Methods and Tools for Quality

Engineering

Lecturer Eng. Sabina Potra, PhD

 Introduction to Quality Engineering

• Quality = excellence in a product/service that fulfils

or exceeds the expectations of the customer

• The quality policy starts from top management and

should be a guide to everyone in the company
Introduction to Quality Engineering
Pre-industrial age:

- Craftsmen sold directly to end users – the workman

could control the quality of his own product

- In middle ages (1200-1800) – guilds which took the

responsibility of quality control (punishments for
members who turned out shaddy products)
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
Industrial Revolution:

- Manufacture of interchangeable parts required at least a rudimentary

inspection activity to endure that the parts fit together

- Large groups of men performing a similar type of work were grouped

together under the supervision of a foreman (responsibility of quality
control)
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
Industrial revolution:

- In the early 1900s, mass production methods were pioneered by Henry

Ford and the management system adjusted accordingly (task
specialisation, assembly lines, standardised parts, high level of control)

- Inspector title appeared (the last person on the assembly line) – the
inspection-oriented quality organisation (between WWI and WWII)
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
Shewhart Walter A. at Bell Labs provided a scientific means
of preventing defects through process control: the
statistical quality control chart (1925)

Shewhart’s methods of statistical process control

supplimented by other statistical methods developed
during the 1930s and 1940s became known as Statistical
Quality Control (SQC) methods
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
• Process control with engineers (job title: quality control engineer) + separate
department: the quality engineering department

• Quality engineering reported to quality control manager

• The complexity of products and systems increased – failures have been

determined unrelated to manufacturing but in the design (reliability
engineering)

• As consumers gained political strenght, legislation was passed making effective

quality control a requirement
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
• Regulatory bodies imposed standard requirements for quality
control + the creation of the Consumer Product Safety
Commission (advocates for consumers)

• Recalls of defective products vecame common place, costing

manufacturers billions of dollars + suits agains them
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
The Japanese approach to quality management:

 WW 2 – Japanese plagued with quality problems – they translated works on Statistical

Quality Control methods into Japanese

 A series of seminars conducted in 1950 by Dr. W. Edwards Deming, an American

statistician and quality expert – the real push for implementing modern quality control
methods (the philosophy was assured to top management)

 The Japanese have honored Deming by naming their most prestigious industrial award
in his honor, the Deming Prize
Introduction to Quality Engineering
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
American versus Japanese contribution to Quality Control

American contributions Japanese contributions

Statistical quality control methods (pre New techniques: quality circles,

WW2) fishbone diagrams, Taguchi methods
Deming’s philosophy (1950) Long-term orientation to management

Juran’s approach to quality Externally focused management

management (1954) (customers, competition, government,
society)
Feigenbaum’s total quality control Companywide involvement in Quality
approach control
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
Both American and Japanese companies were using
the same techniques and technology.

What was different? Japanese products were

considered more efficient, more qualitative?
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
According to Kaoru Ishikawa (1985), the Japanese approach to quality was
different :

Companywide quality control: participation by all members of the organisation

in quality control (QC)

Education and training in QC

QC circle activities

QC audits (Deming prize audits and presidential audits)

Utilization of statistical methods

Nationwide QC promotion activities

Introduction to Quality Engineering

AMERICANS JAPANESE
Defined by the producer Defined by the customer
(if the product conforms to (the organisation has the
engineering requirements) responsibility to society)

Quality – negative viewpoint Quality – positive viewpoint

(the absence of undesirable (the presence of desirable
attributes) attributes)

Backward-looking Forward-looking

AQL – acceptable quality level Perfection

 Introduction to Quality Engineering
- With the Japanese extension of statistical tools, in
1960-1970 a new concept emerged, that of Quality
Assurance

- Quality Assurance = control integration in production

and product design for an integrated control
(emphasis on prevention with a wide range of
controled activities and many persons/departments
involved)
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
- With the 1990s European but mainly American
companies started reexamining the techniques of
quality control in an attempt to outclass Japanese
quality products – The Total Quality Management
(TQM) term appeared.

- TQM = methods and approaches at an organisational

level, based on participatory management in which
employees continuously improve processes, abilities
and systems in order to provide value to customers.
 Introduction to
Quality Engineering
Applying TQM means:

a mentality shift (own work optimisation, client orientation

and error prevention)

a work environment shift (work relationships based on

communication, trust, collaboration, discipline and attachment
to the company)

a continuous improvement shift ( periodic performance

indicators establishment, improvement ideas from employees,
continuously improved quality requirements)
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
Total Quality Management has been overshadowed in time by:

ISO 9000 (a family of quality management system standards)

Lean Manufacturing (minimization of waste method)

Six Sigma methodology (a set of techniques and tools for process

improvement)
Introduction to Quality Engineering
Introduction to Quality Engineering
- quality concepts -

(a Japanese contribution):

a participatory management technique that enlists the help of employees in

solving problems related to their own jobs

a small group of people (6 - 12) that meets periodically to perform QC and

improvement activities

a voluntary and permanent group comprised of people from the same work
space area based on the people-building philosophy (self-motivation and
hapiness in improving corporate environment without any compulsion or
monetary benefits)

based on the assumption that workers place their loyalty to the firm above
their family
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
- quality concepts -

(a Japanese contribution):

Nippon Wireless and Telegraph – the first company to introduce quality circles in
Japan 1962

By 1978 Japan had more than 1 million circles involving approximately 10 million
workers (JUSE – Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers coordinated the QC
movement)

China adopted this technique and has today more than 20 million quality circles

USA first adopted quality circles in 1974 through Lockheed Martin, a global
aerospace, defense, security and advanced technologies organisation (which first
saw them in a visit to Japan). After them, other US companies used the
technique BUT some did not understand the function of quality circles and used
them only for fault-finding exercises
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
- quality concepts -

objectives:

Change in attitude (from I don’t care to I do care) – continuous

improvement in quality of work life through humanisation of work

Self-development – bringind out the hidden potential of people (learning

additional skills)

Team work – development of team spirit for eliminating inter

departmental conflicts

Improved organisational culture – total involvement of employees, higher

degree of motivation, positive work environment

Increased productivity and improved quality

Introduction to Quality Engineering
- quality concepts -

Definition: a production management methodology which

consists of producing only those quantities of each item
requested in a short period of time

A "pull" system related to quality control, a production goal

Objective: to operate without safety stock ( a narcotic drug

that hides symptoms indicating something is wrong)

Basic elements: cutting lot sizes, reducing setup times

cutting purchase order costs
Introduction to Quality Engineering
- quality concepts -

Is part of a broader company wide effort which includes

Total Quality Control (TQC), employee involvement and
vendor involvement (close working relationships with a
small number of suppliers)
Introduction to Quality Engineering
- quality concepts -
Introduction to Quality Engineering
- pioneers -

W.E. Deming

J.M. Juran

A.V. Feigenbaum

P.B. Crosby
He was a student of W.A. Shewhart and developed the ideas of his professor in
his book “The Statistical Theory of Errors” (1934)

In the 50s together with J-M. Juran develops several courses in Japan (in 1951
for his merits the national prize for quality receives his name)

His 14 points program is his reference work (1982)

He publishes in his book “ Out of the crisis” the Shewhart Cycle which evolved
in the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDSA) approach
The key to quality is in management’s hands – 85% of problems are due
to the system, 15% due to employees

The heart of his quality strategy is the use of statistical quality control
to identify special causes (erratic, unpredictable) and common causes
(systematic) of variation

Statistical tools provide common language for employees throughout a

firm and permit quality control efforts to be widely diffused
the “father of modern day quality management”

Born in Braila, Romania, emigrated in the US in 1912 and became an

American engineer and management consultant

1925 Juran took part of the Bell Labs statistical sampling and control
charts techniques and was appointed to apply statistical quality
control innovations

Started courses in quality management for Japanese in 1954

defines quality as “fitness for use by the customer”

Fitness is based on a product’s availability, reliability and maintainability

His “ universal process for quality improvement” requires studying

symptoms, diagnosing causes, and applying remedies

He recommends project-by-project improvement and project selection

based on their projected return on investment
For solving problems in a systematic way, Juran considered necessary
to:

1) Analyse the problem – find the cause for the symptom

2) Eliminate the cause – determine the best therapy for solving the
problem
Argues that quality reduces costs because “doing it
right the first time” is less expensive than the cost
of detecting and correcting defects

Careful tracking the cost of quality will pinpoint

where the greatest improvement in quality is likely
the “father of Total Quality Control” (known today as
Total Quality Management), he first coined the term in
1956 in Harvard Business

An American quality control expert (worked for General

Electric) and businessman, his main contribution to
quality thinking was his assertion that the entire
organization should be involved in improving quality
He has a list of 9M’s that directly influence the
quality of products and services
Feigenbaum argued for training needs – employees need several
skills to be effective participants in quality control and quality
improvement efforts:

1. Problem identification (what are the quality problems?)

2. Measurement of quality problems (How serious is the problem?)

3. Problem selection (What problems are most urgent, costly,

important?)

4. Problem resolution (Who can solve the problem? The individual

worker, quality team, quality department, purchasing or
management?)
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
! Selected problems can be tackled using an
appropriate problem solving techniques

Employees need sufficient training in problem

solving methods to effectively solve quality
problems in their own work (reworking a defect,
adjusting a piece of machinery) and, when
appropriate, to participate in group problem
solving as members of quality circles or work
teams.
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)

The American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) divides quality

costs into four separate categories:

A. Prevention costs – incurred to prevent the ocurrence of

nonconformances in the future

B. Appraisal costs – incurred in measuring and controlling current

production to assure conformance to requirements

C. Internal failure costs – generated before a product is shipped

as a result of nonconformities

D. External failure costs – generated after a product is shipped as

a result of nonconformities
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)

The quality cost system is primarily a management

information system and its purpose is to guide
management in its efforts to improve quality.

! You should not go to extremes trying to obtain

to the penny accuracy, a good aproximation is
best
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)

The basic factors of production are : land, labor,

capital and management
BUT they also consitute the source of all costs !
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)

Old mental models:

Increased input = increased output

(costs) (resulting production)

Increased sales = increased profit

! Failure costs
 Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)

There are two categories of investment that produce

improved profitability:

Research and development investment

Investment in the reduction of failure costs

 Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)

Reduction of failure costs = more output is obtained

from the same or less input

Opportunity cost = the dollar amount that would be

derived from the employment of a factor of
production in the best alternative use

The rational way to improve competitiveness

Introduction to Quality Engineering
(quality costs)
 Quality audit
Policy
Total Quality System
(TQS) = a process that Requirements
assures continual
improvement while Measurement
systems
implementing the policy
established by top
Audit
management
Feedback

Improvement
 Quality audit

Policy Top management

Processes, products, vendors for minimum

Requirements variability
Designs, quality costs, products, processes,
Measurement
services, customers, vendors, special studies
systems

Management, quality control, consultants,

Audit vendors
Quality Information Systems (QIS), Management
Feedback by Wandering Around (MBWA), direct customer
input, direct vendor input

Improvement Redesign, training, new processes, new

management systems
 Quality audit

TQS Audit – purpose: to seek verification that an adequate

system exists and is being adhered to.

1) Primarily responsibility for auditing TQS: top management

2) The manager of each activity must perform audits within

his/her area to assure that the requirements are being
met

3) Third party audits – by the quality department or auditors

from outside the organization (They should not be a
primary source of detailed information for management)
 Quality audit

Basic ground rules before audit:

1. Requirement – the existence of an requirement

2. Measurement means – the performance standard

writtenn and communicated; the existence of an
established means of measuring performance

3. Responsibility – the responsibility for action

unambiguous
 Quality audit

---quantitative: produce a score that

indicates the degree of compliance of a program
or quality system (normally conducted by third
parties for an objective assessment)

---qualitative: a generalized assessment

of the effectiveness of a quality program (less
formal, used for internal personnel, including
management when auditing own operations)
 Quality audit

Audits serve many purposes:

Financial level – they provide a means for evaluating the

effectiveness of quality cost expenditures

Human resource level – properly done, they can furnish a

means for motivating people to higher level of
performance

Management and risk assessment – can be used as an

early warning system to indicate potential trouble before
it actually leads to a negative customer reaction
 Quality audit
Audits can also be classified according to just what is being
audited:

1). The quality program audit – at the broadest level, it assesses

the appropriateness of the quality program relative to the
company policy and mission

2). The quality system audit – measures the overall effectiveness

of the quality program and provides guidance for improving
the effectiveness

3). Audits of procedures – determine the extent of compliance to

procedures (they can uncover practices that are
outdated/ineffective or the need for formal practices where
none currently exist
 Quality audit
4). Product audits – can be conducted while the product is in-
process or on a finished product, in-depth evaluations of small
samples to determine the extent of compliance to established
product requirements (from the point of viewof the end user)

5). Process audits – conducted to evaluate the conformance of

materials and processes to established requirements

6). Special audits – commissioned by managers to obtain needed

facts on their operations
(from opinion surveys to housekeeping checks)
 Quality audit

- is a set of documents used to define an organization’s Quality

Management System (QMS)

- Needs to be constantly updated

- Has to be well thought out and customized to the company’s

particular need

! The emphasis is on clarity and common sense, not on an effort

to document every conceivable eventuality
 Quality audit
Example:

1. A large defense contractor: over 350 pages with

68 ways to identify scrap material (red paint
stamped with an “R”, a scrap tag, etc.)
 Quality audit
Example:

1. A large defense contractor: over 350 pages with 68 ways to identify scrap
material (red paint stamped with an “R”, a scrap tag, etc.):

- Difficulties because there were always new cases not allowed for in detail

- A government auditor complained about some defective microchips

which were not properly identified (they were in a plastic bag with an
appropriate tag BUT the parts themselves were not stamped with an “R”)

WHY?

Few people outside the audit department had ever read the Quality audit
 Quality audit
Example:

2. A medium-size electronics company: 45 pages, the

scrap identification problem was handled by a
single sentence stated: “Scrap material will be
clearly and permanently identified”.
 Quality audit

first published in 1987 by International Organisation for

Standardization (ISO) adopted as a suitable option for similar
quality assurance requirements (The adoption of a single
Quality Assurance requirement lead to cost savings throughout
the supply chain by reducing the administrative burden of
maintaining multiple sets of quality manuals and procedures)

a family of quality management systems (QMS) standards

designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs
of customers/stakeholders while meeting statutory and
regulatory requirements related to a product or service

deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems

 Quality audit
ISO 9000 – The 7 quality management principles:
 Quality audit
ISO 9001
is a standard that sets out the requirements for a quality
management system. It helps businesses and organizations to
be more efficient and improve customer satisfaction

is based on the idea of continual improvement, suited for

organisations of all types, sizes and sectors

a new version of the standard, ISO 9001:2015, has just been

launched, replacing the previous version (ISO 9001:2008) -
more applicable and accessible to all types of enterprises.
 What benefits will it bring to my
business or organization?

Implementing a quality management system will help you:

• Assess the overall context of your organization to define who is affected

by your work and what they expect from you. This will enable you to
clearly state your objectives and identify new business opportunities.

• Put your customers first, making sure you consistently meet their needs
and enhance their satisfaction. This can lead to repeat custom, new
clients and increased business for your organization.
 ISO 9001: benefits

• Work in a more efficient way as all your processes will be aligned and
understood by everyone in the business or organization. This increases
productivity and efficiency, bringing internal costs down.

• Meet the necessary statutory and regulatory requirements.

• Expand into new markets, as some sectors and clients require ISO 9001
before doing business.

• Identify and address the risks associated with your organization

 Why was ISO 9001 revised?

• All ISO standards are reviewed and revised regularly to make sure they
remain relevant to the marketplace.

• ISO 9001 has been updated to take into account the different challenges that
businesses now face.

• For example, increased globalization has changed the way we do business

and organizations often operate more complex supply chains, and there are
increased expectations from customers.

• ISO 9001 needs to reflect these changes in order to remain relevant.

Quality audit
 Quality Planning
The act of planning is thinking out in advance the
sequence of actions to accomplish a proposed
course of action in doing work to accomplish certain
objectives.

So that the planner may communicate the plan to the

person(s) expected to execute it, the plan is written
out with necessary diagrams, formulas, tables, and
so on.
Feigenbaum, 1983
 Quality planning tools
(especially for the design stage of products and services)

The quality planner has many techniques available:

1. Design review procedure

2. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

3. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

4. ...
 Quality planning tools
- Design review procedure-
Used for product design or process design

Purpose: to prevent unpleasant surprises after the design is completed

Componence of the review team (all experts):

reliability: Will the failure rate be sufficiently low?

quality engineering: Can it be adequately inspected/tested?
field engineering: are proper installation, maintenance, and user
handling features included in the design?
procurement: Can the necessary parts be acquired at appropriate cost
& delivery schedule?
materials engineering: Will the materials selected perform as expected?
tooling engineering: Can the specified tolerances be satisfied by
available tooling?
packaging engineering: Can the product be shipped without damage?
 Quality planning tools
- Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)-

An important analytical tool to help prevent expensive failures

Provides the design team with a methodical way of anticipating

and heading off these failures

Consists of:

1. identify each way (mode) the product/process can fail

2. identify all the possible effects/outcomes that can occur

(for each mode)

3. estimate the probability of occurence and the probable

cost of the occurence in tabular form
 Quality planning tools
- Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)-

EXAMPLE – A match has 2 failure modes:

1. It can fail to ignite when struck

2. It can ignite when unwanted

 Quality planning tools
- Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)-

EXAMPLE – A match has 2 failure modes:

1. It can fail to ignite when struck

2. It can ignite when unwanted

Effect: 1. the user tosses it aside ad tries another match

2. could be catastrophic
 Quality planning tools
- Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)-

The match MUST be designed to minimize the chance of the

second mode of failure

EVEN at the expense of the inconvenience due to the first

mode of failure

+ Packaging and warning labels (to reduce the probability of

an unwanted match ignition
 Quality planning tools
- Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)-

Complementary to FMEA

Identifies all the undesired events that could occur to the

product (works backward to identify the cause of each
event)

A trouble and remedy diagram that illustrates the probable

causes of each symptom of system failure

! FTA provides a checklist for managers to seek corrective

action or develop improvement activities
 Quality planning tools
- Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)-

FTA will help prioritize issues to fix

that contribute to a failure.

It creates the foundation for any

further analysis and evaluation.

You can use a fault tree diagram to

help you design quality tests and
maintenance procedures.
 Statistical Process Control
• represents a set of techniques for use in the improvement
of any process

• involves the systematic collection of data related to a

process and graphical summaries of that data for visibility

• is quantitative problem solving consisting of diagnostic

techniques to assist in locating problem sources and
prescriptive techniques to help solve problems

• Is also a tool for communicating information to

engineering, product operations and quality control
personnel
 Statistical Process Control
The use of SPC will show that a process is:

in control – the process variation appears to be random

out of control – the process exhibits non-random

variation

improving as a result of planned reductions in process

variation and/or moving the process average closer to
a desired target
 Statistical Process Control
The principal elements of a successful SPC framework:

o Analysis – to understand the process

o Methods – to measure the process
o Leadership – to change the process

BENEFITS:

• continuous improvement and quality maintenance

• productivity
• process complexity reduction
• provides a common internal language for management, supervision,
quality assurance
 Statistical Process Control
SPC takes a systematic approach which requires guided
conceptualization first, then data collection, and
finally corrective action directly linked to the data.
 Statistical Process Control
SPC includes techniques as:

Brainstorming
Pareto analysis
Process analysis
Cause-and-effect analysis
Force field analysis
Sampling
Scatter diagrams
Histograms
Tally sheets
Events logs
Flowcharts
Process control charts and process capability analysis
 Problem solving
PROBLEM – refers to uncertainties/difficulties (obstacles) encountered in getting
from one situation to a preferred one (the objective)

Two types of problems:

1. Maintenance problems – exist where the current situation is not as it

should be (ex. The supplier cannot deliver on time, the breakdown of a
production line)

2. Achievement problems – where the current situation could be better but

there are reasons why it is not (failure to achieve a sales target)

Problem solving = transforming one set of circumstances into another, preferred

state by removing, overcoming or navigating around obstacles
 Problem solving
Recognising problems

Some problems arise suddenly without warning, and are

obvious by their effects.

Others develop slowly and have a more subtle influence.

Sometimes what appears to be a problem turns out not to

be a problem at all.

We need methods to help us recognise potential problems

as early as possible.
 Problem solving- a systematic approach
Identify & prioritize Select & define Identify process with Describe process with
problems primary problems primary problems primary problems
(brainstorming & pareto) (pareto) (pareto) (process flow chart)

Variable
data
Within process, identify Collect attribute Determine critical dimensions
steps needing SPC charts or variable data? to be measured & charted

(process analysis) (histograms & specification limits)

Attribute
data

Determine defects
to be counted & charted

(pareto)
 Problem solving- a systematic approach

Determine defects Determine how data Collect data Analyze data

to be counted & charted should be bunded
(variable/attribute data) (tally sheets, (histograms,
(pareto) defect maps, control charts,
event logs) scatter analysis)

Determine
problem cause
(brainstorming &
Determine & implement
corrective action
(brainstorming &
Monitor process to assess status &
continue ever-ending improvement ?
(histograms, pareto, control charts)
cause and effect diagram) Decision making)
 3. Problem solving- a systematic approach

Determine defects Determine how data Collect data Analyze data

to be counted & charted should be bunded
(variable/attribute data) (tally sheets, (histograms,
(pareto) defect maps, control charts,
event logs) scatter analysis)

Determine Determine & implement Monitor process to assess status &

problem cause corrective action continue ever-ending improvement
(brainstorming & (brainstorming & (histograms, pareto, control charts)
cause and effect diagram) Decision making)

Select & define

NEXT primary problem
 Team Chart Worksheet

What do you need before you start a problem

solving process?

1. First draft of project charter from sponsors

2. Resource allocation (defined team, time of

team members, initial budget)
 Team Chart Worksheet

For a project charter we need a list of team

members representing key stakeholders,
appropriate mix of skills, and knowledge
(especially about the current process)

+ what will they do in the project (responsibilities)

 Team Chart Worksheet

Steps in developing a project organization chart:

1. Build a high-level project organization chart (sponsor,

project leader, core team)

2. Determine key roles and responsibilities for all members

3. Build a project organization chart (names for all

members)

4. List for each team member all the responsibilities and

deadlines in the project
 Team Chart Worksheet
Steps in developing a project organization chart:

1. Build a high-level project organization chart

(sponsor, project leader, core team)
Team Chart Worksheet
 Team Chart Worksheet
Steps in developing a project organization chart:
2. Determine key roles and responsibilities for all
members
 Team Chart Worksheet
Steps in developing a project organization chart:

3. Build a project organization chart

(names for all members)
 Team Chart Worksheet
Steps in developing a project organization chart:

4. List for each team member all the responsibilities and

deadlines in the project
 Value Stream Mapping
and Process Flow Tools
PURPOSE:

visually documents a process

provides fact-based process description as basis

for understanding current problems (poor flow,
rework loops, delays) and opportunities

helps the improvement team to see how the

process should work in the future once they solve
the identified problem
 Value Stream Mapping
and Process Flow Tools
PROCESS MAPPING:

Documentation + active observation of the process (even if

you think you know the work area)

Realization of the flowchart with a level of detail that is

helpful but not perfect (avoiding delay)

A cross-representation involvement of those who work in

the process for correct mapping

Process maps as living documents, they MUST be used,

updated with each process change
 Value Stream Mapping
and Process Flow Tools
PROCESS MAPPING STEPS (same for all maps):

1. Review the process being studied and its boundaries as defined for your
project

2. Identify the type of chart you want to create

3. Have participants identify the steps in the process (with appropriate

symbols)

4. Working as a team, arrange the steps in order (eliminate duplicates,

combine similar ideas and agree on wording + keep the process flow
moving in one direction left-to-righ or top-to-down for adequate sequence
of events)

5. Discuss the results and adjust if needed

 Value Stream Mapping
and Process Flow Tools
PROCESS MAPPING STEPS (guidance):

• The process flow can go in the reverse direction if a decision calls

for repetition of a step

• After the design of the process flow, walk the process forward to
understand what happens, then backward pretending to be a
customer – ask questions that a customer would ask like: Why do
you do things that way?Would it be possible to do this other
thing that would help me?

• Go to the workplace (Gemba), even videotape if possible

• Step back and talk about what metrics could be used to measure
process effectiveness, efficiency, and customer satisfaction + take
notes
 Value Stream Mapping
and Process Flow Tools
PROCESS MAPPING Main symbols:

Process/Activity Input/output

Document
Terminator

Flow Manual
operation

Decision
Delay
 Value Stream Mapping
and Process Flow Tools
PROCESS STUDY recommendations:

Should include a minimum : SIPOC diagram, basic value stream

map with value-add vs. non-value-add identification together
with other project-critical metrics and process observation

For transactional processes (helplines, office activities,

insurance industry, order processing, invocing) –
Swimlane/functional deployment format (emphasizes the
handoffs between people and groups)

For workplace improvement – workflow diagram to get a

visual map of the workplaces
 Swim-lane diagram
is a type of flowchart that delineates who does what in a
process (which process steps are assigned to a particular
actor in the organisation – identification of people and job
functions involved in the process)

like the lanes in a pool – the Swim-lane diagram provides

clarity and accountability by placing process steps within
the horizontal or vertical “swim-lanes” of a particular
employee, work group or department

it shows connections, communication and handoffs

between these lanes, and it can serve to highlight waste,
redundancy and inefficiency in a process.
Swim-lane diagram
Flowchart
 Flowchart

PROCESS STUDY of the flowchart level:

HIGH-LEVEL VIEW – depicts the major elements and their

interactions (useful early in a project to identify
boundaries and scope; not useful during improvement
because of lack of detail)

LOW-LEVEL VIEW – depicts specific actions, workflow,

rework loops, ... In a process (useful for a process of
limited scope; too disturbing when all you need is a view
of the overall flow)
 Flowchart
EXAMPLE of high-level and low level flowcharts
 Flowchart
EXAMPLE of high-level and low level flowcharts
 Flowchart
EXAMPLE of high-level and low level flowcharts
 Flowchart
PROCESS STUDY of the flowchart breadth:
 Flowchart
for the
WGA
(Waste Gate
Actuator)
line flow
 Check Sheet Formats

• Process observation is the starting point of

problem solving. By observing a process in
action, team members will have a deeper
understanding of reality

• Observation works best if you plan what you

want to do and how you will capture and use
the insights people gain
 Check Sheet Formats
To observe a process you need to:

1. Clarify the purpose of observation (a general walkthrough or a specific

purpose)

2. Identify observers (experienced and novice ones)

3. Prepare an observation form and train observers (the form must

capture process data)

4. Prepare staff in the workplace

5. Walk the process and carry out your observations plans

6. Have observers summarize lessons learned and present then to the

whole team (discussion of results)
 Check Sheet Formats
The captured data can be qualitative or
quantitative

Data are recorded by marking checks on the form

A typical check sheet is divided into regions

Each check sheet must present the name of the

observer, location and dates when the
observation took place and what was collected
 Check Sheet Formats
USES:

to check the shape of the probability distribution of a

process

to quantify defects by type

to quantify defects by location

to quantify defects by cause (machine, worker)

to keep track of the completion of steps in a multistep

procedure
to check the shape of the probability distribution of
a process
to quantify defects by type
to quantify defects by location
to quantify defects by cause (machine, worker)
to keep track of the completion of steps in a
multistep procedure
 Stratification diagram

Stratification a technique used to

analyze/divide/sort data into homogeneous groups (strata)
that helps in deriving meaningful information to
understand an existing problem

- It is a data collection and analysis tool

- It’s purpose is to divide data and conquer meaningful

information to solve a problem

- It serves to facilitate the work before using other tools

such as histograms or scatter diagrams
 Stratification diagram
Stratification factor (stratifier) = a factor that can be
used to separate data into subgroups

PURPOSE: to collect descriptive information that will

help in identifying important patterns in the data
(about root causes, patterns in use, ..)

BENEFITS: speed up the search for root causes and

generate a deeper understanding of process factors
 Stratification diagram
Examples of different sources that might require data to be stratified:

equipment

employee shifts

departments

materials

suppliers

days of the week or time of the day

products
 Stratification diagram

WHEN?

- Before collecting data

- When data is retrieved from various

sources/conditions (shifts, days of the week,
suppliers,..)

- When data analysis requires the separation of

different sources/conditions
 Stratification diagram

HOW?

1. Before collecting data, consider which information about

the sources of the data might have an effect on the results
(you need to collect that information)

2. When plotting or graphing the collected data on a scatter

diagram, control chart, histogram.. (other analysis tool),
use different marks/colors to distinguish data from various
sources(then data is stratified)

3. Analyze the subsets of stratified data separately

 Stratification diagram
! There are different ways you can slice your data to uncover
relevant patterns

Examples:

If you suspect purchasing patterns may relate to the size of

the purchasing company – you need to collect information
about the purchaser’s size

If it seems patterns of variation differ by time of day – you

need to label data according to when it was collected
Stratification diagram
Stratification diagram
Stratification diagram
(examples)
Stratification diagram
(examples)
 Pareto Analysis

Vilfredo F.D. Pareto 1848-1923

observed that most wealth is concentrated in the hands

of a few

determined the 80-20 rule (applied in all areas of QC):

80% of inventory costs accounted for by 20% of the

inventory items
80% of process problems located in 20% of the process
steps
 Pareto Analysis
Can be conducted on products, services, machines, workers, ...

Identifies the vital few problems which offer the greatest

opportunity for improvement by prioritizing their frequency,
cost or importance in a systematic way

Demonstrates the results of quality improvement efforts

 Pareto Analysis
STEPS:

1. Identify all potential types of defects/causes of a problem

(the categories that will be used to classify the subject)

2. Collect data on frequency of each type of defect

3. List the defects in descending order of occurence

4. The percent of each defect type is determined by dividing

the number of each type of defect by the total

5. Determine cumulative percentages

Pareto Analysis
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
HISTOGRAM = a graphic display of the frequency distribution
(variation) of a sample of data (numeric information)

Histograms can serve as a quick check on several points

within a process to determine where the greatest amount
of variation occurs or where specifications are exceeded

The use of histograms for variable data is similar to Pareto

diagrams for attribute data: to focus efforts where the
greatest amount of error occurs to prioritize problem
areas.
 Attribute versus Variable Data
• Attribute data – focuses on numbers, simpler to gather, a
yes-or-no variety (defective or not defective, product
works or not, students pass or fail an exam). Ex. defects
per unit DPU, parts per million PPM, etc.

• Variable data – focuses on measurements and is more

useful (looks at how bad each defective product is, how
badly failling students missed passing their exams) Ex.
absolute, relative dimensions, deviation from normal,...
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
Distributions of data:

The variation that exists in a set of data is

displayed by a distribution when this data is
grouped in an orderly fashion.

Since we want to present data so that it is easy to

see the key information, it is often useful to
construct a frequency distribution.
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
50 separate
Ungrouped frequency distributions : measurements in
micrometers taken
on the diameter
of holes drilled in
aluminium bars
Raw data are not informative!
Statistical Control Tools: Histograms

The data has been arranged in

order of lowest to highest
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms

The same data is displayed further in the next Table, BUT this
time, rather than only listing each measurement, each
value that a measurement has taken is listed.

A tally is made of the number of bars having each diameter

and is displayed as a number (the frequency) in the second
column.

A cumulative frequency, the percentage of bars with a

diameter equal to or less than the measurement level of
each row is shown in the third column. This is computed by
simply adding teh frequencies in each successive row to
the frequencies in all the rows above it.
With the data arranged in
this way it is easier to
sense how much spread
exists and where
measurement values
tend to cluster
Statistical Control Tools: Histograms

The ungrouped data is presented in graphic form –

a histogram.
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
! Rather than treat each measurement discretely
(71,72,73,..) we can further simplify the information
by grouping the data in 3 steps:

1. Determine the adequate number of groups/classes

2. Determine the size of the class

3. Tally the number of measurements that fall within

each class and determine the frequency by adding
the number of tallies within each class
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
1. Determine the adequate number of groups/classes:

Each class interval must be mutually exclusive (no

measurement can be placed in more than one class),
and collectively exhaustive (enough classes must
exist for all measurements to be included)

Class limits must be specified according to the

precision of measurement (ex.: the class for
measurements between 70-79 is actually 69.5-79.4
with +/- 0.5 precision)
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
1. Determine the adequate number of groups/classes:

The number of classes is important- too few will result in a

loss of information, too many can result in some classes
having only 1 or 2 data points
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
1. Determine the adequate number of groups/classes:

Guidelines for choosing the number of classes, based on

the number of observations, are listed in the next Table

Observations Classes
< 50 5 to 7
50 to 100 7 to 10
101 to 250 10 to 12
> 250 12 to 15
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
2. Determine the size of the class

First find the range of the measurements – the

difference between the highest and the lowest
measurement plus one (112-48=64+1=65) or the
difference between the class limits (112.5-47.5 = 65)

Then, determine the width of the class – divide the

range by the number of classes you have (round
numbers: 65/6 classes = intervals of 11 values; 65/8
classes = intervals of about 8 values). For simplicity
you can choose intervals of 10
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
2. Determine the size of the class

The first class must include the lowest

observation and should start from a multiple of
the class size (4 x class size 10 = 40). The first
class is 40-49, the next 50-59 and so forth

The final class must include the highest

observation 112, so this final class interval (110-
119) makes the total number of classes 8
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
3. Tally the number of measurements that fall within
each class and determine the frequency by adding
the number of tallies within each class:

A cumulative frequency is computed by summing

the frequency of occurence in each row and the
frequencies above it, and then converting the results
into a percentage
 Statistical Control Tools: Histograms
The results of this grouped frequency distribution are shown in
the graphic form of a histogram based on the next Table.
 Analyse tools: Ishikawa diagram
Kaoru Ishikawa introduced a collection of graphical techniques in
1950 used to diagnose a problem or a process.

These techniques are called fishbone or Ishikawa diagrams

They provide a useful means of analyzing a problem (prior or

following data collection), by organizing knowledge about a
process.

They present a picture that represents a meaningful relationship

between an effect (a defect, situation, problem) and its
multiple causes. Thus, they help teams push beyond
symptomsto uncover potential root causes
 Ishikawa diagram
in problem solving
• Symptom = a characteristic or a complain about a certain problem

Example: teh car does not work, the printer prints at a low quality level,...

• Problem = a deviation from expectations, an unexpected effect with

unknown causes

Example: the batery is low, the printer cough is on its end

Trying to Solving the problem

fight the through the identification
symptom What can we do? of its causes and their
elimination

Short term solution, does not solve Long term solution, solves
the problem on the long term the problem definitively
149
 Building the Ishikawa diagram

PROBLEM
(EFFECT):
________

Name the problem or effect of interest. Be as specific as possible.

Write the problem at the head of a fishbone “skeleton"

150
 Building the Ishikawa diagram

PROBLEM
(EFFECT):
________

PRINCIPAL CAUSES
(contributing factors to the effect)

Decide the major categories for causes and create the basic diagram
151
on a flip chart/whiteboard
 Ishikawa diagram
The causes for the variation of the quality characteristics are the factors that
influence the values of these charcateristics and they are usually grouped in
6 categories (6Ms):

Man – all involved in the process (operator, design engineer,..)

Method – how the process is realized (standards, operating procedures)

Machine – equipments, computers, necessary tools for our process

Material – raw materials, parts necessary for final product development

Measurement – general process data for quality assessment (variation)

Mother nature – the conditions (temperature, time, location, culture) in

which the process works (physical or political environment)

152
 Ishikawa diagram
The diagram based on the 6 Ms is useful for:

the analysis of the necessary conditions for improving

quality in a product, for a better material supply or cost
reductions

elimination of conditions that cause the reject of a

product or customer complaints

employee training in decision making and in corrective

actions
Building the Ishikawa diagram

PROBLEM
(EFFECT):
________

PRINCIPAL CAUSES
(contributing factors to the effect)

154
 Building the Ishikawa diagram

PROBLEM
(EFFECT):
________

PRINCIPAL CAUSES
(contributing factors to the effect)
LEVEL 1 CAUSES

155
 Building the Ishikawa diagram

LEVEL 2 CAUSES

PROBLEM
(EFFECT):
________

PRINCIPAL CAUSES
(contributing factors to the effect)
LEVEL 1 CAUSES

156
Ishikawa diagram
Ishikawa diagram
Ishikawa diagram
 Ishikawa diagram
For extra-productive domains diagrams based on 4 Ps are
more suitable:

Policies (HR policies, work policies or government policies,..

- covered in Method from 6 Ms)

Procedures/Process (Methods from 6 Ms)

Personel/People (Men from 6 Ms)

Position/Plant (covers the Machine, Material and Work

environment)
Ishikawa diagram
 Ishikawa diagram
Once the Fishbone is populated with ideas, the next
aim is narrowing the list of causes down to a
manageable number to investigate

Limited resources dictate that not every cause is a

candidate for verification. Nor should they be.

Multi-Voting, also known as N/3, is a simple tool

that provides a quick visual prioritization.
 Ishikawa diagram
MULTIVOTING steps:

Add up the number of potential causes

Divide the total by 3

Give each member of the group the resulting number of votes

For example, if there are 21 potential root causes, 21/3 = 7.

Everyone gets to put a mark next to the 7 causes they’d like
investigated (sticky dots are good for this). The result is an
instant shortlist to pursue.
Ishikawa diagram
Ishikawa diagram and 5 Whys
 Affinity diagram (K-J method)
• developed by Kawakita Jiro in 1960

• one of the seven management tools for planning in TQC

• organizes a large quantity of information by natural

relationships by using a team’s analytical thinking as well as
creativity and intuition
 Affinity diagram (K-J method)
• The K-J method represents in a structural way the
relationships (affinities) between ideas (opinions,
reflections) regarding a certain aspect/problem

• These ideas are grouped in families, then the afinities

(relationships) between the families is delineated

• After collecting a sufficient amount of ideas

regarding a problem, the information is organized in
groups based on the natural relationships between
them
 Affinity diagram (K-J method)
• The process stimulates creativity and engages all the team
members (a team consists of 3 – 8 diverse persons)

• The K-J tool can be used to organize the ideas generated

thorugh brainstorming
 Affinity diagram (K-J method)
How to conduct an Affinity Session?

Present the topic or the problem (not too many details, they may harm
the process)

The team receives index cards/sticky notes

Team members are asked to write down one idea/issue per card (a
considerable number of ideas, each 5-9 words including a verb and noun)

The ideas are mixed and presented aleatory on the table

The ideas are sorted into categories (each category is labelled, duplicate
ideas are eliminated, max 10 categories)

Arrows between groups/categories are added to show significant

relationships
Affinity diagram (K-J method)
Affinity diagram (K-J method)
 Affinity diagram (K-J method)
ADVICE:

Go for volume, suspend judgment, build on each other’s ideas

and set a strict time limit. Allow 30 or 40 minutes for
brainstorming ideas.

To create headers ask for each grouping: “What key words

summarize the central idea that this grouping communicates?”
Sometimes a post it from within the group can be used as a
header.

Do not use full sentences for headers but summarize the

association with just one or two words

If a group has two themes, then split the group into two groups
 Affinity diagram (K-J method)
For what purposes do we conduct an Affinity Session?

Understand what is most important for ambiguous

data

Identify connections, create hierarchies and identify

themes in complex data

Idetify what factors to focus on (the main picture)

Encourage new productive thinking

Affinity diagram (K-J method)
Affinity diagram (K-J method)
Affinity diagram (K-J method)
 Relations diagram/
Relationships analysis
Used to generate a visual representation of the
relations between an effect and its causes as well as
the interrelationship between the causes in complex
problems

THUS, it helps identify what factors are causes and

which factors are effects

Factors help establish KPI (Key Performance Indicators)

to monitor changes and the effectiveness of
corrective actions in resolving a problem.
 Relations diagram
HOW to build a relations diagram?

Agree on the issue or question

Add a symbol to the diagram for every element involved in the issue

Compare each element to all others. Use an "influence" arrow to connect

related elements

The arrows should be drawn from the element that influences to the one
influenced. If two elements influence each other, the arrow should be drawn to
reflect the stronger influence.

Count the arrows. The elements with the most outgoing arrows will be root
causes or drivers. The ones with the most incoming arrows will be key outcomes
or results

If necessary, rearrange the rectangles in such a way that the connecting lines are
short and the diagram compact
 Relations diagram

The output of the tool is a list of root causes for the

problem with some indication of their relative
importance

! The output has to be considered as only an indication

of the relative importance of the causes. Data has to
be collected to confirm or reject the conclusions
arrived at the end of the session (the perception of
the team members MUST be supported by facts for
corrective actions
Relationship diagram
- examples -
Relationship diagram
Relationship diagram
 The Kano model
• Customers' viewpoint of the quality of a product is
essential and provides information on their
expectations regarding that offer

• Adequate tools for assessing the voice of the

customer (VOC) when designing appealing products
and services are neeeded

• The theory of attractive quality and especially the

Kano model have transformed the way in which we
evaluate quality and customer value
Voice of the Customer
 Kano model
WHAT does this tool provide us with?

addresses the non-linear relationship between

quality attribute performance and overall customer
satisfaction (the first to demonstrate co-existing
linear and non-linear product/service features)

classifiess each product or service feature in a

specific quality category (different influences on
customer satisfaction when met)
 Kano model
• Developed and published in 1984 by Noriaki Kano

WHY use this tool?

To better understand what value your customers place

on the features of your product/service, which can
reduce the risk of providing products/services that
over-emphasize features of little importance or that
miss critical-to-quality features (attributes)
 Kano model
WHEN use this tool?

- defining your problem

- in the measuring stage where you need to

understand scope and importance (improvement
purposes)

- in the design stage of new offers (to know what the

customers want/need) to deligh them
 Kano model
HOW does it work?

- it is a questionnaire based technique – the Kano

questionnaire

- after computing the results based on a Kano evaluation

table, each product/service feature receives a Kano
category – guides decision making

- For more details other indicators and tools can be used

together with the Kano model (QFD, Kansei, HWWP)
Theory of attractive quality
- Kano categories -
 Theory of attractive quality
- Kano categories -

MUST – BE attributes: not explicitly demanded, considered obvious and trigger

dissatisfaction if not met (basic requirements are considered the entry point for getting
into a market)

ONE-DIMENSIONAL attributes: specified and expected, the level of fulfilment determines

proportionally customer satisfaction (satisfying performance requirements will allow you to
remain in the market)

ATTRACTIVE attributes : not expected but the level of fulfilment determines more than
proportionally customer satisfaction, even delight but does not trigger dissatisfaction if not
met (satisfying excitements requirements opens the opportunity to excel, to deligh your
customers, to be World Class)

INDIFFERENT attributes : not expected, not requested, no influence on satisfaction

REVERSE attributes: the opposite is requested/desired

QUESTIONABLE attributes: wrong answers, wrongly built questions,

Theory of attractive quality
- Kano methodology -
 Theory of attractive quality
- Berger et al (1993)’ s satisfaction coefficient -
 Quality Function Deployment
• Developed by Yoji Akao and Shigeru Mizuno in 1960

• It is a planning tool with a specific aim: to design the

quality of a product/service taking into consideration
primarily the Voice of the customer (VOC) – client needs

• It helps design engineers to translate the VOC into design

requirements

• It represents quality-monitoring, a focus on the function

of execution of a quality plan, and the application of
resources for deployment of that plan.
 Quality Function Deployment
• The final scope of QFD is to translate subjective
quality criteria into objective criteria that can be
adequately measured and quantified

• It is a complementary method for determining

priorities in product development/improvement

• INTENTION: to obtain objective and detailed

procedures in product development/improvement
 Quality Function Deployment
• Each of the 4 phases of the QFD process use a
defined set of matrices for translating client
requirements from initial planning phases to
production control

• Each phase or matrix represents a specific aspect of

product requirements. The relationships between
elements are evaluated for each phase. ONLY the
most important aspects from each phase are
further developed in the next matrix.
 Quality Function Deployment

QFD allows us to see:

WHAT our client expects regarding the quality

characteristics of our product/service

HOW we can meet these expectations and

characteristics
 Quality Function Deployment
QFD benefits:

Focus on Customers – the emphasis is placed on customer needs which

are translated into design specifications. During the QFD processes,
these design specifications are driven down from machine side to
system and finally component level requirements. Design specifications
are controlled throughout the production and assembly processes to
assure the customer needs are met

Focused on Competitors – the QFD House of quality tool allows a

comparison of how your design/product/service relates to competition
in meeting the VOC ( great analysis with competitive related results)

Focused on Efficiency – QFD reduces the risk of late design changes

because it focuses on product/service features and improvements
based on VOC. Also it prevents losing time and wasting resources
(analysis, structure and documentation for a historical record)
 Quality Function Deployment
QFD identifies requirements in several steps:

Initial identification of client requirements (needs and functions)

Identification of quality characteristics which correspond to client

requirements (based on needs/functions already determined)

Identification of process parameters and characteristics – technical

specifications (based on quality characteristics)

Identification of process control requirements (based on technical

specifications)

Identification of customer complaints, nonconformities or defects after

production and sale of the product and redimensioning of product
functions (start of another cycle)
Phase 1. Product planning (HoQ):
completed by the Marketing Department

documents needed: customer requirements, warranty data,

competitive opportunities, product measurements and competing
products measurements

determines the technical aspects needed to meet customer

requirements
Phase 2. Product design/development:
completed by the Engineering Department

engineers create product concepts and document part

specifications

most important parts for meeting customer needs are deployed

further into phase 3
Phase 3. Process planning/development:
completed by the Manufacturing Department

specialists build flowcharts for manufacturing processes and

document process parameters
Phase 4. Process quality control/Production planning:

completed by the quality assurance department

specialists create performance indicators to monitor the production

process, determine maintenance schedules, skills for operators,
inspection and tests
 Quality Function Deployment
- Level 1 HOQ -

 The House of Quality is an effective tool used to

translate the customer wants and needs into product or
service design characteristics by using a relationship
matrix. It is usually the first matrix used in the QFD
process

The House of Quality demonstrates the relationship

between the customer wants – “Whats” and the design
parameters – “Hows”
 Quality Function Deployment
- Level 1 HOQ -
WHATs – Customer wants/requirements (CR) identification
+ customer ratings of those wants

HOWs – specific product/service features (design

requirements) identification to satisfy customer needs

ROOF – Correlation matrix between HOWs (how do

features help or hinder each other)

Competition – from the customer side

Relationship matrix – weighting the relationship between

customer needs and design requirements
Quality Function Deployment
- Level 1 HOQ -
Quality Function Deployment
- Level 1 -
 Creativity tools: Brainstorming
Productive thinking...

Did you know that?

mature people think of 50 uses

children 4-7 years find 80-90 uses

geniuses reach till 200 uses

 Why does this happen?

Because people think through imitation by

using past experiences

Per Problem solving specialists do not think

reproductive BUT productive
Possible ways in which we can creatively
solve a problem

brainstorming, brainwriting

word combination (da Vinci technique)

mind mapping

6 thinking hats (De Bono)

214
 Brainstorming
• The secret of creativity is collaboration due to the fact that
each individual is different and adds a new viewpoint

For raising productivity: BRAINWRITING

• We clarify the problem, let the imagination run free
• Each idea is noted quietly on a piece of paper
• The paper with ideas is given to the coleague on the right
• The idea can be considered an inspiration for another paper
which will be given to the next colleague to the right
• Then the ideas resulted are discussed in a group.
215
 Da Vinci technique
• Original solutions can arise from combining subjects, ideas and
concepts apparently without connection

• Da Vinci analyzes the structure of a subject, then it separates

the characteristics /basic factors and realises a list of variants
for each factor. In the end it combines the variants

Original ideas and new solutions

216
 Da Vinci technique
Head Eye Nose Mouth Chin
oval wide open hooked dry goiter
scheletic stuffy aquiline small lips beard
semisferic bulging subțire dropped folds
like a bug shining deformed strident fallen
like a bell huge bellied arched sharp
like an egg swollen sharp muscular lost
curved red long strange prominent

Result:

217
 Mind Mapping
• It eases access to the huge potential of our brain through the
use of key-words

• Its a different brainstorming type that helps us discover what

we already know and make new associations

• Rules: we note the principal theme and then all the thinking
and associations regarding it are also noted in all directions

218
 6 thinking hats
• This technique forces a new approach, different from the
classical thinking process. In this way we see/analyse a
situation from several points of view for an overall image

• Problem solving is realized by passing through different

thinking styles: rational thinking, emotional thinking,
intuitive thinking, creative thinking, positive thinking or
negative thinking

219
6 Thinking hats

220
 Force Field Analysis
Discovering possible obstacles for
implementing the improvement solution

FORCES IN FAVOUR FORCES AGAINST

of CHANGE CHANGE
SOLUTION

221
 Force Field Analysis

Client satisfaction Reluctance to change

CHANGING THE
CORPORATE
Increased production Long implementation time
CULTURE FOR
INCREASING
Lower maintenance costs PERFORMANCE Ignorance of Six Sigma
(Through Six tools

Sigma)
Lower costs with
problem solving

... ...

222