Typical shapes of coarse-grained bulky particles

Typical grain size distributions.

Grain size ranges according to several engineering
soil classification systems
• It turns out that the sieve analysis is impractical for sieve
openings less than about 0.05 to 0.075 mm
• Thus for the fine-grained soils (silts, and clays) the hydrometer
analysis can be used.
• The basis for this test is Stokes' law for falling spheres in a
viscous fluid. This law relates the terminal velocity of the
grains in suspension, their density, and the density of the
fluid.
• We can thus calculate the grain diameter from the distance
and time of fall.
• The hydrometer also determines the specific gravity (or
density) of the suspension, and this lets us calculate the
percentage of particles of a certain equivalent particle
diameter at a given time.
• Uniformity coefficient

• Coefficient of curvature/Gradation
• Well graded soil:-
– Good representation of particles of all sizes.
• Poorly graded soil:-
– Excess of certain particles and deficiency of others
• Uniformly graded soil:-
– Most of the particle are of same size.

Soil Type Soil Gradation

Gravel Well Graded >4 1< <3

Gravel Poorly Graded Not meeting the above requirement
Sand Well Graded >6 1 < <3
Sand Poorly Graded Not meeting the above requirement
COARSE GRAINED SOILS
Gravel G
Sand S
Silt M

Well Graded W
Poorly Graded P
(Uniform)
Gap Graded

Clean Gravels (Little or No fines)

GW Well graded gravels, gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines

GP Poorly

Gravels with fines (Appreciable amount of fines)

GM Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures

GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-clay mixtures
Clean sands (Little or No fines)

SW Well graded sands, gravelly sands;

Little or No fines
SP Poorly graded sands

Sands with fines (Appreciable amount of fines)

SM Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixtures

SC Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixtures
• For fine-grained soils, the presence of water greatly affects
their engineering response—much more so than grain size .
• Water affects the interaction between the mineral grains, and
this may affect their plasticity (roughly defined as the soil's
ability to be molded) and their cohesiveness (its ability to stick
together).
• While sands are nonplastic and noncohesive (cohesionless),
clays are both plastic and cohesive. Silts fall between clays and
sands: they are fine grained yet nonplastic and cohesionless.
 ATTENBERG LIMITS
• An important distinguishing characteristic of fine-grained soils
is plasticity.
• Plasticity could be used to distinguish between plastic and
nonplastic soils —that is, between clays and silts.
• Plasticity could also be used to classify clays by their degree of
plasticity. Finally, plasticity depends on the water content of a
clay soil.
• This brings us to the Atterberg limits.
• Attenberg Limits - the threshold water contents at which
certain types of engineering behavior can be expected.
• These water content boundaries are unique for each soil, but
the referenced soil behavior is the same.
• Along with the natural water content, the Atterberg limits are
the most important items in the description of fine grained
soils.
• They are used in classification of such soils, and they are
useful because they correlate with the engineering properties
and engineering behavior of fine-grained soils.
• The Atterberg limits were developed in the early 1900s by a Swedish soil
scientist, Albert Atterberg (1911; 1916).
• His extensive research on the consistency properties of remolded fine-
grained soils is the basis of our current understanding of how water
influences the plasticity of these soils.
• Atterberg defined several limits of fine-grained soil behavior and
developed simple manual tests to define them. They were:
• 1. Upper limit of viscous flow.
• 2. Lower limit of viscous flow.
• 3. Liquid limit—lower limit of viscous flow.
• 4. Sticky limit2—clay loses its adhesion to a metal blade.
• 5. Cohesion limit3—grains cease to cohere to each other.
• 6. Plastic limit—lower limit of the plastic state.
• 7. Shrinkage limit—lower limit of volume change.
• He also defined the plasticity index, which is the range of
water content where the soil is plastic, and he was the first to
suggest that it could be used for soil classification.
• Later on, in the late 1920s, K. Terzaghi and A. Casagrande
(1932b), standardized the Atterberg limits so that they could
be readily used for soil classification purposes.
• In present geotechnical engineering practice we usually use
the liquid limit (LL or wL), the plastic limit (PL or wP), and
sometimes the shrinkage limit (SL or wS ).
• The sticky and the cohesion limits are more useful in ceramics
and agriculture.
• Since the Atterberg limits are water contents where the soil
behavior changes, we can show these limits on a water
content continuum, as in next. Also shown is the behavior
state for a given range of water content.
• As the water content increases, the state of the soil changes
from a brittle solid to a plastic solid and then to a viscous
liquid.
• We can also show on the same water content continuum the
generalized material response (stress-strain curves)
corresponding to those states.
• As mentioned, Casagrande (1932b, 1958) worked to
standardize the tests, and he developed the liquid limit device
so that the test became more operator independent.
• He defined the LL as that water content at which a standard
groove cut in the remolded soil sample by a grooving tool [will
close over a distance of 13 mm (V2 in.) at 25 blows of the LL
cup falling 10 mm on a hard rubber plastic base.
• In practice, it is difficult to mix the soil so that the groove
closure occurs at exactly 25 blows, so we generally mix and
test the soil at 5 to 6 different water contents, each resulting
in the 1/2-in. groove closing at blow counts higher and lower
than 25.
• Casagrande found that if you plot the water contents versus
the logarithm of the number of blows, you get a slightly
curved relationship called the flow curve.
• Where the flow curve crosses 25 blows, that water content is
defined as the liquid limit.
Water content continuum showing the various states
of a soil as well as their generalized stress-strain
response.
 Indices of Consistency
• Consistency is that property of material which is manifested by resistance
to flow.

• Plasticity Index

• Liquidity Index

• Consistency Index

• is useful for studying behaviour of saturated soil.

 Moisture content W
PL LL

Soil is at plastic limit.

= 0 Liquid limit
> 1 Semisolid state
< 1 Plastic state

Negative consistency index means soil has

Flow Index

Slope of curve gives flow index.

 FINE GRAINED SOILS
Silt M
Clay C
Low Plasticity L
Medium I
High H

Silts and Clays with low compressibility and LL < 35

ML Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands or
clayey silts with none to low plasticiy
CL Inorganic clays, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clay of low
plasticity
OL Organic silts and organic silty clays of low plasticity

Silts and Clays with medium compressibility with 50 < LL < 35

MI Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine sands or clayey silts of medium plasticity
CI Inorganic clays, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays of medium
plasticity
OI Organic silts and organic silty clays of medium plasticity
Silts and Clays with high compressibility LL > 50

MH Inorganic silts of high compressibility.

Micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts
CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays
OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity.

HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS

Pt Peat and other highly organic soils with very high compressibility.
• Activity =

• < 0.75 indicates an INACTIVE CLAY

• > 1.25 ACTIVE
• > 0.75 and < 1.25 NORMAL

 Silt, Sandy, Clayey, Well graded

 Sand, Fine, Uniform
 Clay, Silty, Highly plastic

• Shape
– Round
– Platy
• Angularity
• Texture
Ratio of the unit weight of a given material to the unit weight of water

Nos. SOIL TYPES SPECIFIC GRAVITY

1. Bentonite Clay 2.34

2. Chalk 2.63 – 2.73 – 2.81
3. Clay 2.44 – 2.53 – 2.92
4. Humus 1.37
Illite 2.8
5. Kaolin 2.47 - 2.50 – 2.58
Montmorillonite 2.65 – 2.80
6. Loess 2.65 – 2.75
7. Lime 2.70
8. Peat 1.26 – 1.50 – 1.80
9. Peat, Sphagnum 0.50 – 0.70 – 0.80
25% decomposed
10. Quartz Sand 2.64 – 2.65
11. Quartzite 2.65
12. Silt 2.68 – 2.72
13. Silt with organic 2.40 – 2.50
admixtures
 Specific Surface
Surface area of particles per unit mass

(Square meters per gram)

• A phase diagram shows the three phases
separately.
• The phase diagram helps us solve problems
involving soil phase relationships.
• On the left side we usually indicate the
volumes of the three phases; on the right side
we show the corresponding masses.
 Relationship between different quantities

1. Porosity (n) and Void ratio (e)

, e, w,

Since


For completely saturated soil, s = 1


 For soil mass in dry state, w = 0


3. e, , w and S

, and w
5. Relative Density

=
Soil particles => voids : Air (gas) and Water (liquid)
Soil Moisture
description loose dense condition loose dense

Well graded 0.70 0.35 Saturated 19.5 22

fine to coarse dry 15 19
sand

Uniform fine 0.85 0.50 Saturated 19 20.5

to medium sand dry 14 17.5

Silty sand and 0.80 0.25 Saturated 18 22.5

gravel dry 14 17

Micaceous sand 1.25 0.75 Saturated 17 19.5

with silt dry 12 15

Ottawa sand 0.80 0.55 14.5 17.3

Uniform spheres 0.92 0.35

 Effective Stress Principle
- Karl Tarzaghi 1936
• Valid for saturated soils
• Consists of two parts
– Definition Algebraic statement
– Statement based on empirical observation

1. Effective stress, , at a point in a soil mass is equal to the total stress, , at

that point minus the pore water pressure, u , at that location.
i.e.
2. Certain aspects of the engineering behaviour of soil, especially, compression
and shear strength are a function of effective stress, i.e.
Compression =
Shear strength =

- Total stress at a point is equal to the weight of every thing above that point per
unit area. (It may be viewed as overburden pressure).
• Pore water pressure is the pressure which exists in the water which is
present in the pores of soil.
• The soil pores are normally interconnected.
• Visualized as being a highly intricate and complex collection of irregular
tubes.
• Determination of PWP at a point in a soil : insert a tube or a standpipe at
that point in soil, Observe the level to which water rises in the standpipe.
PWP = (difference in elevation between the point and the level in standpipe)
= (h)
• PWP has physical meaning; measurable using Standpipe, Piezometer
• Effective stress : No physical meaning; cannot be measured
Determined by arithmetical manipulation
= Total stress - PWP
• Element is in equilibrium => Algebraic sum of forces must be zero.
• The total stress on account of over burden multiplied by the area of
plane (A).
• PWP x Area of the plane which passes through pore water,
• F The summation of forces which act at particle to particle contacts
through which plane passes.

=>

=> =>
• Effective stress may be viewed as the force transmitted at particle to particle
contacts divided by the area of the wavy plane that passes through these
particle contacts.
• It is not the stress at particle contacts.
• Since effective stress is equal to the force transmitted at the particle contacts
divided by an imaginary area.
• It is a function of the force transmitted at particle contacts.
• Pores in soils are interconnected.
– May be viewed as a highly complex and intricate network of irregular tubes.
• Water in these tubes flows from zones of high potential to low potential
zones.
• Surfaces of the solid phase offer resistance to the flow of water.
• Narrower, the more irregular the tubes
=> The greater is the resistance posed by the solid phase.
• The more open the size of the tubes
=> The greater is the ease with which water flows through the soil.
• The ease with which water flows is quantitatively expressed in terms of the
PERMEABILITY of soil.
• PERMEABILITY
– A function of soil type
– The permeant
– Void ratio
– Soil fabric
– Effective stress
Chapter 5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
Chapter 5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 5.1 Permeability—a function of void ratio

Chapter 5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 5.2 Space for flow of water is affected by the state of the double layer
 Soil Plasticity Index k cm / sec

Gravel
Coarse sand
Medium Sand
Fine sand
Silty sand
Delhi silt 13
Boston Blue clay 24
London clay 49
• The greater the viscosity => the lower is the permeability.
• The greater the unit weight (permeant) => the greater is the permeability.
Chapter 6 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 6.1 Schematic diagram of one-dimensional flow aparatus

Chapter 6 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 6.2 No flow occurs in tub filled with water

• Constant of proportionality k was observed to change when soil was changed
and thus reflects the property of soil, that is, permeability of the soil, k.
∆
is a mathematical representation of Darcy’s law 1856.
• The flow is a function of
– Engineering property of soil,
– Hydraulic condition,
– Boundary condition,
• Hydraulic Gradient
∆
Dimensionless parameter

is the superficial velocity of flow.

• Permeability : Superficial velocity under a hydraulic gradient of 1.0
• Seepage velocity
• Darcy’s law is valid as long as water is flowing under laminar condition.
Chapter 6 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 6.3 Schematic diagram of a falling head permeameter

FALLING HEAD PERMEAMETER
Cross-sectional area of
vertical pipe = a
Cross-sectional area of
sample = A
Flow in time
(the negative sign is to
account for the fact that as
time progresses, h decreases)

• As the flow takes place the head causing flow changes. at time = t is h
is
is
• Darcy’s law is appliciable and therefore at any time, t,

• For differential amount of time ,

or
• Integrating over the limits of initial and final conditions.
Chapter 18 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 18.1 Flow along layers of different homogeneous soils

• Head causing flow through soil 1 =
2=
3=
• Flow through soil 1 =
2=
3=
• Total flow
Chapter 18 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING by Shashi K. Gulhati & Manoj Datta
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fig. 18.2 Flow across layers of different homogeneous soils

• Head causing flow through soil 1 =
2=
3=
+
• Flow through soil 1 =
2=
3=
• Flow along layers : Parallel
• Flow across layers : Series

• Voltage => Head

• Current flow => Water flow
• Conductivity => Permeability
• Non-uniform soil profiles
– Varies from one section to the other.
• Non homogeneous soil
– Permeability varies from location to location.
• Soil is not isotropic
– Different permeability in different directions.
• Flow is not one-dimensional
– Two or three dimensional
• Conditions are not steady state
– Alter with time; they are transient.

CONDITON OF CONTINUITY
• The amount of water entering the soil element per unit time minus the amount of
water leaving this soil element per unit time must equal the rate of storage of water
in this element.
• Velocity of water at the centre of the cube in the directions X, Y, Z
CONSIDER DIRECTION X
• Amount of water entering face 1 per unit time

• Amount of water leaving face 2 per unit time

• Water Entering - Leaving per unit time in X direction

• Y, Z direction
and
• Contribution from all direction

= Rate of storage
where, W = volume of water
t = time
 TWO DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE FLOW

• No change in any condition with time

No storage with time in the amount of water in any soil element in the flow
space. + =0

• Consider flow in X, Z direction + =0

• Assume Darcy’s law is valid.
• Assume Homogeneous soil.

+
• Assume Isotropic soil.

Laplace Equation
FLOW NETS

• Solution to Laplace Equation

• Consider one dimensional flow in X direction

• Solution

• Specific solution : Define boundary condition

At At

Which states that head is dissipated in uniform manner over the entire
length of the permeameter.
• GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
– Solution will indicate how h is a function of X and Z.
• GENERAL SOLUTION
– Two sets of orthogonal curves.
– One set consists of Flow lines.
• Indicates the direction of flow.
– Other set comprises Equipotential lines.
– The component of flow normal to flow line is zero.
– The space between the two adjacent flow line is referred to as the Flow
Path.
– Two flow lines can never meet (flow path cannot vanish).
– Two equipotential lines cannot meet (two potentials at one point not
possible).
• When boundary conditions are imposed it becomes Specific solution.
• Consider the boundary condition of a Two Dimensional Permeameter.

Since flow in horizontal

direction.
Flow lines are ||.
|| to horizontal direction.
Since head is lost uniformly,
Equipotential lines are vertical

• Identify four boundary conditions.

• Left and Right vertical face => Equipotential lines.
• Top and Bottom horizontal length => Flow lines.
• The four boundary conditions define the Flow Space.
• Two sets of orthogonal curves in flow space constitutes the solution to
the Laplace equation.
• All flow lines intersects the Equipotential lines at right angle.
• All Equipotential lines intersects the flow lines at right angle.
• Resultant grid is the solution to the flow problem.
• Head dissipated between successive Equipotential lines must be the same.
• Each flow path must transport the same quantity of low as an other flow path.
• Flow, q, taking place through any rectangle

It is convenient to draw grid with

= Shape Factor = S

=
• Change soil or or location of reservoir
– Low net would not change.
– Flow or direction of flow change.
 IDENTIFY THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
• EFG Rock surface
No flow perpendicular to it.
It is a boundary flow line.
• BOP C Base of a concrete weir and the sides of the sheet pile
Impervious surface
It too is a boundary flow line.
• AB Bottom of reservoir
insert standpipe at any point, water will rise up to surface of reservoir
It is a boundary equipotential line.
• CD is the fourth relevant boundary equipotential line.
• BT is also equipotential line but not relevant.
• Water travel from AB to CD.
• Will be confined to travel between BOP C and EFG.
• Boundary conditions are not evident from the soil profile
• Flow space is not defined completely.
• The flow in such space is then deserted as unconfined flow.
• Consider earth dam
– AB Flow line
– AD Equipotential line, also BC
– Water flows from AD to BC under head difference
– Bounded by the base of the dam and flows through dam.
• Fourth boundary ? Flow line
Starts from D , perpendicular to AD, end on BC where?
• Features of such flow line
– It is called PHREATIC LINE.
– Water, on phreatic line is in equilibrium with atmospheric pressure.
Water in a standpipe inserted
on the phreatic line does not
rise.
CONVENTION OF DRAWING
FLOW NET
Same amount of head lost as
water travels between any two
successive equipotential lines.

• Head lost as water travels on the phreatic line is the vertical distance between
the intersections of two successive equipotential lines with the phreatic line.
= = =
• Assume a location of the phreatic line so flow is confined. Draw flow net
check = etc. If not assume a new loaction.
• Drawing flow nets for confined flow is a time consuming
• For unconfined, more laborious.
• CASGRANDE POVIDE GUIDELINE TO DRAW PHREATIC LINE

• Deduced that phreatic line is essentially parabolic with B as the focus and it departs
from this shape near D where the curvature of the parabola must reverse to meet D
at 90 .

• Locate K at the reservoir level vertically above A.

• Locate L such that LD = 1/3 KD.
• B as focus, L as point on the parabola.
• Draw the parabola LPQ (A parabola is the loci of all points equidistant from a
point, the focus and a line , the directrix; LB = LM and MN is the directrix).