Biotechnology- 12th NCERT

 Biotechnology deals with large scale production and marketing of products and processes using live
organisms, cells or enzymes.
 Herbert Boyer - cutting DNA strands in a particular fashion
 Stanley Cohen - recombine segments of DNA in desired configurations and insert the DNA in bacterial
cells
 These breakthrough were the basis upon which the discipline of biotechnology was founded
 The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) - definition of biotechnology - ‘The integration of
natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services’
 Principles of Biotechnology: two core techniques that enabled birth of modern biotechnology are
1. Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA)
2. Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free) ambience in chemical engineering processes to
enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of
biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes
 The cutting of DNA at specific locations became possible with the discovery of the so-called ‘molecular
scissors’– restriction enzymes
 Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases.
 These are of two kinds; exonucleases and endonucleases. Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of
the DNA whereas; endonucleases make cuts at specific positions within the DNA
 The cutting of DNA by restriction endonucleases results in the fragmentes of DNA. These fragments can be
separated by a technique known as gel electrophoresis
 Way to introduce alien DNA into host cells
1. Microinjection
2. Electroporation (increase the permeability of protoplast membrane and facilitate entry of DNA
molecules into the cells)
3. Biolistics/Shot-Gun/Gene Gun Method - suitable for plants, cells are bombarded with high velocity
micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA
 Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR: PCR stands for Polymerase Chain Reaction. In this
reaction, multiple copies of the gene (or DNA) of interest is synthesised in vitro
 To produce in large quantities, the development of bioreactors, where large volumes (100-1000 litres) of
culture can be processed

The MANAV Project aims to create an open and interactive atlas of human biology (2019)
Biotech-Krishi Innovation Science Application Network (Biotech-KISAN) is a Department of
Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology

National Biopharma Mission: implemented by Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council

Biotechnology and Its Applications

Applications in Agriculture

 Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMO)
a) Made crops more tolerant
b) Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides
c) Helped to reduce post harvest losses
d) Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants
e) Enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice
 Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt for short): cloned from the bacteria
and been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides
 B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals during a particular phase of their growth. These crystals contain a
toxic insecticidal protein
 The choice of genes depends upon the crop and the targeted pest, as most Bt toxins are insect-group
specific. The toxin is coded by a gene named cry
 There are a number of them, for example, the proteins encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control
the cotton bollworms, and cryIAb controls corn borer.
 A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in
yield.
 A novel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation which was based on the process of RNA
interference (RNAi). Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes were introduced into the
host plant
Applications in Medicine

Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs, pancreas of
Horses
In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (like a pro-enzyme, the pro-hormone
also needs to be processed before it becomes a fully mature and functional hormone) which contains an extra
stretch called the C peptide

 Gene Therapy - corrective therapy for a hereditary disease. The first clinical gene therapy was given in
1990 to a 4-year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency (crucial for the immune system to
function)
 Molecular Diagnosis - Recombinant DNA technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme
Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA) are some of the techniques that serve the purpose of early
diagnosis
 PCR is now routinely used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients. It is being used to detect mutations in
genes in suspected cancer patients too. It is a powerful technique to identify many other genetic disorders
 ELISA is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. Infection by pathogen can be detected
by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by detecting the antibodies synthesised against
the pathogen

Transgenic Animals

 Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra (foreign) gene are known as
transgenic animals
 Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish have been produced, although over 95 per cent of all
existing transgenic animals are mice
 In 1997, the first transgenic cow, Rosie, produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre).
The milk contained the human alpha-lactalbumin and was nutritionally a more balanced product for
human babies than natural cow-milk

Ethical Issues

 Currently, the Genetic Engineering Approvals Committee (GEAC), a body under the Ministry of
Environment and Forests (India) is responsible for approval of genetically engineered products in India
 Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India (BRAI) is a proposed regulatory body, if bill passed, it will
take over GEAC.
 There are an estimated 200,000 varieties of rice in India alone. The diversity of rice in India is one of the
richest in the world. Basmati rice is distinct for its unique aroma and flavour and 27 documented varieties
of Basmati are grown in India
 In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark
Office
 Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other
organisations without proper authorisation from the countries and people concerned without compensatory
payment

10th Science
Cell Biology and Biotechnology
 Stem Cells - give rise to all other types of cells. At the earliest stage of development, organism is in the
form of a mass of cells. All the cells in that mass are almost alike. Those cells are called as stem cells
 Stem cells are present in: umbilical cord by which the fetus is joined to the uterus, blastocyst stage of
embryonic development, red bone marrow and adipose connective tissue of adult human beings
 Stem Cell Preservation: in liquid nitrogen at -1350C to -1900C
 Depending upon source, stem cells are of two types as embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
 Embryonic stem cells
Zygote  embryo  Cell differentiation starts from 14th day of conception
Embryonic cells before differentiation are called as embryonic stem cells. 220 different types of cells in
human body are formed from single type cells i.e. embryonic stem cells. This property of stem cells is
called as pleuripotency
 Potency specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into different cell types) of the
stem cell.
 Totipotent (a.k.a. omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell
types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable organism. These cells are produced from the fusion of
an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent.
 Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells,
i.e. cells derived from any of the three germ layers.
 Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cell types, but only those of a closely related
family of cells.
 Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cell types, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem
cells.
 Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal, which
distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g. progenitor cells, which cannot self-renew).
 Adult stem cells: Three main sources of stem cells
1. Red bone marrow
2. Adipose connective tissue
3. Blood
 Uses of Stem Cells
1. Regenerative Therapy
2. Cell Therapy: Stem cells are used to replace the dead cells in case of conditions like diabetes,
myocardial infarction, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, etc.
3. To produce blood cells required in conditions like anemia, thalassaemia, leukemia, etc.
4. Organ Transplantation: like kidney and liver
 National Biotechnology Board in 1982
 Department of biotechnology under the ministry of science and technology, in 1986
 Golden Rice: A gene synthesizing the vitamin A (Beta carotene) has been introduced in this variety of
rice. As compared to the normal variety, this variety which has been developed in 2005 contains 23 times
more amount of beta carotene
 Biofertilizers: Mainly the bacteria like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Nostoc, Anabaena and plants like Azolla
are used as biofertilizers
 Edible Vaccines: transgenic potatoes, Consumption of these raw potatoes generates the immunity against
cholera and the disease caused due to E. coli
 Indian Institute of Science has developed a transgenic variety of tobacco. If cattles feed upon leaves of
this plant, they do not contract viral disease- rinderpest
 Interferon: This is a group of small sized protein molecule used in treatment of viral diseases
 Gene therapy: Gene therapy to treat genetic disorders in somatic cells has become possible due to
biotechnology. Ex. Phenylketonuria (PKT) arises due to genetic changes in hepatocytes (liver cells)
 This method is called as somatic cell gene therapy. All the cells except sperms and ova in the body are
called as somatic cells
 Proteins produced by biotechnology and the names of diseases they are used against-
1. Insulin  Diabetes
2. Somatostatin  Dwarfism
3. Erythropoietin  Anemia
4. Factor VIII  Hemophilia
5. Interleukin  Cancer
6. Interferon  Viral infection
 A sheep ‘Dolly’ was born in Scotland by cloning technique on 5th July 1996 (‘Finn Dorset’ and Scottish
sheep)
 Bioremediation means either absorption or destruction of toxic chemicals and harmful pollutants with the
help of plants and microorganisms. If plants are used for this purpose, it called as ‘phyto-remediation’
1. The Pseudomonas bacteria are useful for cleaning the hydrocarbon and oil pollutants from soil and
water.
2. The fern Pteris vitata can absorb the arsenic from the soil.
3. Genetically modified variety of Indian mustard can absorb selenium from soil.
4. Sunflower can absorb uranium and arsenic.
5. The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans is highly radiation resistant organism.
6. Grasses like alfalfa, clover and rye are used in phyto-remediation.
 DNA fingerprinting: identity of any person can be established / Identity of the criminal / identity of father
(Center for DNA fingerprinting and Diagnostics, Hyderabad)
 Cleaning of Oil Spillage in Oceans: India born American citizen and scientist Dr. Anand Mohan
Chakravarti had for the first time suggested the use of such microbes

Industrial microbiology
 For production of most of the milk products, bacteria in milk itself are used; only cheese is produced with
the help of fungi
 Yoghurt is a milk product produced with the help of lactobacilli (inoculant), Streptococcus thermophilus
and Lactobacillus delbrueckii are added to it in 1:1 proportion
 An enzyme, rennet obtained from alimentary canal of cattle was being traditionally used earlier.
However, an enzyme protease obtained from fungi is used at present to produce vegetarian cheese
 Freshly prepared cheese is always soft e.g. cottage cheese, cream cheese, mozzarella cheese. On storing for
3 to 12 months, semi-hard cheddar cheese is formed whereas after ripening for 12 – 18 months, very hard
cheese called parmesan cheese is formed.
 Milk products containing active bacteria e.g. Lactobacillus, Acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei,
Bifidobacterium bifidum, these microbes maintain the balance of intestinal microorganisms i.e. increase
the population of microbes helping the digestion and decrease the population of harmful microbes
 Baker’s yeast – Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Due to fermentation of carbohydrates by yeast, sugar is
converted in to carbon dioxide (CO2) and ethanol
 Vinegar is used in each country of the world to impart sour taste to food materials and for preservation of
pickles, sauce, ketch-up, chutneys, etc. Chemically, vinegar is 4% acetic acid (CH3COOH)
 Ethanol, an alcohol is obtained by fermentation of carbon compounds like fruit juices, maple syrup, sugar
molasses, and starch of the roots; with the help of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 Mixture of bacterial strains like Acetobacter and Glucanobacter is mixed with ethanol for its microbial
degradation. Acetic acid and other by-products are obtained through it. Acetic acid is separated from
mixture by rarefaction. Acetic acid is bleached with the help of potassium ferrocynide. Then, it is
pasteurized. Finally, very small quantity of SO2 gas is mixed to produce vinegar.
 Soya sauce is produced by fermentation of the mixture of flour of wheat or rice and soyabean with the help
of the fungus Aspergillus oryzae.

Fruit Microbe used Role of microbe Name of beverage

 Antibiotics: Obtained from different types of bacteria and fungi. Rifamycin is effective against
tuberculosis
 Ethanol, an alcohol is a clean (smokeless) fuel obtained during fermentation of molasses by the yeast-
Saccharomyces
 Bio-fuel: Biofuel is important among the renewable source of good energy. These fuels are available in
solid (coal, dung, crop residue), liquid (vegetable oils, alcohol), gaseous (gobar gas, coal gas)
 Metals like copper, iron, uranium; zinc, etc. leach into environment from low quality metalloids. These
are converted into compounds before leaching, with the help of thiobacilli and sulphobacilli
 Bacteria like Pseudomonas spp. and Alcanovorax borkumensis - are used to clear the oil spills, these
Are called as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB)
 Species like Vibrio, Ideonella sakaiensis can decompose the PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate Polyester)
 Bacteria like Acidophillium spp. and Acidobacillus ferroxidens can control the soil pollution occurring
due to acid rain (Sulphuric acid)
 Water soluble salts of uranium are present in the wastes produced during electroplating and in effluent
released in environment from the atomic energy plant. Geobacter convert these salts of uranium into
insoluble salts and thereby prevent those salts from mixing with ground water sources
 Bioinsecticides: Bacterial and fungal toxins which can destroy pests and pathogens can be directly
integrated into plants with the help of biotechnology. Spinosad, a byproduct of fermentation is a
biopesticide