
large amplitude signal is applied to an amplifier, so that the operation of the device extends slightly
beyond its range of linear operation and as a consequence the output signal is distorted. Negative
feedback is now introduced and the input signal is increased by the same amount by which the gain
is reduced, so that the output signal amplitude remains the same. Assume that the second harmonic
component, in the absence of feedback is B2. Because of feedback, a component B2f actually
appears in the output. To find the relationship that exists between B2f& B2, it is noted that the
output will contain the term –AβB2f , which arises from the component –βB2f that is feedback to
the input. Thus the output contains two terms: B2, generated in the transistor and –AβB2f , which
represents the effect of the feedback. Thus, it is seen that, the negative feedback tends to reduce the
second harmonic distortion by the factor (1+βA).
NOISE:
Noise or hum components introduced into an amplifier inside the feedback loop are reduced by the
feedback loop. Suppose there are two stages of amplifier with gains A1 & A 2 and noise or hum
pick-up is introduced after the amplifier with gain A1 as shown in the fig. below

The overall gain of the two stage amplifier is reduced by the factor 1 + A1A2β. In addition the
noise output is reduced by the additional factor A1 which is the gain that precedes the introduction
of noise. In a single stage amplifier, noise will be reduced by the factor 1/(1 + Aβ) just like
distortion. But if signal-to-noise ratio has to improve, we have to increase the signal level at the
input by the factor (1 + Aβ) to bring back the signal level to the same value as obtained without
feedback. If we can assume that noise does not further increase when we increase the signal input,
we can conclude that noise is reduced by the factor 1/(1+Aβ) due to feedback while the signal level
is maintained constant.
OSCILLATORS:
An oscillator generates output without any ac input signal. An electronic oscillator is a circuit
which converts dc energy into ac at a very high frequency. An amplifier with a positive feedback
can be understood as an oscillator.
Amplifier vs. Oscillator
An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied, whereas
an oscillator generates a signal without that input signal, but it requires dc for its operation. This is
the main difference between an amplifier and an oscillator. Take a look at the following illustration.
It clearly shows how an amplifier takes energy from d.c. power source and converts it into a.c.
energy at signal frequency. An oscillator produces an oscillating a.c. signal on its own.

The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of a.c. power generated by an amplifier, is controlled by
the a.c. signal voltage applied at the input, whereas those for an oscillator are controlled by the
components in the circuit itself, which means no external controlling voltage is required.

Alternator vs. Oscillator

An alternator is a mechanical device that produces sinusoidal waves without any input. This a.c.
generating machine is used to generate frequencies up to 1000Hz. The output frequency depends on
the number of poles and the speed of rotation of the armature.
The following points highlight the differences between an alternator and an oscillator −
 An alternator converts mechanical energy to a.c. energy, whereas the oscillator converts d.c.
energy into a.c. energy.
 An oscillator can produce higher frequencies of several MHz whereas an alternator cannot.
 An alternator has rotating parts, whereas an electronic oscillator doesn’t.
 It is easy to change the frequency of oscillations in an oscillator than in an alternator.
Oscillators can also be considered as opposite to rectifiers that convert a.c. to d.c. as these convert
d.c. to a.c. You can get a detailed description on rectifiers in our Electronic Circuits tutorial.

Classification of Oscillators
Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories −
 Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform are
called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at
frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.

 Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square,

rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators.
Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.
  Sinusoidal Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories −
 Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of inductors
(L) and capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals. Thus they are also
known as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-
oscillators etc.
 RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to generate low
or audio-frequency signals. Thus they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F.) oscillators.
Such oscillators are Phase –shift and Wein-bridge oscillators.
 Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate highly
stabilized output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz. The Piezo oscillator is an example
of a crystal oscillator.
 Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance characteristic of
the devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an example of a negative-
resistance oscillator.

Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations

The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of two types. They
are damped and undamped oscillations.

Damped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are called as Damped
Oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant depending upon the
circuit parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce power losses
and doesn’t compensate if required.

Undamped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called as Undamped
Oscillations. The frequency of the Undamped oscillations remains constant.
Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce no power
losses and follow compensation techniques if any power losses occur. An Oscillator circuit is a
complete set of all the parts of circuit which helps to produce the oscillations. These oscillations
should sustain and should be Undamped as just discussed before. Let us try to analyze a practical
Oscillator circuit to have a better understanding on how an Oscillator circuit works.

Practical Oscillator Circuit

A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a feedback circuit.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a practical oscillator.

Let us now discuss the parts of this practical oscillator circuit.

 Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with
capacitor C. The values of these two components determine the frequency of the oscillator
circuit and hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.
 Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier circuit
so that the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplified here. Hence the output of
these oscillations are increased by the amplifier.
 Feedback Circuit − The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the output
energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators while negative
in amplifiers.

Frequency Stability of an Oscillator

The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant frequency,
over a long time interval. When operated over a longer period of time, the oscillator frequency may
have a drift from the previously set value either by increasing or by decreasing.
The change in oscillator frequency may arise due to the following factors −
 Operating point of the active device such as BJT or FET used should lie in the linear region
of the amplifier. Its deviation will affect the oscillator frequency.
 The temperature dependency of the performance of circuit components affect the oscillator
frequency.
 The changes in d.c. supply voltage applied to the active device, shift the oscillator
frequency. This can be avoided if a regulated power supply is used.
 A change in output load may cause a change in the Q-factor of the tank circuit, thereby
causing a change in oscillator output frequency.
 The presence of inter element capacitances and stray capacitances affect the oscillator output
frequency and thus frequency stability.
The Barkhausen Criterion
With the knowledge we have till now, we understood that a practical oscillator circuit consists of a
tank circuit, a transistor amplifier circuit and a feedback circuit. so, let us now try to brush up the
concept of feedback amplifiers, to derive the gain of the feedback amplifiers.

Principle of Feedback Amplifier

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are the amplifier and the feedback
circuit. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback amplifier can be
understood from the following figure below.

From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. The gain of the amplifier is the
ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage V i. The feedback network extracts a voltage V f = β
Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.
This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the signal
voltage Vs.
So, for a positive feedback,
Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + β Vo
The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.
The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs + βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the
amplifier.
Hence,
(Vs+βVo)A=Vo(Vs+βVo)A=Vo Or
AVs+AβVo=VoAVs+AβVo=Vo Or
AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)
Therefore , VoVs=A1−AβVoVs=A1−Aβ
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the ratio of
output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,
Af=OutputVoltageInputSignal
Voltage=VoVsAf=OutputVoltageInputSignalVoltage=VoVs
from the above two equations, we can understand that, the equation of gain of the feedback
amplifier with positive feedback is given by
Af=A1−AβAf=A1−Aβ
Where Aβ is the feedback factor or the loop gain.
If Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e., there is output without any input. In another
words, the amplifier works as an Oscillator.
The condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations. This is a very important
factor to be always kept in mind, in the concept of Oscillators.

Tuned circuit oscillators are the circuits that produce oscillations with the help of tuning circuits.
The tuning circuits onsists of an inductance L and a capacitor C. These are also known as LC
oscillators, resonant circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators.

The tuned circuit oscillators are used to produce an output with frequencies ranging from 1 MHz to
500 MHz Hence these are also known as R.F. Oscillators. A BJT or a FET is used as an amplifier
with tuned circuit oscillators. With an amplifier and an LC tank circuit, we can feedback a signal
with right amplitude and phase to maintain oscillations.

Types of Tuned Circuit Oscillators

Most of the oscillators used in radio transmitters and receivers are of LC oscillators type.
Depending upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit, the LC oscillators are divided as the
following types.

 Tuned-collector or Armstrong Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback from the collector

of a transistor to the base. The LC circuit is in the collector circuit of the transistor.

 Tuned base Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback. But the LC circuit is in the base circuit.

 Hartley Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback.

 Colpitts Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

 Clapp Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

 OPERATIOANL AMPLIFIERS
Introduction to Operational amplifiers:
An electronic circuit is a group of electronic components connected for a specific purpose.
A simple electronic circuit can be designed easily because it requires few discrete electronic
components and connections. However, designing a complex electronic circuit is difficult, as
it requires more number of discrete electronic components and their connections. It is also
time taking to build such complex circuits and their reliability is also less. These difficulties
can be overcome with Integrated Circuits.

Integrated Circuit (IC)

If multiple electronic components are interconnected on a single chip of semiconductor
material, then that chip is called as an Integrated Circuit (IC). It consists of both active and
passive components.
This chapter discusses the advantages and types of ICs.

Advantages of Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits offer many advantages. They are discussed below −
 Compact size − For a given functionality, you can obtain a circuit of smaller size
using ICs, compared to that built using a discrete circuit.
 Lesser weight − A circuit built with ICs weighs lesser when compared to the weight
of a discrete circuit that is used for implementing the same function of IC. using ICs,
compared to that built using a discrete circuit.
 Low power consumption − ICs consume lower power than a traditional
circuit,because of their smaller size and construction.
 Reduced cost − ICs are available at much reduced cost than discrete circuits because
of their fabrication technologies and usage of lesser material than discrete circuits.
 Increased reliability − Since they employ lesser connections, ICs offer increased
reliability compared to digital circuits.
 Improved operating speeds − ICs operate at improved speeds because of their
switching speeds and lesser power consumption.

Types of Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits are of two types − Analog Integrated Circuits and Digital Integrated
Circuits.

Analog Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits that operate over an entire range of continuous values of the signal
amplitude are called as Analog Integrated Circuits. These are further classified into the
two types as discussed here −
  Linear Integrated Circuits − An analog IC is said to be Linear, if there exists a
linear relation between its voltage and current. IC 741, an 8-pin Dual In-line Package
(DIP)op-amp, is an example of Linear IC.
 Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits − An analog IC is said to be Non-Linear, if
there exists a non-linear relation between its voltage and current. A Non-Linear IC is
also called as Radio Frequency IC.

Digital Integrated Circuits

If the integrated circuits operate only at a few pre-defined levels instead of operating for an
entire range of continuous values of the signal amplitude, then those are called as Digital
Integrated Circuits.
Operational Amplifier, also called as an Op-Amp, is an integrated circuit, which can be used
to perform various linear, non-linear, and mathematical operations. An op-amp is a direct
coupled high gain amplifier. You can operate op-amp both with AC and DC signals. This
chapter discusses the characteristics and types of op-amps.

Construction of Operational Amplifier

An op-amp consists of differential amplifier(s), a level translator and an output stage. A
differential amplifier is present at the input stage of an op-amp and hence an op-amp
consists of two input terminals. One of those terminals is called as the inverting
terminal and the other one is called as the non-inverting terminal. The terminals are
named based on the phase relationship between their respective inputs and outputs.

Characteristics of Operational Amplifier

The important characteristics or parameters of an operational amplifier are as follows −

 Open loop voltage gain

 Output offset voltage
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio
 Slew Rate
This section discusses these characteristics in detail as given below −

Open loop voltage gain

The open loop voltage gain of an op-amp is its differential gain without any feedback path.
Mathematically, the open loop voltage gain of an op-amp is represented as −
Av=v0v1−v2Av=v0v1−v2
Output offset voltage
The voltage present at the output of an op-amp when its differential input voltage is zero is
called as output offset voltage.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) of an op-amp is defined as the ratio of the closed
loop differential gain, AdAd and the common mode gain, AcAc.
Mathematically, CMRR can be represented as −
CMRR=AdAcCMRR=AdAc
Note that the common mode gain, AcAc of an op-amp is the ratio of the common mode
output voltage and the common mode input voltage.
Slew Rate
Slew rate of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of change of the output voltage due
to a step input voltage.
Mathematically, slew rate (SR) can be represented as −
SR=MaximumofdV0dtSR=MaximumofdV0dt
Where, V0V0 is the output voltage. In general, slew rate is measured in
either V/μSecV/μSec or V/mSecV/mSec.
Types of Operational Amplifiers
An op-amp is represented with a triangle symbol having two inputs and one
output. Op-amps are of two types: Ideal Op-Amp and Practical Op-Amp.
They are discussed in detail as given below −

Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal op-amp exists only in theory, and does not exist practically. The equivalent
circuit of an ideal op-amp is shown in the figure given below −

An ideal op-amp exhibits the following characteristics −

 Input impedance Zi=∞ΩZi=∞Ω
 Output impedance Z0=0ΩZ0=0Ω
 Open loop voltage gaine Av=∞Av=∞
 If (the differential) input voltage Vi=0VVi=0V, then the output voltage will
be V0=0VV0=0V
 Bandwidth is infinity. It means, an ideal op-amp will amplify the signals of any
frequency without any attenuation.
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is infinity.
 Slew Rate (SR) is infinity. It means, the ideal op-amp will produce a change in the
output instantly in response to an input step voltage.

Practical Op-Amp
Practically, op-amps are not ideal and deviate from their ideal characteristics because of
some imperfections during manufacturing. The equivalent circuit of a practical op-amp is
shown in the following figure −
A practical op-amp exhibits the following characteristics −
 Input impedance, ZiZi in the order of Mega ohms.
 Output impedance, Z0Z0 in the order of few ohms..
 Open loop voltage gain, AvAv will be high.

When you choose a practical op-amp, you should check whether it satisfies the following
conditions −
 Input impedance, ZiZi should be as high as possible.
 Output impedance, Z0Z0 should be as low as possible.
 Open loop voltage gain, AvAv should be as high as possible.
 Output offset voltage should be as low as possible.

 The operating Bandwidth should be as high as possible.

 CMRR should be as high as possible.
 Slew rate should be as high as possible.

A circuit is said to be linear, if there exists a linear relationship between its input and the
output. Similarly, a circuit is said to be non-linear, if there exists a non-linear relationship
between its input and output. Op-amps can be used in both linear and non-linear
applications. The following are the basic applications of op-amp −

 Inverting Amplifier
 Non-inverting Amplifier
 Voltage follower
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier takes the input through its inverting terminal through a resistor R1R1,
and produces its amplified version as the output. This amplifier not only amplifies the input
but also inverts it (changes its sign).
Note that for an op-amp, the voltage at the inverting input terminal is equal to the voltage at
its non-inverting input terminal. Physically, there is no short between those two terminals
but virtually, they are in short with each other. In the circuit shown above, the non-
inverting input terminal is connected to ground. That means zero volts is applied at the non-
inverting input terminal of the op-amp. According to the virtual short concept, the voltage
at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at this terminal's node is as shown below −
0−ViR1+0−V0Rf=00−ViR1+0−V0Rf=0
=>−ViR1=V0Rf=>−ViR1=V0Rf
=>V0=(−RfR1)Vt=>V0=(−RfR1)Vt
=>V0Vi=−RfR1=>V0Vi=−RfR1
The ratio of the output voltage V0V0 and the input voltage ViVi is the voltage-gain or gain
of the amplifier. Therefore, the gain of inverting amplifier is equal to −RfR1−RfR1.
Note that the gain of the inverting amplifier is having a negative sign. It indicates that there
exists a 1800 phase difference between the input and the output.

Non-Inverting Amplifier
A non-inverting amplifier takes the input through its non-inverting terminal, and produces
its amplified version as the output. As the name suggests, this amplifier just amplifies the
input, without inverting or changing the sign of the output. The circuit diagram of a non-
inverting amplifier is shown in the following figure −

In the above circuit, the input voltage ViVi is directly applied to the non-inverting input
terminal of op-amp. So, the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp will
be ViVi. By using voltage division principle, we can calculate the voltage at the inverting
input terminal of the op-amp as shown below −
=>V1=V0(R1R1+Rf)=>V1=V0(R1R1+Rf)
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-
amp is same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal.
=>V1=Vi=>V1=Vi
=>V0(R1R1+Rf)=Vi=>V0(R1R1+Rf)=Vi
=>V0Vi=R1+RfR1=>V0Vi=R1+RfR1
=>V0Vi=1+RfR1=>V0Vi=1+RfR1
Now, the ratio of output voltage V0V0 and input voltage ViVi or the voltage-gain or gain of
the non-inverting amplifier is equal to 1+RfR11+RfR1. Note that the gain of the non-
inverting amplifier is having a positive sign. It indicates that there is no phase difference
between the input and the output.
Integrator and Differentiator:
The electronic circuits which perform the mathematical operations such as differentiation
and integration are called as differentiator and integrator, respectively. This chapter
discusses in detail about op-amp based differentiator and integrator. Please note that these
also come under linear applications of op-amp.
Differentiator
A differentiator is an electronic circuit that produces an output equal to the first derivative
of its input. This section discusses about the op-amp based differentiator in detail.
An op-amp based differentiator produces an output, which is equal to the differential of
input voltage that is applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp
based differentiator is shown in the following figure −

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground.
That means zero volts is applied to its non-inverting input terminal.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of opamp
will be equal to the voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the
inverting input terminal of op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is −
Cd(0−Vi)dt+0−V0R=0Cd(0−Vi)dt+0−V0R=0
=>−CdVidt=V0R=>−CdVidt=V0R
=>V0=−RCdVidt=>V0=−RCdVidt
If RC=1secRC=1sec, then the output voltage V0V0 will be −
V0=−dVidtV0=−dVidt
Thus, the op-amp based differentiator circuit shown above will produce an output, which is
the differential of input voltage ViVi, when the magnitudes of impedances of resistor and
capacitor are reciprocal to each other.
Note that the output voltage V0V0 is having a negative sign, which indicates that there
exists a 1800 phase difference between the input and the output.
Integrator
An integrator is an electronic circuit that produces an output that is the integration of the
applied input. This section discusses about the op-amp based integrator.
An op-amp based integrator produces an output, which is an integral of the input voltage
applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based integrator is
shown in the following figure −

In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to
ground. That means zero volts is applied to its non-inverting input terminal. According
to virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp will be equal
to the voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting
input terminal of op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal is −
0−ViR+Cd(0−V0)dt=00−ViR+Cd(0−V0)dt=0
=>−ViR=CdV0dt=>−ViR=CdV0dt
=>dV0dt=−ViRC=>dV0dt=−ViRC
=>dV0=(−ViRC)dt=>dV0=(−ViRC)dt
Integrating both sides of the equation shown above, we get −
∫dV0=∫(−ViRC)dt∫dV0=∫(−ViRC)dt
=>V0=−1RC∫Vtdt=>V0=−1RC∫Vtdt
If RC=1secRC=1sec, then the output voltage, V0V0 will be −
V0=−∫VidtV0=−∫Vidt
So, the op-amp based integrator circuit discussed above will produce an output, which is the
integral of input voltage ViVi, when the magnitude of impedances of resistor and capacitor
are reciprocal to each other.
Note − The output voltage, V0V0 is having a negative sign, which indicates that there exists
1800 phase difference between the input and the output.

Waveform Generators:
A waveform generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a standard wave. There are
two types of op-amp based waveform generators −

 Square wave generator

 Triangular wave generator
Square Wave Generator:
A square wave generator is an electronic circuit which generates square wave. This section
discusses about op-amp based square wave generators.
The circuit diagram of a op-amp based square wave generator is shown in the following
figure
Observe that in the circuit diagram shown above, the resistor R1R1 is connected between the
inverting input terminal of the op-amp and its output of op-amp. So, the resistor R1R1 is
used in the negative feedback. Similarly, the resistor R2R2 is connected between the
noninverting input terminal of the op-amp and its output. So, the resistor R2R2 is used in
the positive feedback path. A capacitor C is connected between the inverting input terminal
of the op-amp and ground. So, the voltage across capacitor C will be the input voltage at
this inverting terminal of op-amp. Similarly, a resistor R3R3 is connected between the non-
inverting input terminal of the op-amp and ground. So, the voltage across
resistor R3R3 will be the input voltage at this non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The operation of a square wave generator is explained below −
 Assume, there is no charge stored in the capacitor initially. Then, the voltage present
at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is zero volts. But, there is some offset voltage
at non-inverting terminal of op-amp. Due to this, the value present at the output of
above circuit will be +Vsat+Vsat.
 Now, the capacitor C starts charging through a resistor R1R1. The value present at
the output of the above circuit will change to −Vsat−Vsat, when the voltage across
the capacitor C reaches just greater than the voltage (positive value) across
resistor R3R3.
 The capacitor C starts discharging through a resistor R1R1, when the output of
above circuit is −Vsat−Vsat. The value present at the output of above circuit will
change to +Vsat+Vsat,when the voltage across capacitor C reaches just less than
(more negative) the voltage (negative value) across resistor R3R3.
Thus, the circuit shown in the above diagram will produce a square wave at the output as
shown in the following figure −

From the above figure we can observe that the output of square wave generator will have
one of the two values: +Vsat+Vsat and −Vsat−Vsat. So, the output remains at one value for
some duration and then transitions to another value and remains there for some duration. In
this way, it continues.
Triangular Wave Generator:
A triangular wave generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a triangular wave.
The block diagram of a triangular wave generator is shown in the following figure −

The block diagram of a triangular wave generator contains mainly two blocks: a square
wave generator and an integrator. These two blocks are cascaded. That means, the output of
square wave generator is applied as an input of integrator. Note that the integration of a
square wave is nothing but a triangular wave. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based
triangular wave generator is shown in the following figure −

We have already seen the circuit diagrams of a square wave generator and an integrator.
Observe that we got the above circuit diagram of an op-amp based triangular wave
generator by replacing the blocks with the respective circuit diagrams in the block diagram
of a triangular wave generator.