The Periodic Table

1
The History of
the Modern
Periodic Table
 During the nineteenth century,
chemists began to categorize the
elements according to
similarities in their physical and
chemical properties. The end
result of these studies was our
modern periodic table.
 Johann Dobereiner
In 1829, he classified some elements into groups of three,
which he called triads.
The elements in a triad had similar chemical properties
and orderly physical properties.

(ex. Cl, Br, I and

Ca, Sr, Ba)
Model of triads
1780 - 1849
 John Newlands
In 1863, he suggested that elements be
arranged in “octaves” because he noticed
(after arranging the elements in order
of increasing atomic mass) that certain
properties repeated every 8th element.

Law of Octaves
1838 - 1898
 John Newlands

His law of octaves failed beyond the

element calcium.

1838 - 1898 Law of Octaves

 Mendeleev

 In 1869, Dmitri Ivanovitch

Mendeléev created the first
accepted version of the periodic
table.
 He grouped elements according
to their atomic mass, and as he
did, he found that the families
had similar chemical properties.
 Blank spaces were left open to
add the new elements he 1834 - 1907
predicted would occur.
 Lothar Meyer
At the same time, he published his
own table of the elements organized
by increasing atomic mass.

1830 - 1895
Elements known at this time
 BothMendeleev and Meyer arranged
the elements in order of increasing
atomic mass.

 Bothleft vacant spaces where unknown

elements should fit.

So why is Mendeleev called the

“father of the modern periodic table”
and not Meyer, or both?
• was so confident in his table that he used
it to predict the physical properties of
three elements that were yet unknown.

•After the discovery of these unknown

elements between 1874 and 1885, and the
fact that Mendeleev’s predictions for Sc,
Ga, and Ge were amazingly close to the
actual values, his table was generally
accepted.
 Henry Moseley
In 1913, through his work with X-
rays, he determined the actual
nuclear charge (atomic number) of
the elements. He rearranged the
elements in order of increasing
atomic number.

1887 - 1915
 Glenn T. Seaborg
After co-discovering 10 new elements, in
1944 he moved 14 elements out of the
main body of the periodic table to their
current location below the Lanthanide
series. These became known
as the Actinide series.

1912 - 1999
 Glenn T. Seaborg
He is the only person to have an
element named after him while still
alive.
"This is the greatest honor ever
bestowed upon me - even better, I
think, than winning the Nobel Prize."

1912 - 1999
Periodic Table
Geography
Metal: Elements that are usually solids at room
temperature. Most elements are metals.

Non-Metal: Elements in the upper right corner of the

periodic Table. Their chemical and physical properties
are different from metals.

Metalloid: Elements that lie on a diagonal line between

the Metals and non-metals. Their chemical and physical
properties are intermediate between the two.
The horizontal rows of the periodic
table are called PERIODS.
Each period begins with a new outer electron shell and ends
with a completely filled outer shell that has the maximum
number of electrons for that shell.
The vertical columns of the periodic table
are called GROUPS, or FAMILIES.
The elements in any group of the periodic
table have similar physical and chemical
properties!
 Columns of elements are  Each horizontal row of
called groups or families. elements is called a
 Elements in each family period.
have similar but not  The elements in a period
identical properties. are not alike in
properties.
 For example, lithium (Li),  In fact, the properties
sodium (Na), potassium change greatly across
(K), and other members even given row.
of family IA are all soft,  The first element in a
white, shiny metals. period is always an
 All elements in a family extremely active solid.
have the same number of The last element in a
valence electrons. period, is always an
inactive gas.

Families Periods
 Periodic Law

When elements are arranged in order

of increasing atomic number, there is
a periodic pattern in their physical
and chemical properties.
 Alkali Metals

 The alkali family is found

in the first column of the
periodic table.(GroupIA)
 Atoms of the alkali
metals have a single
electron in their
outermost level, in other
words, 1 valence
electron.
 They are shiny, have the
consistency of clay, and
are easily cut with a
knife.
Alkali Metals

 They are the most

reactive metals.
 They react violently
with water to form
an alkaline solution.

 Alkali metals are

never found as free
elements in nature.
They are always
bonded with another
element.
 We will be describing elements according to their
reactivity.
 Elements that are reactive bond easily with other
elements to make compounds.
 Some elements are only found in nature bonded
with other elements.
 What makes an element reactive?
◦ An incomplete valence electron level.
◦ All atoms (except hydrogen) want to have 8 electrons in
their very outermost energy level (This is called the rule
of octet.)
◦ Atoms bond until this level is complete. Atoms with few
valence electrons lose them during bonding. Atoms with
6, 7, or 8 valence electrons gain electrons during
bonding.

What does it mean to be reactive?

5
Alkaline Earth Metals
(Group IIA)
 They are never found uncombined in nature.
 They have two valence electrons.
 Alkaline earth metals are reactive but not as reactive
as Group IA and they are also soft metals like earth.
 Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and calcium,
among others.
Transition Metals
 Transition Elements
include those
elements in the B
families.
 These are the
metals you are
probably most
familiar: copper, tin,
zinc, iron, nickel,
gold, and silver.
 They are good
conductors of heat
and electricity.
• Each metal has d electrons.
ns (n-1)d configurations
Transition Metals

 The compounds of transition metals are usually

brightly colored and are often used to color
paints.
 Transition elements have 1 or 2 valence electrons,
which they lose when they form bonds with other
atoms. Some transition elements can lose
electrons in their next-to-outermost level.
 Transition elements have properties
similar to one another and to other
metals, but their properties do not fit in
with those of any other family.
 Many transition metals combine
chemically with oxygen to form
compounds called oxides.

Transition Elements (Group B)

Rare Earth Elements

 The thirty rare earth

elements are
composed of the
lanthanide and
actinide series.
 One element of the
lanthanide series and
most of the elements
in the actinide series
are called trans-
uranium, which means
synthetic or man-
made.
These elements are also called the inner
transition metals
 f - transition metals

Sometimes called inner transition

metals.
Electrons are being added to f
orbitals.
Electrons are being added two
shells below the valence shell!
Consequently, very slight
variations of properties from one
element to another.
Outermost electrons have the
greatest influence on the
chemical properties of elements.
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 Halogen Family
 The elements in this family
(Group VIIA) are fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine,
and astatine.
 Halogens have 7 valence
electrons, which explains
why they are the most
active non-metals. They are
never found free in nature.

Halogen atoms only need to

gain 1 electron to fill their
outermost energy level.
They react with alkali metals to
form salts.
Noble Gases

 Noble Gases (Group VIIA) are colorless gases that are

extremely un-reactive.
 One important property of the noble gases is their
inactivity. They are inactive because their outermost
energy level is full.
 Because they do not readily combine with other elements
to form compounds, the noble gases are called inert.
 The family of noble gases includes helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon, and radon.
 All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the
earth's atmosphere.
 The Representative Elements

Representative Elements
◼ Are the elements in A groups
on periodic chart.
These elements will have
their “last” electron in an
outer s or p orbital.
These elements have fairly
regular variations in their
properties.

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 Periodic Patterns
◦ The chemical behavior of elements is determined by its electron
configuration
◦ Energy levels are quantized so roughly correspond to layers of
electrons around the nucleus.
◦ A shell is all the electrons with the same value of n.
 n is a row in the periodic table.
•The outer shell electrons are responsible for chemical
reactions.
Periodicity
38
 Periodic Properties of the
Elements
Atomic Radii
Atomic radii
describes the relative
sizes of atoms.
Atomic radii increase
within a column
going from the top to
the bottom of the
periodic table.
Atomic radii decrease
within a row going
from left to right on
the periodic table.

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 Atomic Radii
Example 6-1: Arrange these elements based on their
atomic radii.
◼ Se, S, O, Te
◼ Ans is O < S < Se < Te

Example 6-2: Arrange these elements based on their

atomic radii.
◼ P, Cl, S, Si
◼ Ans is Cl < S < P < Si

Arrange these elements based on their atomic radii.

◼ Ga, F, S, As
◼ Ans is F < S < As < Ga
40
Ionization Energy
First ionization energy (IE1)
◼ The minimum amount of energy required to remove the
most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous
atom to form a 1+ ion.
Symbolically:
Atom(g) + energy → ion+(g) + e-

Mg(g) + 738kJ/mol → Mg+ + e-

41
 Ionization Energy
Second ionization energy (IE2)
◼ The amount of energy required to remove the
second electron from a gaseous 1+ ion.
Symbolically:
◼ ion+ + energy → ion2+ + e-

Mg+ + 1451 kJ/mol →Mg2+ + e-

•Atoms can have 3rd (IE3), 4th (IE4), etc.
ionization energies. 42
 Ionization Energy
Periodic trends for Ionization
Energy:
1. IE2 > IE1
It always takes more
energy to remove a second
electron from an ion than
from a neutral atom.
2. IE1 generally increases moving
from IA elements to VIIIA
elements.
Important exceptions at Be
& Mg, N & P, etc. due to
filled and half-filled
subshells.
3. IE1 generally decreases
moving down a family.
IE1 for Li > IE1 for Na, etc. 43
 Ionization Energy
Example 6-4: Arrange these elements based on their first
ionization energies.
◼ Sr, Be, Ca, Mg
◼ Sr < Ca < Mg < Be
Example 6-5: Arrange these elements based on their first
ionization energies.
◼ Al, Cl, Na, P
◼ Na < Al < P < Cl
Example 6-6: Arrange these elements based on their first
ionization energies.
◼ B, O, Be, N
◼ B < Be < O < N 44
Ionization Energy
First, second, third, etc. ionization energies
exhibit periodicity as well.
Look at the following table of ionization
energies versus third row elements.
◼ Notice that the energy increases enormously
when an electron is removed from a completed
electron shell.

45
 Ionization Energy
Group IA IIA IIIA IVA
and Na Mg Al Si
element
IE1 496 738 578 786
(kJ/mol)
IE2 4562 1451 1817 1577
(kJ/mol)
IE3 6912 7733 2745 3232
(kJ/mol)
IE4 9540 10,550 11,580 4356
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(kJ/mol)
Ionization Energy
The reason Na forms Na+ and not Na2+ is
that the energy difference between IE1 and
IE2 is so large.
◼ Requires more than 9 times more energy to
remove the second electron than the first one.
The same trend is persistent throughout the
series.
◼ Thus Mg forms Mg2+ and not Mg3+.
◼ Al forms Al3+.

47
 Ionization Energy
Example 6-7: What charge ion would be expected
for an element that has these ionization energies?

IE1 (kJ/mol) 1680

IE2 (kJ/mol) 3370
IE3 (kJ/mol) 6050
IE4 (kJ/mol) 8410
IE5 (kJ/mol) 11020
IE6 (kJ/mol) 15160
IE7 (kJ/mol) 17870
IE8 (kJ/mol) 92040
Notice that the largest increase in ionization energies occurs
between IE7 and IE8. Thus this element would form a 1- ion. 48
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the amount of energy absorbed
when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous
atom to form an ion with a 1- charge.
Sign conventions for electron affinity.
◼ If electron affinity > 0 energy is absorbed.
◼ If electron affinity < 0 energy is released.
Electron affinity is a measure of an atom’s ability
to form negative ions.
Symbolically:

atom(g) + e- + EA → ion-(g)
49
Electron Affinity
Two examples of electron affinity values:
Mg(g) + e- + 231 kJ/mol → Mg-(g)
EA = +231 kJ/mol
Br(g) + e- → Br-(g) + 323 kJ/mol
EA = -323 kJ/mol

50
 Electron Affinity
General periodic trend for electron affinity is
◼ the values become more negative from left to right
across a period on the periodic chart.
◼ the values become more negative from bottom to top up
a row on the periodic chart.
Measuring electron affinity values is a difficult
experiment.

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 Electron Affinity
Electron Affinities of Some Elements

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Electron Affinity (kJ/mol)

0
-50 He Be B N Ne Mg Al Ar Ca
Na P K
-100 H Li O
-150 C Si
-200 S
-250
-300
-350 F
-400 Cl

Atomic Number

52
Electron Affinity

53
Electron Affinity

Example 6-8: Arrange these elements based

on their electron affinities.
◼ Al, Mg, Si, Na

Si < Al < Mg< Na

54
 Ionic Radii
Cations (positive ions) are always smaller than
their respective neutral atoms.
Element Na Mg Al
Element Li Be
Atomic 1.86 1.60 1.43
Atomic Radius
1.52 1.12 (Å)
Radius (Å)
Ion Li+ Be2+
Ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
Ionic 0.90 0.59 Ionic 1.16 0.85 0.68
Radius (Å) Radius
(Å)

55
Ionic Radii
Anions (negative ions) are always larger
than their neutral atoms.
Element N O F

Atomic 0.75 0.73 0.72

Radius(Å)
Ion N3- O2- F1-

Ionic 1.71 1.26 1.19

Radius(Å) 56
Ionic Radii
Cation (positive ions) radii decrease from left to
right across a period.
◼ Increasing nuclear charge attracts the electrons and
decreases the radius.
Ion Rb+ Sr2+ In3+

Ionic 1.66 1.32 0.94

Radii(Å)

57
Ionic Radii
Anion (negative ions) radii decrease from left to
right across a period.
◼ Increasing electron numbers in highly charged ions
cause the electrons to repel and increase the ionic
radius.

Ion N3- O2- F1-

Ionic 1.71 1.26 1.19

Radii(Å)

58
Ionic Radii
Example 6-9: Arrange these elements based
on their ionic radii.
◼ Ga, K, Ca
◼ Answer K1+ < Ca2+ < Ga3+

Example 6-10: Arrange these elements

based on their ionic radii.
◼ Cl, Se, Br, S
◼ Answer Cl1- < S2- < Br1- < Se2-

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Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the relative tendency of an atom to
attract electrons to itself when chemically combined with another
element.
◼ Electronegativity is measured on the Pauling scale.
◼ Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
◼ Cesium and francium are the least electronegative elements.
For the representative elements, electronegativities usually increase
from left to right across periods and decrease from top to bottom within
groups.

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Electronegativity
Example 6-11: Arrange these elements based
on their electronegativity.
◼ Se, Ge, Br, As
◼ Answer Ge < As < Se < Br

Example 6-12: Arrange these elements based

on their electronegativity.
◼ Be, Mg, Ca, Ba
◼ Answer Ba < Ca < Mg < Be

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End of Chapter

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