THE GAMGRAM

INTRODUCTION

We are pleased to present this set of GamGrams. They are short articles that
are designed to help you in aviation fuel handling operations. We have tried very
hard to write them in clear language. They are not written only for engineering
graduates.

As you read these articles, you will see that they are based on years of
experience; some very pleasing and some very frustrating. Most of them were
written by Howard Gammon, founder of Gammon Technical, but some recent
issues were written by Jim Gammon, the second generation of company
management.

The GamGrams are not copyrighted, so they can be freely duplicated. Our
view has always been that matters of safety should not be restricted as private
property. All we ask is if you duplicate a GamGram, that you acknowledge
Gammon Technical Products, Inc. was your source.

We are very proud of the fact that the GamGrams have been translated into
several languages -- for example, Japanese, Danish, Spanish and Portuguese.

The GamGrams cannot be called a periodical publication, because it is really an

"infrequent" publication. For example, there were 8 published in 1975, but
only 2 in 1989, and just one in 1990. We hope to have 1 per year in the future.

Most of the GamGrams have been revised periodically to update them as new
technology develops and new ideas are introduced. This will be a continuing
program.

Distribution of the GamGram is free of charge to people in aviation fuel handling

activities who request them. Copies of our catalog covering aviation fuel
equipment and testing apparatus are also available at no charge.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 1 PRESSURE DROP JAN. 1975
REVISED SEP. 2010

This was the very first GamGram that we published for the aviation fuel handling industry. Since that
time, almost 36 years ago, the vast majority of filter separators have direct reading differential pressure
gauges, and the then popular (miserable) little 3-way valve that is described in this GamGram has finally
disappeared from 99% of the installations.

We are under some pressure to simply stop printing this first GamGram, but we decided to continue to tell
the ancient story because it teaches a lesson, a lesson that you must really know how every piece of your
equipment works.

One of our good customers in a power generation station phoned us frantically with a report that his
coalescer elements had burst, his separator elements had collapsed, and his final filter on a jet engine
driving a generator had been plugged with dirt. The obvious first question, “How much pressure drop did
you have across the filter separator?” Answer, “Well you know we never have been able to read anything
much on the pressure gauge. Those filter elements of yours just seem to come apart in our fuel.”

This kind of report always makes a filter man get very, very cagy because he knows absolutely that there
has to be a pressure drop across any filter or it isn’t going to do any filtering. The way the Good Lord put
our world together, if a fluid moves through a pipe, the pressure gets lower and lower as you get farther
from the pump. There is a pressure loss across every valve, every meter, every foot of pipe and
especially across a filter. The only difference in the filter is that its pressure loss gets greater and greater
as the elements collect more dirt — because some of the passageways get clogged.

Several years ago, we wrote a paper that presented data from a field survey we made that showed 70% of
all filter separator pressure readings at airports were made incorrectly. Today that figure is probably a bit
lower but we do not think that our current estimate of 50% is very encouraging — it’s just terrible!

When that man told me on the phone that his pressure gauge never seemed to tell him anything, I was
90% sure that he suffered from a miserable little valve that some of the filter separator manufacturers love
to install. This is a 3 port brass plug valve under the pressure gauge with a copper tube running to the
inlet side of the filter and another to the outlet side. All you need to do to read pressure drop is to turn the
valve handle to 2 different positions so that the gauge will read the inlet pressure and then the outlet
pressure. The difference is the pressure drop. Simple? Unfortunately, NO!

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
I asked the customer how he read pressure drop and he confirmed that he had a 3-way valve. (Now I was
95% sure I knew the problem.) I then asked how he turned the valve handle. “You think I’m stupid or
something,” he exploded. “All I did was turn the handle to point to the left side and then to the right side.
Mostly I get the same reading.” Now I was 100% sure. He had never read pressure drop! The actual
pressure drop had become so great that the coalescers could not hold together, so they burst.

Hundreds of you who have read this bulletin to this point already know the answer. Hundreds of you have
the same valve problem and don’t know it. The photograph shows the valve we are discussing and the
diagrams explain what happens. Normally, you would point the handle to the left and get a reading on the
gauge because the plug with its “L” shaped porting directs pressure from the left port to the gauge. If you
now turn the handle to point to the right, the “L” turns upside down and no port is connected to the gauge.
The pressure from the first reading remains trapped in the gauge and no pressure drop is observed.

Right
Port

Left
Pressure Port ARROW SHOWS
Gauge
HANDLE POSITION
Port

Many of you will now conclude that all you have to do is remember to point the handle to the gauge when
you want to read the right hand port. WRONG! You can only do this if you are absolutely sure that
someone hasn’t had the handle off of the valve – you can put it on in any of 4 positions, believe it or not.
Truthfully, do you know how your handles are installed? Oh, you say that all you do is keep turning the
valve until you find the highest and the lowest readings? A lot of people use this primitive method but they
forget to tell the night man. The new man or the relief man – and on top of that, he can’t subtract in his
head!

The only perfect solution to this situation is to use a direct reading differential pressure gauge. No valves
to turn; no shaky pointers and no need for snubbers; no subtraction. See our Bulletin 25.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 2 THE SUMP, PART 1 FEB.1975
REVISED SEP. 2004

When I was a small boy in Los Angeles, the garbage truck used to come by our house about twice a week.
The odor was beyond description but I noticed that the garbage man always looked at what came out of
each pail when he dumped it on the heap. One day I asked what he was looking for. “Sonny”, he said,
“that’s my fun. You sure learn a lot about folks by what comes out in the garbage can.”

As a filter-type guy, I can attest that his philosophy was right. We collect the garbage in filters and in
sumps and we quickly learn more about your fuel and your fuel handling practices than you know
yourself.

What can be learned by looking at a filter sump is such a large subject that we fully expect that many
GAMGRAMS will deal with this one subject. In this issue we will talk only about large particles of dirt in
filter separator sumps. In another issue, we will deal with the phenomenon of dirty water and very fine dirt
in sumps.

How does dirt get into a filter separator sump? Think about that.

As you know, all modern coalescers (the first stage elements) in a filter separator are designed to flow
from the inside to the outside. The sump is supposed to collect the water that comes off of the outside of
the coalescer. And the coalescer is also the filter. Right? So how does dirt get in the sump? You say the
coalescer failed? Wrong - except on rare occasions.

One cold winter night I was called out of a warm bed by a customer who told me that “Those d--- elements
you sold me last month are passing big hunks of scale and dirt. It’s coming out of the sump drain.” He
insisted that the pressure drop had not been high.

I drove 300 miles through a snow storm and met a whole group of officials the next day, each one with an
accusing glint in his eye. They showed me the evidence lying in the bottoms of several white buckets. It
looked terrible! Most of it was pin-head sized, like coffee grounds; some was quite large.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The group decided that new elements would be installed -- my competitor’s elements, even though the
filter membrane color rating was good. The elements arrived on a plane from Tulsa that evening, and we
all gathered around the filter with flashlights to watch the mechanics remove my elements, which I was to
send to the factory for testing.

The fuel was drained down only far enough so the cover could be opened and we all climbed up on the
valves, pipes and on ladders to see what we could see. The fuel was crystal clear and the elements
appeared to be absolutely perfect. The sump was covered with dirt.

To my horror, they then began to unscrew the elements without first draining all of the fuel. “That’s the
answer! You can’t do that”, I pleaded. At that point, out came the first element and I triumphantly told
them to look at the fuel with my flashlight shining into it. The entire vessel had turned into a mess with dirt
particles of all types clearly visible and floating about in the beam of the flashlight.

It took only a few seconds for the group to realize that dirt particles that had been caught inside the
coalescer had washed out through the element center tube as it was lifted up through the fuel from the
vessel.

This episode took place many years ago and I have told the story so many times that I can hardly believe
that the whole world doesn’t know it. But a month never seems to go by without our finding someone
removing elements without draining the tank first.

When a filter separator is drained through the sump valve, the fuel that is inside the coalescer must go
through the coalescer. There is no sudden rush of flow down through the element. These two factors
work together to keep the garbage in the element -- where nobody will see it. Doesn’t that make sense?

RANDOM THOUGHTS:

▪ Most horizontal filter separators are free of this type of problem. You must drain them first!

▪ If you find large dirt particles in a sump, it is almost certain that either a coalescer has burst, was
incorrectly installed or that the sump was not cleaned properly after the last element change.

▪ MODERN COALESCERS WILL NOT PASS A DISCRETE DIRT PARTICLE IN THE FUEL THAT
IS LARGE ENOUGH FOR THE HUMAN EYE TO IDENTIFY. This is why you run filter membrane
tests. The membrane is rated at 0.8 micrometers and will easily stop the dirt particles that you are
unable to see. However, when the membrane is covered with these fine particles, you are able to
observe a darkening of the membrane. The darker it becomes, the greater the contamination.
ASTM Method D2276 explains how to use the color method for rating membranes. We strongly
support this technique.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 3 THE SUMP, PART 2 MAR. 1975
REVISED OCT. 2019

In GamGram No. 2, we explained how large dirt particles get into a filter separator sump without going
through the coalescer. In this issue, we talk about very small particles that go through the coalescer.

How many times have you opened a filter separator and found a fine film of dirt all over the sump? In
a horizontal vessel, the film may extend halfway up on the sides. In most cases, it comes off easily
with a rag. The particles are far too small to see individual ones - they are really super-fine! Your filter
membrane tests have been consistently acceptable and there have been no unusual situations, except
an occasional bit of water -- but the outlet fuel has been dry. Yet there is enough dirt on the walls of the
filter tank to make thousands of bad membranes -- and that dirt is downstream of the coalescer -- and
the coalescers are the filters. How can this happen?

The answer is dirty water. Dirt came through the coalescer in the water. The water drops settled and
clung to surfaces of the vessel shell or the sump walls. Then these extremely fine particles of dirt
settled inside of each water drop until they contacted and attached themselves to the epoxy lining in the
filter tank. The water was either drained away or it may have dissolved back into the fuel. You say the
coalescer was at fault because the dirt came through. Wrong -- the coalescer did its job just fine. What
really counts is whether or not the fuel was clean.

To appreciate what a fantastic device a coalescer element really is, you should visit a filter separator
testing laboratory someday and watch a qualification test. They use a “test dirt” known as red iron oxide
and the particles are scientifically graded as shown in the chart. Note that 47% is under ¼ micro-meters
or less than 0.00001 inches. (that is 1 one-hundred thousandth or 10 millionths of an inch!) Incredible!

MICROMETER RED IRON OXIDE

SIZE % BY WEIGHT
0 - 0.25 47.8
0.25-0.5 29.9
0.5 - 1.0 16.4
1-2 3.0
2-10 2.9
0-10 100
0-5 98.8

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS, INC. PHONE 732-223-4600

FAX 732-223-5778
GAMMON P.O.BOX 400 - 2300 HWY 34 WEBSITE www.gammontech.com
MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736 STORE www.gammontechstore.com
A coalescer does not actually strain these small particles out of the fuel. Instead, small clusters of
particles gather together; the clump is then retained in the coalescer. A test proceeds with a gradual
increase in pressure drop because the dirt is beginning to plug up the passages. Now, suddenly, water
is injected. The coalescers go to work but the sump water turns red! The fuel remains clean and dry!

What actually is happening is that when the water comes in contact with the dirt that is already in the
coalescer, it wets it and causes the clumps to break down into particles again. Instead of being in an
environment of fuel and fibers, the dirt enters the water because the dirt “likes” to be water-wetted
instead of fuel-wetted. The result – submicronic dirt goes through the coalescer in the water. The fuel?
It remains clean!!

What should you do if you find a dirt film in a filter vessel sump? First of all, if your membrane tests have
been good, don’t be alarmed because it is not a hazard. However, you definitely should go back through
your system to find out why you are getting water. Always clean a filter separator thoroughly when the
elements are changed. Remove all of the dirt film. Sometimes it just won’t come off with water or fuel
and this author believes that this indicates a microorganism situation. Why? Because water drops that
remain intact for any length of time can begin to grow a colony of microorganisms. The debris from this
growth is much harder to clean off than ordinary dirt.

The most important thing to do when cleaning a filter separator is to be absolutely certain that the
cleaning compounds are completely removed. This is why we do not recommend using chlorine-based
bleach. Such chemicals can be very corrosive when in contact with some metals such as aluminum.
They also can attack some elastomers and may cause early failure of valve seals. Remember also that
the man in a filter vessel will be breathing hazardous vapors from bleach because there is almost no
air circulation

Industrial cleaners, such as trisodium phosphate, are very effective but you must scrub the surface with
water after cleaning to be sure none is left in the filter. Observe proper handling of TSP per the MSDS
from your supplier. Never use steam cleaners because they almost always are contaminated with soap,
a powerful surfactant that must never be used in a filter separator.

Never use a power washer if it has ever been used with any soap or detergent.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 4 ANATOMY OF A JET FUEL PIPE APR. 1975
REVISED FEB. 2004

Do you know what "half fast" engineering is? In handling jet fuel, this kind of engineering takes form when
someone begins to think it is just like any other fuel -- heavier than gasoline, lighter than fuel oil. He whips
out a few calculations, looks at some pressure drop data in Cameron's Hydraulic Data book, selects a
pump that barely "squeaks" by and then compensates by going up 2 pipe sizes to make sure the pump will
work. He justifies the larger pipe "for future plant expansion". Oh Wow! What an engineer he is!

Here is a real-life story. An oil company terminal supplies fuel to a major airport using transport trailers.
The loading rack at the terminal can handle 2 transports at a time, one loading arm on each side of an
island. A 1200 gpm filter separator is located 100 ft. from the rack. About 70 ft. of the pipe is 8" and is
underground -- the last 30 ft. length is 12" and is aboveground, running the length of the rack island. The
fuel is received into the terminal storage tanks from a common-carrier pipeline and is then prefiltered
through clay before it enters a receiving filter separator. Over a period of time, the filter membranes were
B 2 (by ASTM Test Method D-2276) out of the filter separator near the loading rack.

The customer at the airport receives the fuel through a filter separator. The "white bucket" test is
performed on every trailer load before it is off-loaded.

Recently, the number of particles in the bucket increased to such an extent that the customer began
refusing loads of fuel. The membrane tests remained entirely acceptable from a color standpoint. In
checking back through the system, the particles were found to exist at the loading rack but not at the
discharge end of the filter separator. The particles were mostly iron oxide -- the size of coffee grounds.

The 12" pipe was opened under the rack. The upper 3/4 of the pipe surface was covered with rust
particles, coffee ground size. The bottom 1/3 of the pipe was deep in wet slime, rust and dirt. We used
shovels to dig it out!

Calculations show that the velocity in the 12" pipe at the 1200 gpm rated flow was only 3.4 feet per
second. However, investigation revealed that the technical department had ordered a reduction of
maximum flow rate to 550 gpm to insure adequate static charge relaxation time. This incredibly low flow
resulted in a velocity of a "trickling" 1.6 feet per second. This was the cause of the dirt -- a flow rate so low
that the pipe was not being swept clean. Water condensed out of the fuel in the underground portion
whenever the tank temperature was greater than ground temperature. It condensed out of the above-
ground section every night that the temperature dropped. The water could not get out of the pipe. It
couldn't be drained out -- it simply collected and caused rust and slime growth.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
A prime lesson to be learned by this experience is that you should make fuel do its own housekeeping.
Design and maintain flow velocities that will keep pipes swept clean and dry. We recommend at least 6
feet per second.

A good "rule of thumb" to remember is that jet fuel holds about as many parts per million of water as the
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. In other words, at 80o F there can be about 80 ppm of water
dissolved in the fuel. If the temperature drops to 60o F in an underground pipe, there can be 20 ppm of free
water to deal with.

We all know that water collects in tanks because of "condensation"-- water dropping out of solution. Why
is it that so many of us seem to forget that the same thing happens in piping? Only more so! The
temperature of fuel in pipes changes more (and far more rapidly) than in tanks because of low mass and
large exposed surface area.

In a recently finished airport fuel system, we just learned that a mile long, underground 24 inch pipe will
handle a maximum flow rate of 2400 gpm during the next 3 years until a hydrant system is built. That
means a velocity of 1.7 feet per second! It is not a pipe – it is a mile long condenser! And there are no
water draw-off sumps. This is the type of design that keeps the filter separator manufacturers in business.
This one is going to be a "king sized engineered problem".

QUICK CALCULATIONS

You can appear to be a mathematical whiz by calculating approximate pipe velocities in about 20
seconds. Here is the trick:

Step 1. Multiply the pipe size by itself

Step 2. Then divide that number into gallons per minute
Step 3. Then multiply by 0.4

Example: Pipe size is 6 inches

Flow rate is 360 gpm

Step 1. 6 times 6 equals 36

Step 2. 360 divided by 36 is 10
Step 3. 10 X 0.4 equals 4 feet per second

NOTE: If your mind works in barrels per hour (bbl/hr), instead of gpm, use bbl/hr in Step 2 and multiply by
0.3 in Step 3.

For anyone who wants the whole formula, use the pipe's actual inside diameter in this equation:
2 2
V= 0.4085 X GPM/d or 0.286 X bbl/hr/d
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 5 THE SUMP, PART 3 MAY 1975
REVISED MAR.1996

If I had a dollar for every time that a customer has told me, "There is no water in my filter separator sump," I
would be very wealthy. I would be almost as wealthy if I had a dollar for every time I found water in a sump
that had just been given its "daily drain".

Why is it that one man can find no water but another man can? Obviously, it's all in the way you do it.

The difficulty is that the area where the sump drain is located is usually flat. Water collects on the flat
surface but it tends to lie in a "heap" until something happens to break the interface. Watch how water acts
in a nearly flat-bottomed wash basin. Water lies on the surface for long periods of time when the water
valve is turned off. If you touch it with your finger, at the edge of the drain hole, it suddenly begins to flow
into the drain. (We strongly recommend doing this experiment in private, away from those who may not
understand scientific studies).

Most filter sump draining seems to be done by cracking open the drain valve and collecting a pint or two.
This does not disturb the layer of water enough to break its surface tension and so the water stays on the
flat deck.

If you really want to do a proper job, you must get some velocity down the drain hole and the best way to
do this is to turn on the pump to get pressure. Then open the drain valve as far as possible (without giving
yourself a kerosene bath) and collect a couple of gallons in a white bucket.

I'll never forget how I learned this trick. One of the real old-timers in jet fuel met me at an airport where a
severe surfactant problem had been found. I sumped the filter separator in the conventional way and got
a nice clear bucket of fuel. After a few very critical remarks, he used the method described above and
collected a sickening bunch of slime, water and crud with the fuel. (I wonder if T.C. remembers this
episode?)

A doctor can see inside the human body only by looking in your eyes. He uses a bright light and a special
glass. Doctors learn many things about your general health this way. The best method we have to learn
about the "health" of fuels is to study the water sump.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
This is why we should try to interpret what we see. So much can be learned but only rarely does anyone
really look.

A. Water -- if it is clear, you are lucky. If it seems to have a

brown film on it, this is probably a surfactant layer. If you
touch it with a straw, you can often see clear water under it.

Dark water -- this is bad news! It generally means a severe

surfactant problem but it can also indicate a problem at the
refinery or it may be water from dirty fuels (heating oils and
crude oil) that were previously handled in the same ship,
barge or pipeline. Dark water can also indicate
microorganism growth. There is no more certain indicator
of trouble than dark water. Does it have a sulfur-like odor?
More Bad News!

B. A white filmy thing seems to float around in the fuel, but you
can't collect it or gather it. This is a form of surfactant. Air
bubbles that meet it as they rise toward the surface have
difficulty penetrating this film but in a few minutes they
break through. I have never known of anyone who has
successfully analyzed this film because it simply cannot be
collected.

C. Globs, slimes, jellies--microorganism growth. Remember,

microorganisms cannot live in fuel. They live in water. If you
eliminate water, you can have no growths.

D. Large dirt particles – either a coalescer element burst, was

incorrectly installed or you didn't clean the sump properly
when the elements were last changed.

What action should be taken when unsatisfactory sump conditions are found? The first step is to insure
that contamination does not progress farther in the supply system because every time that a surfactant
contaminated fuel passes through a filter separator, its life is shortened and its performance may be
degraded. The second step is to trace the source of the contamination and insure that corrective steps
are taken. The third step is to clean all of the contaminated equipment and change filters as deemed
necessary.

In conclusion, look diligently for water in fuel systems. If you find it, inspect it carefully and report all
details.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 6 ANATOMY OF A SAMPLING CONNECTION JUL. 1975
REVISED FEB. 1996

It happened AGAIN!!! Why is it that people don't read our installation instructions before they install our
sampling kits? The purpose of a sampling probe and some expensive stainless steel parts with a quick
disconnect is to insure that a filter membrane test will be run on fuel as it flows through the pipe. The oil
companies, airlines, the military and fueling contractors know from experience that you cannot run a
meaningful test on fuel that is stagnated in a branch connection. Why is it that someone hires a contractor
with no aviation fuel experience who installs a sampling probe so it will test the fuel in a DIRT TRAP?

I once visited an airport fuel farm where I found the exact situation described above. An airline had
specified our Kit No. 1 (See Figure 1). All of the parts were assembled correctly but the probe was at least
6" away from the flow stream because it had been located in an unused branch of an 8" pipe tee. Over
$600.00 had been spent on at least one occasion to replace the elements in the filter separator because
the dirt particles on the filter membrane led the operating personnel to believe that something was wrong.
And please don't argue that they must not have flushed properly before running the test! In such a
situation, you might have to flush hundreds of gallons before the fuel in a branch connection becomes
representative of the main flow stream.

The real purpose of our sampling probe is to make sure that the filter membrane test is run on the kind of
fuel that is going through the pipe. The probe (See Figure 2) should penetrate through any reducing
bushings as well as the coupling that is welded to the pipe.

In the pictured arrangement of Figure 1, the fuel that reaches the membrane never is in contact with
carbon steel from the moment it leaves the flow stream. The entire flow path to the membrane is smooth
stainless steel and the diameter is small so that a good velocity can be attained during flushing to carry
away any residue or trapped particles.

Do you recall the discussion about velocity in GamGram No. 4, "Anatomy of a Jet Fuel Pipe"? Isn't it
even more important to be able to flush a sampling connection? This is why we have been advocating for
35 years that a flushing hose be used before running the filter membrane test. Every MiniMonitor Kit that
has ever been shipped has been equipped with one so that the flushing velocity will be more than 10 feet
per second instead of about 0.9 feet per second that the little MiniMonitor flushing valve (or the one made
by Millipore Corp.) permits at 50 psi. See Model GTP-1110 in Bulletin No. 3.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 DO THIS

Inspect your sampling connections and answer these questions:

1. Is the fitting located so you can sample the main flow stream?

2. Is the fitting on the pipe small enough so that you can really flush it clean?
If not, a probe will solve the problem.

3. Is there a collection of carbon steel reducing bushings, elbows or

couplings before the fuel can reach that beautiful stainless steel quick
disconnect? If so, would you use a rusty old quick disconnect also?
Certainly not! Use one of our Sampling Kits.

4. THINK - Do you ever run filter membrane tests on the upstream side of
your filter separator so that you can compare results from the downstream
test? Wouldn't this be the logical way to satisfy yourself that the elements
are actually capable of removing contaminants?

This puts us into one of our favorite philosophies. Can you feel safe just because you found no dirt or
water downstream of a filter separator? You should not feel safe! You could have clean, dry fuel going
into it! What assurance do you have that the filter is actually in good condition? I, for one, feel much
happier when a little dirt and water is known to be in the inlet if the downstream tests show that the filter
removed the contamination. When I finish a test, I like to be able to pat a filter on its dome and say, "You're
doing your job, old friend.”

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 7 SPARKS FROM JET FUEL SEP. 1975
REVISED OCT. 2008

If you are already saying to yourself, “I’m not going to read this because I always ground everything,”
YOU, FRIEND, are the person we want to reach before you kill someone. Read the title again. Sparks
FROM jet fuel. We are not talking about static charges on pipes, trucks, or any object. We are talking
about electrostatic charges IN fuel.

Volumes and heaps of deep technical papers have been written on this subject but this article is a
pioneering effort toward the non-technical. Have you ever noticed that the greater the number of
scientific words that are written on a subject, the less the problem is really understood? That is the
situation with static charges in jet fuel.
We like to describe how electrostatic charges build up in fuel by explaining that it is caused by rubbing
molecules together. In other words, it is caused by friction -- friction between molecules. The more
vigorous the rubbing, the greater the charge becomes. The scientists call this “charge separations”. In
other words, when the “pluses” separate from the “minuses” you have charge separation. This is when
charge separation occurs. Also, the charge becomes bigger and bigger as more of the molecules in a
given volume are agitated. If the charges move to the wall of the pipe or tank, they are immediately
grounded and can cause no hazard; the whole problem is that the charges cannot easily move through
some fuels to a “ground”: these are called “low conductivity” fuels. POSSIBLY YOURS!
There is one item of equipment that is clearly the champion of all static charge generators -- a filter. The
agitation created by splash loading or by pumps, piping, valves, and meters causes a charge to develop,
but the filter is the place where the most “molecule separation” occurs -- and the finer the filter, the greater
the charge - and the higher the rate of flow through the filter, the greater the charge. If a filter salesman
tries to tell you that his filters do not cause any static, throw him out. However, recent studies have
demonstrated that Teflon coated separator elements generate lower charge levels than paper
separators. It seems logical that there is less friction and charge separation caused by a 74 micrometer
screen separator than by a tortuous flow path in a 5 micrometer paper.
Now we should return to the reader in the first paragraph who threatened not to read this issue because
he “grounds everything.” Obviously, if his fuel always has a high conductivity, the charges will move to
grounded metal components. But if he has a fuel with a low conductivity, the charges take a period of time
to move to ground. If this “charged” fuel is dispensed into a tank, a spark may jump from the surface of the
fuel to a grounded object but tests have proven that the most dangerous situation occurs when there is an
unbonded object in the vapor space -- it acts like a capacitor - it stores up charges - then ZAP. Need we
explain what happens if the right amount of fuel vapor is in the path of the spark?

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 WHAT TO DO
A “rule of thumb” that most technical people seem to accept is to keep the fuel in piping or a pressure
vessel for 30 seconds after filtering before dispensing it into an open tank. This period is called “system
relaxation time.” The theory is that even if the fuel has low conductivity the positive and negative charges
will have cancelled one another out or have migrated to a grounded surface in that time. Some
companies advocate the use of “anti-static” additives to avoid the need for relaxation time. However, the
word “anti-static” is a very bad term. It should be called a conductivity improver.
So now if you do not use the additive, all you have to do is take a look at your filter installation to see if you
have 30 seconds relaxation time! We wish we had a little gauge to sell to measure this for you but lacking
one, we have worked out a sneaky, non-scientific method using simple arithmetic.

EXAMPLE No. 1: EXAMPLE No. 2:

Maximum flow rate expected: 540 gpm Maximum flow rate expected: 2000 l/m
Piping system: 21 ft. of 8" pipe Piping system: 6 meters of 8" pipe
140 ft. of 6" pipe 42 meters of 6" pipe
26 ft. of 4" pipe 8 meters of 4" pipe

SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
Step 1. Multiply each pipe diameter by itself and then by Step 1. Multiply each pipe diameter by itself and then by
pipe length: pipe length:
8 x 8 x 21 = 1344 8 x 8 x 6 = 384
6 x 6 x 140 = 5040 6 x 6 x 42 = 1512
4 x 4 x 26 = 416 4 x 4 x 8 = 128
Total = 6800 Total = 2024

Step 2. Divide the total by our magic number “25" if using Step 2. Divide the total by our magic number “2" because
U.S. gallons (or 29 if using imperial gallons): you are using liters:
6800 ÷ 25 = 272 gallons 2024 ÷ 2 = 1012 liters

Step 3. To have 30 seconds relaxation in the system at Step 3. To have 30 seconds relaxation in the system at
540 gpm, take half of the flow rate: 2,000 liters per minute, take half of the flow rate:
540 ÷ 2 = 270 gallons volume required between 2000 ÷ 2 = 1000 liters. You have 12 more liters
the filter and the discharge point. Compare this than you need for 30 seconds relaxation.
to the answer in Step 2. You are safe because
you have two gallons more than is needed.

NOTE: If you like real formulas, use this one:

C = 0.0408 x (L1D12 + L2D22 + L3D33 + etc.)

Where C is capacity in gallons,(as in step 2) L is pipe section length, and D is pipe section
diameter. The constant is 0.034 if using Imperial gallons. It is 0.5067 for liter calculations.

FINALE: If you found from your calculations that you did not have enough system relaxation
time, we cheerfully offer two alternatives:
1. Reduce flow rate
2. Have the system redesigned

DO NOT SAY “My system must be safe because we have never had an explosion.”
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 8 EI/API 1581 FILTER SEPARATOR SPECIFICATIONS NOV. 1975
Meeting the specification is not simple! REVISED MAR. 2013

We would like to thank Velcon Filters for their help with this GamGram.

The EI-1581 specification is currently in its 5th edition. This used to be an API document, but is now under
the EI, the London-based Energy Institute. It is recognized around the world as the #1 document for the
design, testing and performance of Filter Separator vessels and the filter coalescer
elements/cartridges/separators that go into them.

There are two important elements of this specification for you to comply with:

1. Your filter separators have the correct elements for the vessel type, fuel and configuration at the
flow rate at which you operate them.

2. You have the correct accessories in proper working condition on your filter separators.

In this GamGram, we will address the first element, determining that you have the correct elements in the
correct vessel for the conditions and flow rate of your facility.

Our descriptions below are not to be considered the rule. For example, in a hydrant system where water
is, or can be, present on occasion in significant quantities, Type S-LW filter separators are not the correct
choice. Throughput and flow rate are other factors. A small corporate fueling cabinet will see less
throughput than an airline fueling facility.

CATEGORIES

There are different “Categories” in this specification. Determining which one you fit into is your first task.

Category C - For commercial Jet Fuel (Jet A or Jet A-1) with or without certain additives such as
conductivity improver (SDA) and CI/LI (DCI4A, corrosion inhibitor/lubricity improver).

Category M - For Military Jet Fuel (JP-4, JP-5, JP-8, JP-5/8 ST, NATO F-34, NATO F35) that contains the
basic military additives, including Anti-Icing Additive (FSII, DiEGME or “Prist”), SDA and
Corrosion Inhibitor, but NOT “+100” thermal stability improver additive.

Category M100 - For Military Jet Fuel that contains “+100” type of additive, meant to improve the thermal
stability of the fuel in the aircraft. This fuel may also contain the additives in category “M”, above.
NOTE: Element and vessel sets meeting category M100 are not better or equal to category “M”.
Be sure that if your filter vessel and elements are correct for the specific application, fuel and
additives for your system.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 TYPES

Your second task is to determine which type in the specification is correct for you.

Type S locations such as fuel terminals or airport fuel depots. In such locations, significant amounts of
dirt and water may be present. This is similar to the old “Class A” and “B” specification; this test is
run at 3% water. NOTE: Type S qualified systems are automatically qualified for type S-LD and S-
LW so operating a vessel qualified to type S covers for all eventualities. But a type S vessel will
often be larger and more expensive than a S-LW vessel.

Type S-LW locations are on refueler trucks or hydrant carts, where minimal amounts of water are
expected. This is similar to the old “Class C” specification; this test is run at ½% water, not the
standard 3%.

IMPORTANT: If you are fitting elements into existing vessels, it is NOT as simple as getting the correct
elements. There is an important change in the specification that may make your present filter separator
vessel non-compliant. If your filter separator is a vertical vessel and it has a flat deck plate (inside the
vessel looking down, a plate that is perfectly horizontal and is welded all the way around the inside of the
vessel to the vessel shell, with or without a “sump”) that deck plate must be sloped towards the drain to
remove all water. You cannot meet the specification using this vessel or get around this specification
improvement by tilting your vessel.

CONCLUSIONS

Choosing the correct vessel and then putting the correct elements in it is more complicated than ever
before. Simply fitting 5th qualified cartridges does not mean that you are operating the vessel to 5th
edition requirements. You need to have your company’s help in doing this right. Follow the chain of
responsibility. Additionally your trusted aviation fuel filter manufacturer, or the official distributor, would be
a good source of advice.

When ordering new elements for an existing vessel, provide your filter supplier with the following
information: (You can also request a form from your supplier which makes this easier, and records
everything in one place, right down to the gasket number).

1. Vessel Model Number and brand.

2. The maximum actual flow rate the vessel sees in service as well as the flow rate on the name plate.
3. The part number and quantity of elements you presently have in the vessel.
4. EI Category and Type -- If unsure, describe your system, the position of the filter in the system and
dirt/water experience.
5. Customer types to whom you provide fuel (general aviation, airline or military)
6. Fuel type - in addition to selecting Category and Type above.

Be sure that you get a Similarity Data Sheet showing the qualification of those elements in that vessel to
the Category and Type you requested. Not only is a similarity data sheet required for every single vessel
but a non-ferrous engraved nameplate detailing the vessel model, installed element models and qualified
flow rate must be affixed to the vessel. Changing from one brand to another means changing the
nameplate in order to be compliant. Self-adhesive labels do not meet the requirements of the
specification.

When buying a new vessel, provide the following information:

1. The maximum actual flow rate the vessel will see in service.
2. Maximum operating pressure of the system.
3. EI Category and Type - If unsure, describe your system and dirt/water location i.e. fuel depot
receipt or loading or a truck mounted into-plane application.
4. Vertical or horizontal design preference (Both have advantages and disadvantages).
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 9 FILTER VESSEL ACCESSORIES APR. 2013

Several of the topics discussed here are in other GamGrams. The title of this one is also in GamGram 38.
This GamGram is meant to bring all the information together in one place.

Several years ago, there was a bid opening for a new fuel system at a medium sized airport. The
engineer was not experienced on Jet Fuel systems and the filtration was not specified in detail.

When the fuel farm was completed, the oil company inspected it. The inspector pointed out that there
was no automatic air eliminator, no pressure relief valve, no differential pressure gauge, no sampling
connections, no water control and no drain valve.

The contractor’s excuse was that the specification said the vessel had to meet API-1581 and the vessel
literature said the vessel met 1581. He considered any accessory as “optional”. The oil company did not
agree.

Accessories are an important aspect of any filter vessel. So what do you need?

Pressure Relief Valve

Every vessel needs a pressure relief valve. This is really just meant to protect the vessel from Thermal
Expansion. Thermal expansion takes place when the heat from the sun warms a vessel that isn’t under
flow. The heat causes the fuel to expand, and this can increase the pressure well above a safe level,
resulting in leaks or even vessel failure. A pressure relief outlet should be plumbed back to storage, see
GramGram 37.

Air Eliminator
An automatic air eliminator is needed in almost all cases. The air eliminator releases small amounts of
air, foam or vapor from the vessel. Air in the vessel can easily cause a static fire inside the vessel,
possibly even causing an explosion. See GamGrams 7, 15 as well as 37 and the end of GamGram 39.
However, some (rare) vessels are designed to not trap air. All air eliminators should be equipped with an
outlet check valve with reliable seals, preferable a S/S valve with soft seals. Its outlet should also be run
back to storage.

Differential Pressure Gauge

A differential pressure gauge tells you the difference (differential) between the filter inlet pressure and
outlet pressure. The filter may have an inlet pressure of 30 psi and an outlet pressure of 28 psi. The
difference is 2 psid (d for “differential”).

With clean elements, the difference may be very low, typically 1 to 5 psid, but as the elements become
clogged, this differential pressure increases. If the difference becomes too great, element failure can
take place. This can result in contamination getting into the aircraft and a disaster.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The best differential gauge overall is a piston-type direct reading differential pressure gauge. The great
advantage of a piston type gauge is that it requires little maintenance and is easily calibrated in place, per
EI, JIG and ATA/A4A procedure. Of course, our Gammon Gauge is the leader in this field.

test valve is a necessity on every piston gauge, but optional when you buy it, because any good 3-way
ball can be used as a test valve. We recommend our pushbutton test valve as it is inexpensive,
automatically returns to the normal position and includes a 300 psi relief to protect the gauge from thermal
expansion.

Note that at low flow rates, the differential is less. At very low flow rates, there may be no measurable
differential pressure. For this reason, we recommend against greatly oversized vessels, unless you
install a reduced number of elements and “blank-off” some element mounts. For more information, see
GamGrams 1, 44 and 56.

Accessories include “peak-hold” for recording the highest readings, and a switch to automatically sound
an alert or shut down a system (required on “monitor” filters used in hydrant systems). New digital output
accessories are under field test as this GamGram is being written.

Sampling Connections
The type and size of connection varies around the world, but we strongly recommend a sampling
connection on the inlet and outlet of every vessel. It is the only way that you can obtain samples of the fuel
to determine if the filters are removing a contaminant in your system. Of course if you have two vessels in
series, you only need a total of three sample connections, inlet, outlet, and one in the middle. See
GamGram 6.

Manual Drain
An obvious necessity, used to obtain quality control samples as well as to drain a vessel when changing
the elements. We recommend that this be kept away from walkways to prevent the valve from being
accidentally kicked open. As a secondary safety device, a camlock cap serves as a good alternative to a
pipe plug, as it seals well and you don’t need a wrench to open it.

Manual Air Vent

While not absolutely required, a manual ball valve, located on top of the vessel, is helpful. To drain a
vessel to change elements, air has to get in somewhere to replace the fuel that you drained out. Not to be
used under pressure, this valve simply allows draining the vessel for service.

Water Control
All filter separators should have some form of water control. This is because a filter separator is
supposed to remove water and collect it. Obviously, it can only hold a small amount of water and if this is
exceeded the water goes downstream. A method of stopping the flow before that capacity is reached is
necessary, or the filter separator provides very little real protection.

There are float type, electronic type and water absorbing (third stage filters) methods for this. Float and
electronic type should be purchased with built-in testers. See GamGrams 42, 47 and 48.

Sump Heater
On a filter separator, if the temperature can go below freezing, you should have a drain line heater or a
sump and drain heater combination. Larger vessels often have two heaters, for the sump and the drain.
Be SURE to turn off heaters before you drain vessels for service, to prevent fires. See GamGram 30.

Sight Glass
Some people strongly believe in sight glasses on filter separator sumps. We don’t agree. These glass
tubes are vulnerable to clouding, freezing and physical damage.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 10 FILTER SEPARATOR CONTROLS, PART 1: APR. 1976
REVISED NOV. 1996
“AUTOMATIC CONFUSION”

There are probably no more than 5 GamGram readers in the entire world who already know how to
troubleshoot each of the various brands of separator controls. How many times have you stood beside a
filter and wondered how to find which pilot valve is not operating correctly? With at least 5 different
brands of valves on the market, you need to carry a library with you!

This writer has stumbled his way through many a troubleshooting expedition and was embarrassed one
too many times by lack of needed information. To solve this problem, data on all known valves were
collected and tabulated. The exceptional cooperation of each manufacturer is acknowledged. We have
not included in this study the single circuit controls that are used on mobile equipment.

The diagram in Figure 1 shows the control system. The primary control is the float operated pilot valve.
The float is weighted so that it floats on water but not on fuel; it rides on the interface between water and
fuel. Table 1 shows that the drain valve opens as water collects but if water gathers faster than it can drain
out, the discharge valve closes until the water level is again safe.

TABLE 1
Float Water Drain Discharge
Position Valve Valve
Up Open Closed
Intermediate Open Open
Down Closed Open

Each manufacturer uses 4 different ports on their float operated pilot valves. These ports are marked
differently by each manufacturer and one (Smith) has no marks at all. In Table 2 we have used identifying
letters and numerals that refer to clock positions, e.g. the water drain connection port is at the 2 o'clock
position.

NOTE: In the 1996 revision, this figure has been revised for clarification.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
TABLE 2
Port Watts**
Identification Cla Val Before 5/86 After 5/86 Brooks Oil Capital Smith*
Supply S A P D P D-9
Water Drain Valve W C² DV A W A-2
Discharge Valve F C¹ SV C A B-5
Vent D B E B E C-6

To troubleshoot a system you must know which ports should be vented and which should be pressurized
under various conditions. Table 3 shows this for each brand. F-S, W-D means for Cla Val that port F is
internally connected to port S while port W is internally connected to port D. In other words, if you blow air
in port F, it will come out of port S. Air into port D comes out of port W.

TABLE 3
Float Watts* Cla Val
Position Cla Val Before 5/86 After 5/86 Brooks Oil Capital Smith CFF12-H3
Up F-S, W-D C1-B, C2-A SV-E, DV-P C-D, A-B A-E, W-S 5-6, 2-9 F-D, W-S
Intermediate F-D, W-D C1-A, C2-A SV-P, DV-P C-B, A-B A-S, W-S 5-9, 2-9 F-S, W-S
Down F-D, W-S C1-A, C2-B SV-P, DV-E C-B, A-D A-S, W-E 5-9, 2-6 F-S, W-D

All of the standard side and bottom mounted float pilot valves operate according to the table with one
exception. The Cla Val 1626AF bottom mounted combination float pilot and automatic drain has no
visible supply, water drain valve or vent ports so it must be bench checked with air to troubleshoot.

Suppose you have a Smith system and are experiencing a consistent fuel leak through the water
drain line when you know the float is down. Disconnect the vent tube to see if it is the source. If so,
you know the float valve has a bad seal, allowing fuel to leak into the vent port. If the vent does not
leak, you can conclude that the water drain valve seal has failed or is held open by dirt particles.

If the same problem occurred with a Cla Val system, a leak at the vent could be in the float pilot but
because F and D are connected, you must disconnect tube F to see if the fuel is coming from the ON-
OFF control pilot on the discharge valve. If not, you can conclude that the drain valve seal has failed
or is dirty.

Table 3 is especially useful when you are trying to analyze faulty operation. For example, the
discharge valve fails to open in a Smith system. Table 3 shows that 5 and 9 are connected so if you
loosen a fitting on the tube that runs from the float operated pilot valve to the discharge valve you
should have fuel pressure coming from the float operated pilot valve. If you find that the line is
pressurized, you can conclude that the trouble is at the discharge valve, not at the float operated pilot.

We want to make a final point about automatic drain valves. In our opinion, they are not totally
reliable. We mean that there can be a massive spill if one sticks in the open position because a
foreign object becomes caught in the valve seat. We recommend that they not be used. To
deactivate an automatic drain valve, plug the water drain port on the float pilot of all brands.
However, in the case of Cla Val, the automatic water drain valve must also be removed completely.

* Formerly known as Harwood, Moorco, and Geosource

** Formerly known as Baker and Muesco
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 11 FILTER SEPARATOR CONTROLS, PART 2: AUG. 1976
REVISED NOV. 1996
TESTING

Did you know that to this very day there are oil companies and airlines who never test the control valves
on filter separators? If you never test the float pilot valve, how can you know that it will operate if a big slug
of water comes along? Are you saying that you never have water anyhow? At this point I make a rude
remark and remind you that you have that equipment to save your skin in the event that something
unexpected happens.

One of the humorous experiences I have had, in travelling from airport to airport these many years, was
with a customer who was vigorously resisting spending money to change long overdue elements in his
filter separator, "because we never have water in our fuel". We were standing beside the filter and right
after he finished talking, a stream of foul dark water started to gather around his shoes. The automatic
water drain valve had opened.

And then there are the operators who put plugs in the outlet ports of their automatic water drain valves.
Many of you have manual valves that are kept closed upstream or downstream of the automatic water
valve. If you do this to stop leaks, you must realize that you have completely eliminated this factor of
safety. In fact, if the vent tube is connected to a plugged drain valve, you will prevent the slug valve from
operating correctly. Why not repair the leak? Every manufacturer can supply spare parts with diagrams
showing how to replace seals. Or if you do not want to do your own repairs, there are many qualified
shops (including ours) that do this work.

NOTE: In the 1996 revision, this figure has been revised for clarification.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
One of the great controversies in the aviation fuel world is whether or not to have an automatic drain valve.
Some people have decided to have a float operated pilot valve and a discharge valve only. In other
words, they want flow to stop if water collects. The operator then must manually drain out the water
before fuel flow can begin again. If you ever wish to deactivate an automatic water drain valve and retain
normal operation of the discharge (slug) valve, we offer these words of caution. The vent ports of all
brands of float operated pilot valves must be left open. You must plug ClaVal port W, Brooks Brodie port
A, Baker port C2, Oil Capital port W and Smith port 2. (See GamGram No. 10 for additional information.)
You must completely remove the ClaVal and Brooks Brodie automatic drain valves but you need not do
this in the case of other brands.

Do you have float testers on your float operated pilot valves? This handy little gadget is just an O-ring
sealed screw or plunger that you can open to cause the float to go up and down while the system is
operating With this device, you can quickly check the automatic drain valve as well as the discharge
valve. Almost all models of float operated valves can be equipped with testers. Each manufacturer sells
a kit with the necessary parts but on some models you must drill and thread a hole in the valve body.

When did you last test your floats to see if they will float on a fuel/water interface? Many people now
perform this test on a regular schedule. There are two procedures in use:

Method 1: A hand pump is used to force water in the manual drain valve. The water is drawn from an
open bucket so that you can see exactly how much water is being used. This method will also allow you to
test the automatic drain valve and the discharge valve.

NOTE: A mechanic recently decided to run this test by using city water pressure. When I pointed out that
the refueler pressure could be greater than the city pressure, he agreed that people might be unhappy at
finding jet fuel in their kitchen sinks.

Method 2: Remove the float and drop it in a bucket that has 4 inches (10 cm) of fuel on top of 4 inches of
water. If the float sinks in the water, you must return it to the manufacturer to be repaired or replaced.

Leakage is by far the most prevalent complaint regarding filter separator controls. Many of these
complaints are not fully justified because some people do not understand that a "spit" of fuel is discharged
from the vent every time the system is operated. This is caused by the operation of the diaphragm in the
On-Off pilot valve and amounts to only a few drops. Continuous dripping is most frequently caused by dirt
particles under the seat of the automatic water drain valve. This is why many operators require that a Y
strainer be located upstream of the drain valve. A very useful device that is often installed in the discharge
line from an automatic water drain valve is a flow indicator. Many different models are on the market (pin
wheels, flappers, jiggling balls, etc.). In a drain system that is piped to a waste tank, one of these flow
indicators provides a visual indication of discharge flow.

In the next issue of the GamGram, the discharge valve and its pilot controls will be studied.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 12 SLUG VALVES JAN. 1977
REVISED NOV. 1996

How many people think that a water slug valve will close because it "senses" a slug of water? It is amazing how many people
believe this but those of you who read GamGrams 10 and 11, know that the "intelligence" comes from a device called a "FLOAT
OPERATED PILOT VALVE" or an electrical device that can sense the difference between water and fuel in the sump of a filter
separator.

A very curious thing about slug valves is that people outside of the filter separator business refer to the very same valve as a
diaphragm operated control valve. The term "slug" was dreamed up many years ago by filter separator people, because it was
necessary to stop flow in a fuel system if a "slug" of water collected in the sump at a rate greater than it could be drained away.
A hydraulic signal to the slug valve (also known as the discharge valve) will cause it to close to prevent fuel flow until the water
level has been reduced to a safe range.

Sometimes the slug valve is called a RATE OF FLOW CONTROL VALVE. All this means is that it is a slug valve that was
modified to perform both functions. It can operate as a slug valve and it can also automatically limit the flow rate to the
maximum rating of the filter separator. This is an important optional function because filter separators are very velocity limited.
Note: If you want to upgrade your slug valve to control flow rate, we can tell you how to do it, on request.

In Fig. 1, there are two pilot valves shown, X and Z. X is an On-Off pilot valve and the other (Z) controls the rate of flow. Watts*,
Smith and Oil Capital make On-Off pilot valves that are similar. Each requires a pressure signal to cause the slug valve to
open. A pilot of this type is shown in Fig. 2 in the closed position. Note that pressure from the supply port M is directed to Y, the
cover of the slug valve, to close it. In other words, pressure from M goes through port R, then port J and to port Y on the cover.
If control pressure from the float operated pilot valve is applied at port L to open the on-off pilot, the slug valve cover is vented
through ports Y, J and N of the on-off pilot into port P. The slug valve then opens because system inlet pressure at M is greater
than outlet pressure at P.

The tricky feature in the On-Off pilot is the orifice shown by an arrow. If the on-off pilot has been opened to start main valve flow,
the orifice allows a small "pilot flow" from R to bypass the main valve through port N and then to P. When a rate of flow pilot is
added, you can see that by regulating or throttling this "pilot flow"' the pressure at the slug valve cover can be regulated to
cause the main valve to modulate between the open and closed positions.

NOTE: In the 1996 revision, these figures have been revised for clarification

*Formerly known as Baker and more recently Muesco.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
All manufacturers make rate of flow pilots (Fig. 3) that are almost identical. To control it, an orifice plate is located at the inlet of
the discharge valve. Pressure taps (G1 and G2) are located at the downstream and upstream sides of the plate which has a
hole in it that is somewhat smaller than the piping. G2 is the pressure upstream of the orifice plate while G1 is the pressure after
the orifice plate. When flow passes through the orifice, the pressure loss across the plate becomes greater and greater as the
flow rate increases. In other words, an orifice plate is a simple flow meter. By taking these two pressures as G2 (high) and G1
(low) to a pilot valve Z, the diaphragm will move away from the side having the highest pressure. This force is resisted by a
spring, but the tension on the spring can be changed by turning the screw at the top. This pilot valve will adjust itself to try to
maintain a perfect balance but in so doing, it regulates the amount of "pilot" flow that can pass through port K. This will
influence the pressure that is in the slug valve cover to modulate flow rate. For example, if the flow through the orifice plate is
too high, its pressure drop is also high. This results in a partial closing of port K, restricting pilot flow. This causes more
pressure on top of the slug valve diaphragm, causing it to close slightly to correct the excessive flow rate.

The Cla-Val system is exactly the same, except that the On-Off pilot (Fig. 4) works in the reverse of the one in Figure 2. In the
position shown, control pressure is being applied at L. Supply pressure at R goes thru J and directly to the slug valve cover
through port Y to block fuel flow through the main (slug) valve. To open the slug valve, L must be vented so that pressure at R
will lift the diaphragm and close port H. The orifice then supplies "pilot" flow and all other functions are the same as described
for other brands. The slug valve cover is vented through port J to N and then to P.
When slug valve problems occur, our experience has been that diaphragm failures are the primary cause. These are easy to
find. Disconnect the fitting at Y and turn on the pump. Continuous flow from the slug valve cover means a diaphragm failure. A
failure of the On-Off pilot diaphragm in Figure 2 can be detected by disconnecting the fittings at N and L. Apply pressure at N
and look for leakage at L. A failure in the rate of flow pilot diaphragm is found by disconnecting one of the orifice pressure
fittings, G1, or G2. Leakage indicates failure of the diaphragm.
We have reproduced Tables 2 and 3 from GamGram 10 so that you can follow a typical troubleshooting problem. We cannot
review all failure modes for all brands, but this one shows the reasoning technique. You have Cla-Val equipment and the slug
valve will not open. Disconnect the fitting at L in Figure 4. If flow comes out of the tube, the float is up so water is in the sump
and that is the reason the slug valve will not open. If the automatic water drain valve will not open, its diaphragm may be found
to be leaking and water flow will be found in the vent tubing from the float valve. If the On-Off pilot diaphragm had failed, a fuel
flow would have been found in the vent before the fitting at L was disconnected.
TABLE 2
Port Watts**
Identification Cla Val Before 5/86 After 5/86 Brooks Oil Capital Smith*
Supply S A P D P D-9
Water Drain Valve W C² DV A W A-2
Discharge Valve F C¹ SV C A B-5
Vent D B E B E C-6
TABLE 3
Float Watts* Cla Val
Position Cla Val Before 5/86 After 5/86 Brooks Oil Capital Smith CFF12-H3
Up F-S, W-D C1-B, C2-A SV-E, DV-P C-D, A-B A-E, W-S 5-6, 2-9 F-D, W-S
Intermediate F-D, W-D C1-A, C2-A SV-P, DV-P C-B, A-B A-S, W-S 5-9, 2-9 F-S, W-S
Down F-D, W-S C1-A, C2-B SV-P, DV-E C-B, A-D A-S, W-E 5-9, 2-6 F-S, W-D

FIGURE 4
In conclusion, we feel that we should have emphasized in GamGrams 10 and
11 that the Supply fuel should be filtered to prevent malfunctions in the float
pilot. Supply must come from downstream of the coalescers or be separately
filtered. Also, in retrospect, we might have recommended a 40 mesh strainer
upstream of the automatic drain valve. Most leaks from that valve are caused
by dirt in its seat.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 13 THE MYSTERY OF THE COLOR RATING JUNE 1982
REVISED FEB. 2004

NOTE: This article was originally published as GamGram No. 25 but was repositioned in 1996 because
No. 13 had been expanded in several revisions to deal with new interpretations of membrane tests. It
now seems logical to make the "interpretation" article come after this article. Therefore, numbers 13 and
25 have been switched.

Once upon a time, the world's airlines and oil companies discovered that keeping jet fuel clean for turbine
powered aircraft was very difficult The avgas they had been using was extremely easy to keep clean.
The modern 2-stage filter separator was developed to replace the ancient hay pack (excelsior
dehydrator). An entire science evolved - and almost everyone disagreed with one another on how fuel
should be handled. Everyone argued to his own benefit. It was a confusing period of time.
A method was needed to find if the fuel had been contaminated with dirt. To find how dirty the fuel was, a
measured sample was passed through a pre-weighed filter membrane (originally made by Millipore
Corp.- - hence, the "Millipore" test). The laboratory weighed the membrane again after a sample of fuel
had passed through to determine the weight of dirt. Of course, the answers came back from the
laboratories long after the fuel was burned in an engine. A bad report was something to be unhappy about
but there was nothing you could do about it.
One day, someone noticed that some membranes were of a darker color than others. The idea of a visual
color rating had been born.
At first, there were dreams of being able to correlate a color to the weight of dirt collected. It failed to be
consistent but it was obvious that the method was very effective in revealing a change - showing the
people at the airport that something had happened that should be investigated.
Several oil companies developed color charts in the 1960's which their employees and customers used at
the various terminals and airports. When the filter membrane test was run, the results of the color rating
could be reported to a supervisor thousands of miles away. He knew immediately the color of the filter
membrane because he had a color rating chart that was exactly the same as the one that his employee
used in rating the membrane. The color rating method became a means of communicating.
The problem was that each oil company had a different set of color standards and this made it impossible
to inter-communicate because the airline customer had to deal with different fuel suppliers at different
stations.
Fortunately for everyone concerned, a standard color chart was developed within ASTM that became
acceptable to both the ASTM and the Institute of Petroleum. This occurred in the later 1960's. The
specifications for the chips in the color rating booklet are published in the ASTM/IP Method D2276 in
Appendix X1. The entire industry (airlines and oil companies) now uses the standard color ratings.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
This would be a nice ending to our story but we are sorry to say that everyone did not live "happily ever-
after". What happened was that each of the oil companies and airlines established different test volume
standards. For example, 1 gallon, 1½ gallons, 3 gallons and 5 gallons.

Some people have said that it was all right to pump as bad as a number 5 into an airplane. Others would
not put anything darker than a number 2 into an airplane. This situation lead to the development of ASTM
Recommended Practice D3830. That publication specified a test volume of fuel (10 litres), it also
established good sound procedures for performing the test. It stated specifically that membranes should
be rated dry. This had always been a big argument because wet membranes are almost always darker
than dry membranes. As of 1995, the step by step procedure of the now obsolete D 3830 was printed as
Appendix X1 and Annex A2 of Method D2276. As of the year 2002, the test volume was standarized at
one US gallon or 5 liters.
Why is it that the Method does not specifically state that there is a number limit beyond which the fuel is
not acceptable? The primary reason is that color on a membrane is not a direct measure of how much dirt
is in jet fuel. Different fuels are made from different crude stocks and in different process units, so the
basic color of the product can vary considerably. Color bodies may be "organic", staining material.
Inorganic color from dirt and rust is usually what one is attempting to determine by use of the color rating
technique.
The oil industry has absolutely refused to agree upon any specific limit standards. As a general rule, most
people agree that a number 3 is as dark a color as should be put into an airplane unless a gravimetric test
has been performed that proves that the amount of dirt is within acceptable limits and that all of the other
properties of the fuel are within specification.
Many people are confused by the fact that there are 3 different color scales in the color rating booklet.
These are identified as the A, B and G scales. The A scale is a reddish shade. The B scale is tan and the
G scale is grey. It is rather obvious that it would be difficult for most people to take a membrane that was
greyish and compare it to a tan chip and evaluate how dark the membrane was. This is one of the
reasons why there are different color scales. The people who formulated these scales selected the most
commonly encountered color shades to make it as easy as possible for people to evaluate and compare
colors. The A scale may indicate a red iron oxide type of contamination. A rating on the B scale may be
caused by oxidation products or silica.
A reading on the G scale may be indicative of either black iron oxide or the black sulfides that are
sometimes found when there has been a refinery upset. Also, it might mean that an overzealous
employee has overworked a grease gun. Another cause of a rating on the G scale is deterioration of
blades or vanes in positive displacement pumps. When fuel is found in the G scale, the cause should be
found because something may be wrong.
In conclusion, we want to emphasize two important things. First of all, the color rating method provides a
means for communication. When you telephone your fuel supplier and say that you have a B6 from a one
gallon test, he knows exactly what you are talking about and he can make intelligent decisions if he knows
the system at the particular location. The other important point we want to make is that the method has as
its primary objective the means for telling you when something has gone wrong. If you have had a history
of being able to deliver a number A2 into aircraft, and you suddenly find that you have an A5, something
has changed. You know this absolutely, and you know that you must investigate the fuel and your system
to determine why such a change has taken place. Each location is a variable itself.
For a further discussion of membrane testing, see GamGram No.25.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 14 CLAY TREATMENT OF JET FUEL APR. 1977
REVISED FEB. 1996

Look at the title again. It does not say "Clay Filtration". Clay is not supposed to filter and if you use it to
filter, you are probably in trouble.

Of all the misnomers in jet fuel handling activities, the worst one is the use of the word "filter" when you talk
about clay. Let's get it straight, if you use clay, you are "treating" or "processing", you are not filtering. "To
filter" means to remove particles by entrapment. Clay treatment removes molecules by adsorption -
"polar attraction". If you load up a clay treater with dirt particles, you are preventing it from doing its
intended job -- removing surfactants.

The reason that clay is used in jet fuel handling systems is that pipelines, ships and other transportation
methods handle other petroleum products that contain surfactants that contaminate the jet fuel. This
word is like slang. It means surface active agents. These are chemicals that seek or act at surfaces
between two different materials. Some of them act between water and dirt -- like hand soap. Some act
between petroleum and dirt - like a detergent additive in motor oil. Some surfactants act between
petroleum and water. These are the surfactants that prevent a filter separator from working because they
form a surface film around water drops that keeps two drops of water from joining together. In other
words, they prevent coalescing.

Clay has a marvelous ability to capture molecules of surfactants. The best type is known as "attapulgus"
clay, and cartridges are usually made of a grade that is between 50 and 90 mesh. It looks like very fine
sand but each particle consists of hundreds of tiny, fiber-like crystals. The net surface area of one pound
of attapulgite is over 13 acres. (In the metric system, 1 Kg has about one ninth of a square kilometer of
area.)

This incredible amount of surface area makes it possible for clay to capture molecules of surfactant very
effectively. The most important factor is time. We call it residence time or contact time. If you pump the
fuel through so fast that the surfactant molecules do not have time to migrate to the clay crystal surfaces,
you will obtain poor performance. The slower the flow, the better the clay will work. Does this sound like
filtering? It surely is not!

Clay cartridges or elements are made in a somewhat standard size of 7" OD x 18" long. Never exceed a
flow rate per element of 7 gpm (26.5 1/m) but 5 gpm (19 1/m) is better. Some manufacturers have rated
their vessels as high as 10 gpm per element but this is clearly ridiculous, and you will never find a
petroleum chemist who will recommend such a flow rate, because no grade of clay exists that will work
under such conditions.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Clay treatment is not a simple process to use because pressure drop is not the basis for determining that
the elements must be replaced. Unfortunately, our industry has no sure way to measure surfactant
content of fuel. Lacking this ability, we recommend the Emcee field kit called Microseparometer (ASTM
Method 3948). By running tests before and after the clay, you obtain a measure of the improvement in
MSEP rating (formerly called WSIM). More often, filter membrane color rating (ASTM Recommended
Practice D2276) is used but this really gives a far more indirect indication. Generally, clay elements are
changed because poor results are being measured at the outlet of a filter separator downstream.

Discolored water in the filter separator is a sure indication of failed clay for two reasons. First, if water is
found downstream of clay, you know that the clay is full of water. Second, a brown or black colored water
often indicates surfactants. Water is the "enemy" of clay because it effectively blocks the pores in the clay
particles, preventing contact by surfactants. Therefore, you must take every precaution to keep water
out of clay. Many very successful installations have been made using modernized versions of the old-
fashioned excelsior dehydrator (hay-pack) to knock down as much water as possible.

To prevent dirt from blocking clay elements, more and more installations are made with pleated paper
pre-filters. Our experience has been that two micrometer rated paper or finer is the correct choice. The
economics are obvious. A set of paper elements costs roughly one-tenth (1/10) that of clay when you
include the extremely high freight rates for clay.

If you have read all the way through this GamGram, you are probably astounded that anyone would
propose four units all in a row to clean up jet fuel (dehydrator, pre-filter, clay treater and then a filter
separator). Our only response is to repeat -- clay is a process. It is not filtration. When you get into the
"processing" business, you have graduated from the use of a filter separator as a "safety device". You are
a mini-refinery!

In conclusion, a few words should be said about the two different types of elements that are sold -- bag
type and canisters.

COST Bag elements are much less costly, roughly 25 - 35% less than canisters.

CAPACITY Bag elements hold about 15 lbs. of clay while canisters hold 11 - 12 lbs.

INSTALLATION Bags are very tricky to install properly because they bypass fuel through creases
where their ends contact one another. With great care and hours of hand forming, a
perfect job can be done and no bypassing will take place.

PERFORMANCE Canisters excel in 90% of installations because bags are rarely installed perfectly.
There are, of course, poorly designed canisters. Before you purchase, take one
apart to see how flow is prevented from passing through above the clay, after
settling has taken place. The perforations at the upper end of the center tube are
blocked on good elements.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 15 FILTER SEPARATOR FIRES JULY 1977
REVISED MAR. 1996

Have you ever opened a filter separator and found evidence of a fire? Burned areas on the elements?
Blackened surfaces on the inside of the vessel? Do you really know what caused those explosions? Do
you know that this problem is easily prevented?

Some of our readers may believe we are idiots to propose that fires actually occur in filter separators, but
some of you know from experience that this is not fiction.

These fires are caused by pumping fuel into a filter separator when it is empty. Suppose that you have
changed the filter elements, bolted the cover and now turn on the pump. Fuel rushes into the coalescer
elements (remember -- they flow inside to outside) and out into an empty vessel with foam, froth, spray
and a super-abundance of electrostatic charges. All you need now for an explosion is oxygen -- and there
it is, in the vessel. Presto! A flash fire!

For too long a time it was thought that sump heaters caused these fires. As we operate in a climate with
cold winters and need heaters to prevent ice formation, it was easy to be tricked into this theory. We now
believe that heaters may aggravate the problem when they are left operating when the vessel is drained
to a level that exposes the thermostat to air. As air is a poor heat conductor, the heater boils the fuel but
the air around the thermostat stays cold. The result is a fuel vapor filled vessel. Now turn on the pump
and force electrostatically charged fuel into the vessel -- and guess what happens!

Those of you who have an antistatic additive in your fuel should not think you are exempt from this
problem. The additive does not reduce the static charging rate at all; in fact, the additive increases the
charging rate, but these charges will bleed off more rapidly because the additive increases the rate at
which electrostatic charges are conducted through the fuel. When an empty vessel is being filled by
charged fuel spraying into air, there is zero time for "conductivity" to bring plus and minus charges back
together again. There are such very simple methods to prevent fires in filter separators:

1. Educate personnel to fill a filter separator slowly. Lacking laboratory data, we suggest a
conservative rate of one thirtieth (1/30) of the flow capacity. A 600 gpm vessel would be filled at
about 20 gpm. If the scientists can determine a better rule, we will be glad to publish it in a later
GamGram.

Remember, static charging usually increases as fuel flow velocity increases.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 2. Install check valves above automatic air eliminators to insure that the vessel will not drain
backward into an underground storage tank. Check valves in pump suction piping frequently leak.
See Bulletin 52 for a check valve designed for this application. If air cannot enter the vessel, there
is no backflow.

A subtle advantage of a check valve above the air eliminator is that it prevents draining the sump
for water checks unless the pump is turned on. See GamGram #5 for a discussion of this subject.

3. If you have sump heaters, install indicator lights to warn personnel that the power is turned on.
Hang up a sign, "Filter Separator Must Be Full When Power Is On".

A secondary advantage of a full filter separator is elimination of pressure surges and shock loads on
elements when a pump is turned on. After all, a centrifugal pump can produce flow velocities that far
exceed the rated flow of the filter separator if the fuel it is pumping is only displacing air. Impact forces and
surges caused by this situation have destroyed countless numbers of elements.

Our preferred method for filling a vertical filter is to leave the cover off until the vessel is nearly full. The
procedure is to close the inlet valve and turn on the pump. Then crack open the valve and adjust flow rate
visually -- by how fast it enters. Don't let it spray about. When the level approaches the top flange, close
the inlet valve, stop the pump and install the cover. Then open the valve again the same amount and
finish filling. You will know when the vessel is full, because air will stop flowing out of the automatic air
eliminator. Although this procedure may frighten some readers, we feel it is both effective and safe.

When trailers and railroad tank cars are off-loaded through a filter separator into a storage tank, some
operators allow the pump to force large quantities of air into the filter vessel in an attempt to empty the
drop hose. This is an extremely poor practice, not only because of the fire hazard in the filter separator
but because air blasts upset the coalescer element structure and can cause dirt to migrate through the
element.

Has your moustache ever been burned while you were changing filter elements? Maybe you have no
moustache, but you could singe something else if you use the same procedure that caused one accident.
Here is what the technician did. He changed the elements in a vertical Jet A filter separator and washed
the internal surfaces with JP-4. He installed the coalescer elements using the manufacturer's
recommended practice of leaving the poly-bag in place except for opening the threaded end. This
procedure is urged, because it insures that dirty hands will not contact the element. The next thing he did
was to pull off the poly-bags. This caused a fire, because the action of sliding the bag off of the element
generated a high static charge. The JP-4 ignited and so did his moustache!

RESOLVE: ▪ Be sure to drain all of the fuel from a filter separator when you are changing elements.
Wash down the inside of the filter separator with Jet A.

▪ Before installing coalescers, pull poly-bag partially off, leaving only enough of the
element covered as is required for a handhold.

▪ After the element is installed, pull the bag the rest of the way off -- slowly. Don't yank the
bag off. The faster you pull, the larger the potential spark.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 16 “MICRON” RATINGS MAY 1978
REVISED NOV. 1996

If you could slice this sheet of paper edgewise into a pile of 75 ultra-thin sheets of paper, each sheet would
be one micron (micrometer) thick. The human eye can begin to recognize that a particle is "in view" if it is
made up of about 400 one-micron particles arranged to fall within a circle that is 1/3 the diameter of a
human hair. ARE WE GETTING THE POINT ACROSS? A MICRON IS SUPER SMALL!!
The filter industry is in a terrible state of confusion about rating their filters. To a large extent this is their
own fault, but users are customers and they are very demanding creatures. They want things made
simple. The micron rating was an attempt to make filtration simple. Unfortunately, it has make liars out of
many people and simpletons out of others.
An example of a typical problem is best described by a membrane such as is used to test jet fuel. It is
made with a remarkable uniformity - the pores are 0.8 microns in size. Suppose now that you start to flow
through the membrane. Almost immediately the pores begin to be partly clogged by particles that are not
the same shape as the pores. In a very short time, you note that the flow rate has decreased, it's obvious.
Can you still say that the membrane is filtering at 0.8 microns? Certainly not! It's filtering at a much finer
level - maybe only 0.3 microns.
THE POINT WE ARE MAKING IS THAT A FILTER HAS ITS MANUFACTURED RATING FOR ONLY A
SHORT TIME UNTIL YOUR DIRT BEGINS TO DO SOME OF THE FILTERING.
The trick in making a filter hold a lot of dirt before it plugs up is to get the particles of your dirt to arrange
themselves so that they do not form a film that will stop flow. The membrane described above is a good
example of a "low dirt holding" filter. The dirt forms a film. (We are not criticizing the product. Its real
purpose is not to be a process filter, but a laboratory tool.)
If we want to increase the dirt holding ability of a filter, we can put a layer of fuzzy material on its inlet face.
By skillful arrangement, we can cause the dirt particles to stop in the pre-filtering layers and we can
prolong the life of the original filter layer by hundreds of times. Then we can take the sheet and pleat it so
that we can multiply the filtering area many times more.
OUR THIRD POINT IS THAT THE TRUE MEASURE OF A FILTER IS HOW MUCH DIRT IT WILL HOLD
BEFORE IT PLUGS UP.
To rate the degree of filtration, you need a practical measure. Some people will argue that if one 50-
micron particle can find its way through, you must rate the filter at 50 microns. This is the "ABSOLUTE"
rating "school of thought". The fact that the same filter is probably removing literally millions of 5-micron
particles is of no interest to these people.
The obvious impracticality of this method resulted in the "NOMINAL" rating "school of thought". The idea
was that if you found that 98% of the particles that were larger than say 10 microns were being stopped by
the filter, you should rate it as a 10-micron element. The test is performed using standardized filter test
dirts that are carefully graded so that you have a size distribution over a wide range.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Filter manufacturers discovered that a 98% 10-micron element could also be rated at 5 microns if you
used a lower percentage -- say 94%. The same element could even be rated at 1 micron if the percentage
was even lower, say 78%. They argued that the true measure of an element is not necessarily how well it
removes particles larger than 10 microns, but how well it also removes smaller particles that the customer
may want to minimize but not necessarily eliminate from his fluid.

OUR FOURTH POINT IS THAT A FILTER ELEMENT CAN REALLY HAVE MANY MICRON RATINGS
AND THERE IS TRULY NO SINGLE RATING THAT TELLS THE WHOLE STORY.

A variety of groups have attempted to improve the communication of filter performance. These include
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Society for Testing Materials, and National Fire
Protection Association. A major step was taken by Oklahoma State University which developed the Multi-
pass Test (also called the Beta Ratio test). This test addressed the needs of the hydraulic equipment
makers but has never been applied to aviation fuel. It introduced the concept of filter evaluation using
particle counts. The number and size of particles found in samples before and after the filter were
compared throughout the life of the filter. A "beta ratio" (at a specific particle size) and contaminant
capacity were then calculated for comparison. The Beta Ratio Test has been upgraded over the years and
is now an ISO standard.

Now you are wondering what all of this has to do with jet fuel! We have said it many, many times before
but here it is again - THERE IS NO "MICRON" RATING SPECIFICATION FOR COALESCERS OR
FILTER SEPARATORS.

Hardly a day goes by without someone asking us the micron rating of a coalescer element. If we say 1, 2,
5, or any other number, we are simply giving you a relative idea of how different grades of elements
perform with respect to one another. There simply is no test or rating procedure required by any agency:
API, Military, oil company, airline or FAA.

In their astonishing wisdom, the people who have written specifications for filter separator elements have
never called for a micron rating. Instead, they specify a test dirt; then they tell you how much is allowed to
pass through the element. This is real wisdom. The most popular test dirt is red iron oxide which has a
particle distribution as shown in the following table:

MICROMETER RED IRON OXIDE

SIZE % BY WEIGHT

0 - 0.25 47.8
0.25 - 0.5 29.9
0.5 - 1.0 16.4
1-2 3.0
2 - 10 2.9
0 - 10 100
0-5 98.8

In a typical test, the element is subjected to 10 grams per gpm and is allowed to pass 0.001 grams per
gallon. Don't you agree that this is more meaningful than a micron rating that never remains constant and
never is the same as when the filter was manufactured?

OUR FIFTH POINT: IF YOU WANT TO KNOW HOW YOUR COALESCER ELEMENTS WILL FILTER,
ASK THE MANUFACTURER FOR PROOF THAT HE PASSES THE API TESTS. IF HE DOES, YOU CAN
BE ASSURED YOU CAN GET NO BETTER ELEMENT.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 17 JET FUEL BUGS JULY 1978

Have you ever been in a situation where you were seeing things with your own eyes that proved
respected authorities were wrong? I recall a time that this happened to me several years ago but I have
not written about it before, possibly because I have to admit that I had been in agreement with them.
However, one must admit when one is wrong.

The statement I object to is: “The quantity of jet fuel through this station is so low that we need not follow
our usual change-out schedule for our filter separator elements.”

Doesn’t it appear logical that the less fuel pumped through a filter separator, the less frequently the
coalescer elements need to be changed? If you believe this with no reservations, please don’t ask me to
fly in your airplane!

In years gone by, people who pay for replacement elements for filter separators have felt that they spent
money needlessly in changing elements on a periodic basis. We must agree that time seems an illogical
basis if the fuel effluent is clean and the pressure drop across the filter separator is low. There is nothing
that time alone can do to the elements in a filter separator. The problem is that HEAT and TIME can cause
astonishing things to happen in the WATER that has been collected by a coalescer.

The condition that I saw years ago (and now more frequently) was in a small filter separator rated at 100
gpm (378 liters/min.) but used only to refuel helicopters at about 30 gpm (113 liters/min.). The inside
surfaces were covered with a slimy, stringy mess. The elements were 18 months old and the total
throughput was estimated at only 84000 gal. (318,000 liters). If you think about it, that filter separator was
a perfect incubator. The helicopters were refueled at night or in the morning, and the coalescers collected
trace amount of water. Then the sun warmed the filter separator during the day. Microorganisms
proliferated in the beautiful little incubator!

The “bugs” or microorganisms that are found in jet fuel systems are microscopic bodies that live in water
and “feed” on the fuel. There are many varieties but if you want a name for the most popular breed, call
them cladisporium resinae. The slime is probably not alive -- it is actually the debris left by the
microorganisms. You would call it their trash heap.

In a commercial airport fuel system where airlines operate, the throughput per day is high. The filter
separator does not stand in the hot sun all day long or sometimes two or three days without flow. If water
collects in the coalescer, it is displaced by more water the next time flow occurs. It then gathers in the
sump and is drained away each day. Severe microorganism problems are rarely seen in high throughput
systems. The danger occurs as throughput per day become smaller, as flow rates become small in
systems designed for high flow rates.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Low flow rate facilities for jet fuel are being installed at an astonishing rate around the world. These
facilities are serving executive jet airplanes and the turbine powered helicopters. We are absolutely
convinced that these facilities should be installed so that the fuel in the tank can be recirculated on a
frequent basis.

Standby refueling equipment is another potential source for great difficulty. At almost every airport,
stationary and mobile equipment can be found that is kept ready for service in case of need, but it is very
rare that flow ever takes place through the filter separators. Doesn’t it seem logical that periodic
operation of this equipment will minimize the possibility of microorganism growth? The frequency of this
operation must certainly be based on experience and the best experience comes from an observation of
the sump drainings from these filter separators. In this regard, you might wish to review GamGrams
numbers 2, 3 and 5.

In considering these problems, think about how algae grows on a stagnant pond. It takes time for it to get
started, but once it begins, it simply covers the pond at an astonishing rate. Have you ever seen algae
growing on a full flowing river or stream? Certainly not! The same rule applies to a jet fuel system. Keep
it moving and you cannot have microorganism growth.

If you have a system that has the characteristics that are described above, there are very intelligent things
you can do:

1. Recirculate fuel through the filter separator and back to the supply tank every day at the designed
flow rate.

2. Remove water from the supply tank before recirculating and check the filter separator sump while
you recirculate.

3. If slime is observed in the water/fuel interface, discuss it with your fuel supplier.

4. Inspect the outside surfaces of the coalescers for brownish or black patches -- these are
“colonies.” Dispose of these elements immediately.

Remember that the small jet fuel systems and those with low throughput are MORE vulnerable to
microorganisms and may require element changes MORE frequently than the big, high flow systems.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 18 SINGLE ELEMENT TESTING SEP. 1978
REVISED JULY 1982

Did you ever watch an inspector walk up to a refueler truck or cart, or refueling station with a check list
several pages long to perform his duty as an inspector? Did you ever stop to think that he can test every
single component on the refueler with one exception; he has absolutely no way to test whether or not the
filter separator will remove water? He can check to see that the filter separator is dispensing clean fuel
and he can also test for water with the Gammon Aqua-Glo Kit, but he has no way to determine whether or
not the filter separator would stop water if none is there while he is inspecting.

In years gone by, some people have tested filter separators by injecting water upstream but too many
people fear this direct approach. Many people have believed if a filter separator was capable of removing
fine dirt particles (as indicated by running filter membrane tests upstream and downstream) that this was
clear evidence that the filter separator was in good condition and that it would remove water if any
happened to come along. This philosophy has been proven absolutely incorrect. Other people have had
the audacity to state that they never have water in their fuel so there is no need to determine whether the
filter separator will perform or not. However, when you propose to these people that they simply remove
the filter separator, they quickly find many other reasons why they must leave it in service. Unfortunately,
other people steadfastly believe that a periodic inspection, of the inside of a filter separator is adequate to
tell them if the unit will perform satisfactorily. We strongly urge inspection and we thoroughly believe in
using visual appearances as indicators of impending difficulties. However, no amount of inspection will
make a coalescer “coalesce”, and it is absolute fact that a coalescer can look perfect and be completely
unable to remove any water.

It was in 1969 that we introduced the first portable single element tester to the aviation refueling industry.
We are happy to note a great increase in orders, because users of filter separators are beginning to
recognize the fact that some of the elements they have in the field are not performing properly. The
purpose of this GamGram is to spread our philosophy on the subject and to bring up a few interesting
points that we hope will be useful to those of you who are planning to begin testing your coalescer
elements.

Clearly, there is no substitute for a single element test if you really want to know the condition of a
coalescer element. This is done by installing the used element in a chamber so that fuel can be pumped
through it while water is being injected. All you have to do is to look at the element to determine if it is
coalescing. You may wish to run Aqua-Glo tests to measure the exact water content of the effluent, but in
most cases a visual inspection tells the story.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
If large water drops come off of the outside of the element, you can say that the element is in very good
condition but if the water drops are extremely small, you can say that its performance is marginal. If the
element produces a white cloud, you know that it is not performing satisfactorily. We call this “smoke”
because uncoalesced water looks very much like smoke.

There are other phenomena that you can observe during a test. One of these is what we call “graping”. In
other words, the drops that come off of the element look like a bunch of grapes because they seem to
hang together in clusters. This is not a good situation and is clear evidence that the element is
malfunctioning, even though it is not producing smoke. If you observe these grape clusters, you will note
that they do not fall to the bottom of the sump rapidly. They seem to float about and sometimes actually
rise instead of fall to the sump. This is because those “drops” are not really solid water drops at all. They
are thin films or “bubbles” of water with fuel inside. Scientists would probably prefer to call these clusters
a “foam” but we believe that “graping” is a better word.

While observing a single element test, the first water that comes out of the element usually tells you how
good (or bad) the fuel was in the system, because it has been displaced by water that you are injecting. If
the water is dark in color, you can suspect the presence of surfactant contamination, the most common
cause of coalescer failure. Sometimes, you will note that an element will start to smoke and then later on
it will begin coalescing. We believe that you should not decide that this is a good element, because
“smoke” is water and it will obviously go into the airplane until such time as incoming water has washed
surfactants away. As a matter of fact, it often takes many minutes or sometimes hours of flushing water
through an element to cause it to regain an ability to coalesce. The object of the test is to learn if the
element will protect the aircraft at the time it is removed and under the same conditions – not after
artificially flushing the element.

The obvious conclusion from the above is that safety of operation is the primary advantage of single
element testing. If you are going to rely on a filter separator to deliver dry fuel to aircraft that are carrying
hundreds of people, it is a pretty good idea to run tests periodically to determine whether the coalescers
will really do the job they are supposed to perform. Experience has shown that if you test one element
from a set and the results are acceptable, the remaining elements can be left in service until a second test
is performed in a reasonable period of time.

The pay-off in single element testing is that it can save money. It is not necessary to replace an entire set
of elements on a periodic basis if a coalescing test proves that they are still in good condition.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 19 FUEL GRAVITY, DENSITY, AND WEIGHT DEC. 1978
REVISED AUG. 2002

Recently, an oil company employee telephoned to inquire if we would sell him a hydrometer that would
not require him to measure the temperature of fuel when he wanted to determine the gravity of his jet fuel.
I pointed out to him that while it might be possible to make a computerized hydrometer that would
automatically compensate for temperature variations, it would surely cost many times more than the
common hydrometer costs today. This strange telephone request is simply one of a long series of
questions from people who do not seem to understand the concept of fuel gravity (weight). Isn't it strange
today that there are so many people who do not understand a subject that was quite elementary to our
great-grandfathers who drove around in Model T Fords, and carried hydrometers with them at all times in
order to determine whether or not they were getting the right fuel for their automobiles? This is reverse
progress!
The trend in the United States, and in some other parts of the world, is to have fuel dealers assume all of
the responsibility for the handling of aviation fuel. These people who never previously had to worry about
fuel gravity now find they must understand this concept; the number of misunderstandings that we
encounter is quite astonishing. The purpose of this GamGram is to review the entire subject of gravity,
and also to explain the differences between API Gravity, Specific Gravity, Relative Density, Density and
Fuel Weight.
All of these measurements are simply ways to describe the weight of a fuel. Airplane engines do not
really care very much about the gravity of fuel that is to be burned. The reason that we measure the gravity
or the weight of fuel is because this is a simple measurement that can help to identify a fuel. If we find the
Relative Density of a fuel is 0.84, we can be sure that it is not jet fuel because it is too heavy. It may very
well be diesel fuel or #2 fuel oil. On the other hand, if the oil company has told us that a shipment of jet fuel
o
has an API Gravity of 45 and we find that it measures 49, we have reason to suspect that the fuel has
been contaminated with some other material, even though it is still within the limits of gravity for jet fuel.
Before going farther into the subject of gravity, we should first explain the different methods for measuring
it.
1. RELATIVE DENSITY (formerly known as Specific Gravity) - The ratio of the weight of a fuel
o
divided by the weight of water, both at a standard temperature of 60 F. A fuel that has a Relative
Density of 0.84 is simply a fuel that has 84% of the weight of water. If the fluid is heavier than water,
the Relative Density is more than 1. If it is lighter than water, the Relative Density is less than 1.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 2. API GRAVITY - Many years ago, the American Petroleum Institute adopted the idea of an arbitrary
0-100 scale to cover from the heaviest to the lightest oils and fuels. On this scale, gravity is
expressed as "degrees API," but "degrees" does not refer to temperature – it is just a way of saying
o
it. Temperature must also be measured. As in Relative Density, the standard temperature is 60 F.

Note that the API scale is backwards from Relative Density. In other words, a high API Gravity
number is very light fuel while a very low API Gravity number is an extremely heavy fuel.

3. FUEL WEIGHT - The gravity of fuel can be determined directly as pounds or kilograms. This is
usually the kind of measurement that a pilot is most interested in, because he must be sure that he
does not overload the airplane with too much fuel if he is carrying heavy cargo. Obviously, he must
be sure of having enough fuel to get where he wishes to go but he does not want to carry weight
needlessly, nor does he want to "bend" his wings by exceeding the maximum gross weight
allowed for his aircraft. This measurement does not have a standard temperature, as will be found
later in this article.

4. DENSITY - This is metric weight. The terms are kilograms per cubic meter (formerly grams per
o
cubic centimeter) and the standard temperature is 15 C.

Why do we talk about temperature when we are discussing gravity or weight of a fuel? The answer is
simply that the fuel expands or contracts as the temperature increases or decreases. A gallon of jet fuel
can weigh 6.58 lbs. at 100oF but a gallon of the same fuel will weigh 6.91 lbs. at 0oF. If the refinery reports
o
that they produced a batch of jet fuel with an API Gravity of 43.8 degrees, you know this is the 60 F value.
o o
If you test the API Gravity with a hydrometer at 85 F, you must correct your reading to 60 F using a book of
Correction Tables. In this case, if the fuel had not been contaminated with some other fuel, the
hydrometer would have measured 46o API at 85oF instead of 43.8 degrees.

To select the right hydrometer, the following table can be used to find the correct ASTM number
designation. For example, if we want to measure API gravity of Avgas, ASTM hydrometer 7H or
thermohydrometer 57HL are the best choices. A thermohydrometer has a thermometer built within it so
that a separate thermometer is not needed.

HOW TO SELECT THE CORRECT HYDROMETER

THERMO- METRIC THERMO-
FUEL API HYDROMETER HYDROMETER DENSITY HYDROMETER HYDROMETER
JET A, A-1, 29-41 4H 54HL 800/850 315H 304HL
JP-5, JP-8 39-51* 5H* 55HL* 750/800* 314H* 303HL*
JET B, 39-51 5H 55HL 750/800 314H 303HL
JP-4 49-61* 6H* 56HL* 700/750* 313H* 302HL*
AVGAS 59-71* 7H* 57HL* 700/750* 313H* 302HL*
69-81 8H 58HL 650/700 312H 301HL

*Denotes the dominant range for type of fuel indicated.

Note: API Gravity is always based on a standard temperature of 60°F. If a thermohydrometer is not
used, the correct ASTM Thermometer is designated as 12°F. Density is always based on 15°C as the
standard temperature. Use ASTM thermometer 12°C.
Let’s go through a gravity determination step by step so that we can see exactly how it is done. We collect
a sample of the fuel to be tested and put it in a hydrometer jar, which is simply a tall glass or plastic
container. We carefully wipe off the hydrometer and then place it in the fuel. The hydrometer sinks into the
fuel until it floats. Do not drop the hydrometer into the fuel because fuel adhering to the stem will be excess
weight. Prevent it from sinking any more than two scale divisions beyond its limit. If the fuel is heavy, the
hydrometer sinks very little. If the fuel is light, the hydrometer sinks more deeply.

Remember that the ancient Greek, Archimedes, said that an object is buoyed upward by a force equal to
the weight of fluid that is displaced. So we see that the word “hydrometer” is just a fancy name for a float
that has a measuring scale on it so that you can determine how far it has sunk into the fluid. It is a “hydro
meter.” You read the scale on the hydrometer stem exactly where you see the surface of the fluid. Do not
read at the top of the meniscus. To do this with the greatest accuracy, it is recommended that you set the
eye slightly below the level of the liquid and then raise it to the exact level in the cylinder before taking the
reading.

It is extremely important that the hydrometer not be read if it is touching the wall of the cylinder. To avoid
this, try to rotate the hydrometer gently or you can phone Gammon Technical for more information on the
Colrud Centering Device (GTP-8401). If bubbles are on the surface of the fuel, remove them with a strip of
paper toweling.

You may use a separate thermometer or you may use a thermohydrometer, also known as a “combined
form” hydrometer because it has a built-in thermometer. So now you have two numbers, the gravity as
indicated by the hydrometer and the temperature as indicated by the thermometer. You must now go to a
book of Correction Tables which are jointly published by the American Petroleum Institute and the
American Society for Testing Materials.
The following table shows the correct table to use for each of the various measurement methods:

ASTM HYDROMETER
MEASUREMENT CORRECTION TABLES
Density, metric, kg/m³ Volume VII Table 53B
API gravity, degrees Volume II Table 5B
Relative density Volume V Table 23B
Suppose we measured 43.5° API at 46.5°F. We must use Table 5B. The combination of our two
measurements is found on page 155 which is reproduced, in part, below. The corrected gravity at 60°F is
read as 44.7° API.

In this example, if you had found that your corrected measurement was more than 0.3° API different from
a previous report at the same location, you should check it again and/or report it for further investigation.
Contamination is suspected. The approximate equivalents of 0.3° API are 1.3 kg/m³ in metric density of
0.0013 relative density.

In a situation where the gravity measurement at a delivery location (e.g. an airport) is being compared to a
reported gravity at the point of shipment (e.g. a supply terminal), it is standard practice to expect the
corrected gravities to be within 1° API.

Returning to the subject of fuel weight, most pilots are thoroughly confused when they are presented with
gravity data that may have been temperature corrected. For example, if we tell a pilot that he has been
fueled with jet fuel having an API gravity of 48.3° corrected to 60°F, we have really told him exactly nothing
about the number of pounds or kilograms of fuel that is aboard the aircraft. If you pump 5000 gallons of
this fuel aboard an aircraft at 40°F, its weight is 33,114 pounds. But if you delivered the same fuel at 90°F,
the weight would be only 32,230 pounds. This is why pilots like to be given gravity data in pounds/gallon or
kg/L at the actual fueling temperature. If you give them gravity data reduced to 60°F, a difficult series of
calculations must be made to find actual weight, unless you have a Gammon Model GTP-3312-1A
calculator.

There is another very important use for hydrometers that has not been discussed so far. This is in
controlling the transfer of ownership of large quantities of fuel. For example, a tanker that is loaded with
fuel at a port in a very hot climate will have much less volume of fuel aboard it when it arrives many days
later at a port in a very cold climate. If fuel were to be sold on the basis of gallonage or volume, substantial
losses would result from this kind of transaction.

In conclusion, we urge aviation fuel handling people to think of gravity as a quality control tool. It can be
used to identify incorrect fuels and ti can be used to determine when one fuel has been contaminated or
mixed with another fuel.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 20 RECIPES FOR DISASTER MAY 1979
REVISED JAN. 1991

A small airport had facilities for avgas only. To comply with environmental control rules,
vapor recovery and bottom loading systems were added to the refueler trucks; they used a
pressure fueling or “single point” nozzle. At a later date, the dealer ordered jet fuel facilities
with equipment to bottom load the new truck.

To many people these ingredients seem quite harmless. The airport fuel dealer does not realize that he
has unwittingly created a potential disaster by making it possible for his jet fuel to fill an avgas refueler.

Responsible engineers had to prevent this mistake at large airports, more than 25 years ago. A fuel
selection system was devised and became universally accepted all over the world. Equipment
manufacturers sell special keying rings that fit on the bottom loading adapters on refueler trucks. The
pressure fueling nozzle is modified with a shroud on its connecting end -- its name is then changed to
“Bottom Loading Coupler”. Product selection is achieved by bolting the adapter ring in place with the slot
in its edge so that a pin in the coupler shroud will either prevent or permit connection. The slot in the ring
on the adapter can be in any of 6 different positions to align with the pin in the shroud which can be in any
one of 6 positions. The system can permit positive selection of 6 different types of fuel. Here is the
recommended coding as published in American Petroleum Institute (API) Bulletin 1542:

Position No. 1. Avgas 100 or 100LL Position No. 4. Jet A

2. Avgas 80 5. Jet B or JP-4
3. Avgas 115 6. Jet A-1

As more and more small airports add jet fuel to their list of services, the possibilities become greater and
greater that jet fuel will be dispensed into an avgas airplane. Fatal accidents are definitely possible.

A truck driver is told to deliver a load of jet fuel to an airport that has a fuel farm with piping
that is not color coded or labeled to identify avgas and jet fuel unloading connections.

This recipe resulted in an avgas storage tank being filled with jet fuel recently out west. Fortunately, the
error was found before any aircraft were refueled.

Although color coding does not insure against human error, it surely can help to prevent a mistake. This is
the API color code system:

Jet Fuel (Jet A) Black/black band Avgas 115 Red/purple band

Jet Fuel (Jet A-1) Black/2 blank bands Avgas 100 Red/green band
JP-4 (Jet B) Black/3 yellow bands Avgas 100LL Red/blue band
Avgas 80 Red/red band

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 An avgas-fueled Cessna 404 and a jet-fueled Cessna 441 are parked at an airport. They
have the same basic airframe. Tell flight line personnel to refuel both aircraft.

How do you insure that each one gets the correct fuel? Frequently, the people who refuel aircraft are not
thoroughly instructed. Conscientious though they may be, it is much too easy to refuel these aircraft with
the wrong fuel. Other aircraft that cause confusion were identified in Shell Aviation News No. 450-1978:

Piper Navajo/Chieftain resembles Piper Cheyenne

Rockwell Shrike Commander resembles Rockwell Turbo Commander 690B
Beech Queen Air B-80 resembles Beech King Air
Pilatus Porter PC-6 resembles Pilatus Turbo Porter PC-6
Dornier Skyservant resembles Dornier Turbo Skyservant

At least four recent fatal accidents have been caused by jet fuel getting into some of the above avgas
planes.

What a shameful situation it is that general aviation aircraft are not color coded at their filler caps! Our FAA
proposed this several years ago but pilots and aircraft owners rejected the idea because the FAA’s plan
was to use 12 inch diameter circles around every filler. Pilots simply did not want big red blotches all over
their wings. Who can blame them? Did the FAA counter propose smaller circles or color code marks? No
– They simply folded their tent and dropped the entire subject. What would be wrong with the idea of
making avgas filler caps red and jet filler caps black? Avgas refueling nozzles could be painted red and
nozzles black! FAA Advisory Circular No. 20-43C recommends that fueling nozzles be “appropriately
color coded” but there is no suggestion that the aircraft filler cap be similarly coded.

There is clearly no substitute for care when aviation fuels are involved. There is no U.S. Government or
state organization that controls commercial aviation fuel handling practices. There are no FAA rules
(Federal Aviation Regulations). There is no “big brother” looking over our shoulders. This is a totally self-
regulated industry. Each airline and oil company has written its own standards for handling fuels; they are
widely divergent. At the dealer level, compliance with oil company rules ranges from meticulous to non-
existent. In the final analysis, the real control lies with people.

The reason why more fuel related aircraft accidents do not occur is that there are enough careful people
who are finding the mistakes made by others. We recently learned of a case where motor gasoline was
pumped into a jet fuel storage tank. The driver of the refueler truck noticed that the odor was wrong.
Water was pumped into a single engine trainer. The pilot then checked the fuel sumps of the plane by
habit, but without thinking. He failed to notice that something was wrong. His wife noticed and probably
saved their lives.

People must be trained. They must be taught about safe practices. The person who refuels an airplane
must think - he must be a professional in his line of work. Our lives are in his hands!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 21 IS IT GOOD OR BAD FUEL? NOV. 1979
HOW CAN YOU TELL?

These GamGrams have covered a wide range of subjects but we never really faced the most important
question - Will it fly? Can “Joe” on the end of the hose answer that question? Does he actually believe
that he is responsible for every airplane he sends off to the “wild blue yonder”?

We have talked about filter separators and how to interpret their peculiarities. We have discussed control
valves, system designs, static hazards, gravity and testing methods. We even talked about “Bugs” in fuel
and the science of sampling, but we never told anyone how to make that last, vital inspection. Maybe the
reason is that it is so difficult to write an article that can be covered by one word, “LOOK”.

The US Navy has been criticized, rebuked and belittled for its slowness to accept some new methods.
For example, it is possibly the last organization in the entire world to consider the filter membrane test as a
field method for detecting contaminated fuel. If it seems curious to you that their airplanes don’t fall out to
the sky, you will be astounded to learn about their “highly scientific” inspection system; they actually take
a sample of fuel in a glass jar from a special fitting on the nozzle and look at it. They even show it to the
pilot! “Hey - Fly Boy - does this meet with your approval?”

YOUR OWN EYES are the most reliable inspection instrument that you will ever find. There is no
substitute!

Just by LOOKING you can identify all of these contamination problems:

▪ WATER ▪ SURFACTANTS ▪ MICROORGANISMS ▪ DIRT ▪ PRODUCT MIXTURES ▪

Clear and Bright - this is the test that some of the oil companies have urged as a final inspection. Of
course, they don’t tell you how to get a sample from a pressure fueling nozzle! And just try to get a small
sample in a glass jar from an overwing nozzle! Good fuel that has no water in it will sparkle. It simply looks
right. The slightest haze caused by water will take the sparkle away. “SPARKLE” is what “BRIGHT”
means.

The problem with words like “Bright” and “Sparkle” is that there is no accepted way to measure it. Old
timers have used a piece of newspaper. They hold it against a jar on the opposite side and try to read the
words through the fuel.One method we like was developed by Colonial Pipeline Co.. They scribed black
lines on a card using different widths of pens. Each line is numbered. The narrowest line that is visible
when viewed through the jar is the haze rating. When you see this test, the real meaning of brightness
begins to be understood. We have reproduced in miniature a copy of the chart that is printed by Colonial
Pipeline.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Haze is almost always caused by water and if you can see it, you can be assured there is more water in
the fuel than is safe to fly. If you don’t have the chart that Colonial publishes and you are afraid to guess
the sparkle in a sample of fuel, there is still another way – the coin test. Drop a copper coin in a white
bucket having 4 inches (100 mm) or more of fuel. If you can see the coin clearly enough to identify the
side that is up, the fuel is probably safe. The test is surely not sanctioned by any world authority and it has
no scale of measurement, but the originators of it, United Air Lines, have used it successfully for many
years. One big problem is that dark colored fuels, such as from the Alaskan North Slope, are difficult to
see through - but if your fuel is white or the common straw color, it is a useful test.

Pilots are taught to check their fuel tank sumps for evidence of water and dirt. Unfortunately, some pilots
and even some airlines never perform this important inspection. This makes it more important for the
“guy with the hose” to know that the fuel he pumps is good. All he has to do is LOOK at a sample of fuel he
can drain from the sump of the filter on his refueler immediately after he finishes pumping. This is the
F.S.S.S.I. Test. (Filter Separator Sump Sample Inspection).

This practice is used extensively outside of the USA and should be used everywhere. The logic of this
procedure is that the most likely place for water and dirt to be found is in the sump of the filter separator. If
water is found, you cannot be certain that none got into the aircraft but you can insist then that the aircraft
sumps be checked.

Some people will argue that the sump will not have water in it if the coalescer elements have failed;
therefore, water could be in the aircraft without water being found in the sump. Our response is “BUNK”.
Our experience shows that coalescers rarely fail completely -- and if they do fail, a haze will be seen in the
sump sample.

If I had the power to make laws or regulations, I think I would start with one that requires either the FSSSI
test or that the aircraft tank sumps be checked after every fueling operation.

After having read all of the words in this GamGram, you will now understand that the entire subject can be
summed up in one word -

LOOK!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 22 TRICKS OF THE TRADE OCT. 1980

People who work with jet fuel handling equipment need special knowledge that the experienced old-
timers often forget to pass on to new personnel. In our GamGrams, we tend to talk about the bigger issues
and problems but there are many little “tricks of the trade” that we thought you might like to see in one
issue.

BUNA N – VITON – NEOPRENE

How many times have you wanted know what compound was used to make an O-ring? They are all black
and they look the same. The only test we know of is destructive - you must burn it. Therefore, if you know
you need one Buna N O-ring and you have 2 of them, cut one and hold a match to one end - be sure it is
clean and dry first:

Buna N burns easily and keeps on burning after you take the match away.

Neoprene burns easily but the flame goes out when you take the match away. It also
tends to sputter as it burns.

Viton A burns but is harder to light than neoprene. The flame goes out when the
match is taken away. It does not sputter.

N NEVER breathe the smoke or fumes when you burn these materials. N

THE CORRECT RUBBER COMPOUND

All too frequently, we are requested to supply Neoprene gaskets for jet fuel. We thought that the entire
industry learned this lesson many years ago. Buna N is the proper choice for jet fuel because it swells
much less than Neoprene. However, if very low swelling is necessary, such as in dynamic or moving
seals, most manufacturers can offer special, low swelling grades of Buna N. If near zero swell is needed,
Viton A is the choice.

BUNA N JET FUEL

NEOPRENE LUBE OILS

VITON A E X T R E M E LY L O W S W E L L I N G C H A R A C T E R I S T I C ;
EXCEPTIONALLY GOOD FOR GASOLINES WITH HIGH
AROMATIC CONTENT, SUCH AS “NO LEAD”

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
STAINLESS STEEL / CARBON STEEL

Possibly the most useful gadget in a tool box is a simple magnet. Everyone knows that carbon steels
are magnetic – a magnet attracts it. People also know that a magnet is not attracted to aluminum or
brass but few of them know that a magnet is not attracted to stainless steel.

Unfortunately, there is an exception to this rule. When we say “stainless steel”, we generally mean a
grade of material that will not rust. These are known as 300 series stainless steels -- they contain both
nickel and chromium -- they are non-magnetic. A grade known as 400 series stainless steel is also sold
that has no nickel and it is magnetic, but it is not as corrosion resistant as 300 series. It will rust, but it will
not pit deeply the way carbon steel does in mildly corrosive conditions.

AVOID COPPER, ZINC AND CADMIUM

One of the most common errors we see in jet fuel facilities is the use of galvanized pipe fittings. The oil
industry has been fighting this battle for 25 years but dealers and fuel handlers continue to make the same
mistake. We saw 2 cases just last week.

Copper, zinc and cadmium are bad for jet fuel because of their effect on the thermal stability of the fuel –
deposit build-up in the hot section of turbine engines. A further problem of zinc and cadmium plating is
that it often separates from the base metal, creating dirtier fuel.

Some engineers write specifications that exclude all copper. Clearly, this is an over-reaction to the rule.
Brass hose fittings, copper tubing and brass fittings for gauge lines, brass bushings in fueling nozzles,
bronze pump bushings are reasonable locations because the contact area is very small. Bronze bodies
for control valves, copper piping and bronze pump housings are obviously large surface area items and
should not be used.

TEFLON TAPE

Most people know that a compound must be used to seal tapered pipe threads. One of the first problems
in jet fuel systems was with compounds that got into the fuel and plugged screens and nozzle jets. Teflon
tape rapidly became the answer to the problem but it created 2 new problems.

1. Tape strings - if all of the threads on a fitting are wrapped with tape, the portion of the tape on
the first thread will be sliced off as the fitting is screwed in -- now you have a string that can
cause many problems.

ANSWER: Never put tape on the first thread.

2. Broken fittings - the low friction of Teflon allows the mechanic to take extra turns as a
substitute for cutting and re-threading a pipe that is too long. In other words, the Teflon
makes it very easy to turn a fitting. If care is not exercised, the fitting will split. If the fitting is a
valve worth $400.00, this is an expensive proposition.

ANSWER: Experience is the only answer. However, we have fewer problems when we
use a combination of Teflon tape and a lubricant, such as petroleum jelly (Vaseline). The
lubricant further reduces friction so that the mechanic has a more consistent “feel” for how
tight he is making the joint.

The next GamGram will discuss fuel system designs and trade-offs, but we expect to publish a future
issue that will cover more “Tricks of the Trade”. If you would like to suggest any of your own tricks, we will
be happy to acknowledge your contribution.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 23 IS THERE AN UNIMPORTANT FLIGHT? APR. 1981

CONSIDER THESE BITS OF REASONING:

“We only have commuter flights out of this airport, so there is no need for us to filter the Jet A as it is being
pumped into the storage tank.”

“A floating suction isn’t necessary because we only sell fuel to general aviation.”

“I don’t have to worry about fuel cleanliness for our helicopters. The truck always delivers good fuel.”

“The amount of fuel they pump at that airport is so small that there is no need to inspect very often.”

If you are reading this GamGram, you are somehow involved in aviation fuel or fueling operations. If you see any
intelligence in the above quotations, you have been brain-washed just the same as the guy who changes his brand
of beer because the TV commercial says their brand tastes better if you drink more than “one or two.”

There are obviously no unimportant flights. Human beings in little planes are just as alive as those in big planes.
When you die from the crash of a Boeing 747, you are just as dead as if a one-man helicopter crashed into your
house and killed you. Granted that there are more people in large planes, but there is simply no logic in an argument
that the required extent of safety precautions is proportional to how big the airplane is built.

Would it be sensible to say that the smaller the plane, the more water and dirt can be in the fuel? If your brain is
properly in gear, you surely will agree that flying can be bad for your health in any aircraft if the fuel is dirty, wet or
otherwise contaminated.

The number of new low capacity refueling installations being made in the USA today is far greater than at any
previous time. Most of these are for jet fuel but avgas installations are also being built at a high rate. There are
several reasons for this increased activity in the face of escalating fuel prices and fluctuation availability.

1. Commuter airline operations are increasing.

2. Private operators, worried about availability, want the flexibility of negotiation for their own supply.

3. US Government ADAP funds are becoming available for small airport projects.

Traditionally, major oil company engineers have scrutinized plans for new installations if they did not design the
entire system themselves. This control is all but lost today in the USA, and we would argue that a high percentage
of new projects are virtually out of control.

The FAA has never had any list of minimum standards for fuel handling systems or procedures, because the oil
companies have done a remarkably good job over the years. This control is still evident in airlines operations
where there are fuel supply contracts. Also, the airlines have operating manuals that the FAA demands be
followed. The problem area is new installations where an oil company is often not involved today.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Fuel that is bought on the spot market has no major oil company behind it; it may be excellent, or it may be
terrible. Some of this fuel is coming from places the major oil companies like to call “backyard tea kettles”.
After all, it really is not difficult to make kerosene; all you need is a supply of crude and a distillation
column. Making jet fuel that conforms to all requirements of ASTM D1655 requires more elaborate
equipment but in these days of unreliable availability, many operators seem willing to burn anything that
“looks” like jet fuel.

So here we are, back to the basic problem - people who have no background or experience in fuel
handling are deciding how facilities will be designed and operated. And just because an engineering
company is commissioned to design the facility does not solve the problem. We have dealt with some that
did not know a coalescer from a slug valve or the difference between avgas and jet fuel. It is encouraging
that a few qualified aviation fueling specialists who have retired from major oil companies and airlines are
now operating as independent consultants.

There are significant differences in minimum standards among oil companies. If you ask companies A or
B, they will say that epoxy lining of the underground tank is not necessary while C, D and E insist on it. Of
course, A and B may feel that they have other controls or procedures that make epoxy lining unnecessary.
If the FAA tried to set up a standard that specified epoxy lining, A and B would object. Oil company E would
object to a requirement for a floating suction. C insists that the swing joint of a floating suction be at the
centerline of an underground tank while all the others demand that it be at the bottom. There are few
points of complete agreement and no fuel suppliers want the requirements of another company imposed
on them. THE BOTTOM LINE IS SURELY THAT THE FUEL MUST BE CLEAN AND DRY IN THE
AIRCRAFT.

If there is one principle to which everyone agrees, it is that repetitive and redundant controls are
responsible for the generally high degree of safety we have today. In other words, it is not ONE thing you
do to have clean fuel; you do MANY things. If one or more fails, the others fill the gap

The following list of 7 design features provides optimum control and there will be little argument on the
desirability of each one.

1. Epoxy-lined, non-ferrous, or fiberglass tank

2. Receive into storage through filter separator
3. Tank installed with slope 1/4" per foot slope; inlet and outlet at high end
4. Floating suction in the storage tank
5. Dispense through filter separator
6. Water sensor in sump of dispensing filter separator - to stop the pump or close a valve
7. Monitor - such as a go-no-go device

Our proposition is that a facility does not need all of these features. It must have No. 5, it must have either
No. 6 or 7, and at least 2 of the first 4 features. We would consider this a bare minimum facility to insure
that contaminated fuel does not reach the aircraft.

Why do we say that either No. 6 or 7 is absolutely necessary? Because, after the filter separator sump has
filled with water, there is no other way to keep it from going into an aircraft. Take a look at your facility. If you
have no positive shut down feature, you are not protected.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 24 SLUG VALVE FLOW AND CONTROL JULY 1981
REVISED SEP. 1989

We continue to hear arguments about diaphragm operated slug valves. Should they be installed so that
flow goes upward through the seat or downward? Should they be located upstream or downstream of a
diaphragm failure? Can a slug valve be a check valve?

Filter separators are most always furnished with three components to provide for automatic water drain
and automatic shut-down in the event of a water slug condition. (Refer to GamGram Nos. 10, 11 and 12.)
The three components are as follows:

▪ Float control
▪ “Slug” or discharge valve
▪ Automatic water drain valve

If there is no water in the filter separator sump, the ball of the float control stays down. If water collects to
lift the float to a mid-position, the water drain valve will open automatically until the water level has
dropped. If the water does not drain rapidly enough, as in the case of a “slug” of incoming water, the float
rises to a top position and causes the slug valve to close until the water level goes down.

Recognizing that there is controversy on the questions in the first paragraph, we are “throwing down the
gauntlet” with a few statements of fact:

IF THE SLUG VALVE DIAPHRAGM FAILS:

1. When the float ball is down or at mid-position and flow is downward through seat, slug valve allows
continued flow to some degree.

2. When the float ball is at top position and flow is downward through seat, slug valve closes tight with
no down stream leakage.

3. When the float ball is down and flow is upward through seat, slug valve allows substantial flow.

4. When the float ball is up and flow is upward through seat, slug valve allows continued flow to some
degree.

The amount of flow that will occur in 1, 3 or 4 depends on the size of a diaphragm rupture. A very small
break can result in a rather large valve opening.

Obviously, the most dangerous situation is 4. It takes no great mental effort to conclude that we want zero
flow in a water slug situation. Therefore, the arrangement shown in GamGram No. 12 is desirable.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Do you know how to figure out whether your slug valve is flowing upward or downward through the seat?
Look at the 3-leg line that is cast in the valve body. It represents the bridgewall as shown below:

The 4 statements on the first page are true regardless of whether the slug valve is located upstream or
downstream of the filter separator. They also apply for all brands of diaphragm valve usually found in
aviation fuel systems: ClaVal, Baker, Oil Capital, AO Smith and Harwood.

No brand of standard slug valve will function as a check valve whether upstream or downstream of a filter
separator, whether operating in one direction or the other, unless the pilot circuit is especially designed to
add this feature. Kits are available that will make any slug valve work as an excellent check valve.

Many installations are being made today with a conductivity probe replacing the float control in the filter
separator water sump. The slug valve is then controlled by using a solenoid valve in the pilot circuit. All of
the four statements regarding diaphragm rupture also remain true for this type of installation.

OTHER DIAPHRAGM FAILURES

Some brands open when pilot pressure is directed to the top of the diaphragm. Others open when pilot
pressure is vented. See GamGram No. 10 to learn which type you have.

AUTOMATIC DRAIN VALVES:

A. If pilot pressure is supposed to open the valve, pilot line flow will be vented instead of
causing opening.

B. If the valve is supposed to open when pilot pressure is vented, it will stay closed but
water will vent through the pilot lines.

3-WAY PILOT ON SLUG VALVE:

C. If pilot pressure is supposed to cause the slug valve to open, it will stay closed. Leakage
through the diaphragm will go downstream.

D. If the slug valve is supposed to open when pilot pressure is vented, it will stay closed.
Leakage through the diaphragm will be vented.

As a result of this GamGram, many of our readers will decide to reverse the direction of flow in their slug
valves. Before starting such a project, be sure you understand exactly how all of the pilot lines must be re-
routed. Contact the manufacturer or one of our representatives for assistance.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 25 FILTER MEMBRANE TESTING AND RATING FEB 1977
REVISED MAR. 1996

This GamGram was originally published as No. 13 but its position has been exchanged with No. 25
because various revisions over the years have made it more of an interpretive discussion of the color
rating technique. It would be a good idea to re-read the 1996 version of No. 13 before reading this article.
First of all, let's review the methods:
1. COLOR METHOD - This is a field method using system pressure to force a measured
volume of fuel through a test membrane. You then rate the color of the membrane, when
dry, using the ASTM color booklet. "O" is beautiful; 10 is horrible. Use ASTM Method
D2276 Appendix X1.
2. MATCHED WEIGHT METHOD - Two factory-matched membranes are placed together,
one on top of the other and a measured volume of fuel (in the field) then flows through both.
The laboratory then weighs each membrane, subtracts the weight of the lower one from the
top one and reports the amount of dirt that was collected on the top one. This method has
the advantage of avoiding pre-weighing, coding and record-keeping before testing. Use
ASTM Method D-2276.
Both of these methods have the advantage over a laboratory test of a sample collected in a can or bottle,
in that the sample passes through the membranes directly from the flowing pipe that carries the fuel. The
advantage we are referring to, of course, is that errors caused by unclean sample containers are totally
eliminated. If it is not convenient to use the above methods, your last resort is to use ASTM Method
D5452, which describes how to collect samples in shipping containers and perform gravimetric tests in
the laboratory. This procedure, which was recently revised, recommends that the sample be taken from a
flowing pipe and it recommends the matched-weight technique.
An argument against the color rating method is that the color of the fuel itself can stain the membrane,
leading you to think the color is dirt. We have heard of jet fuel made from North Slope crude oil that will
color a membrane to a B6 with no weight at all. It is rather obvious that a test is needed that will tell you
whether it is dirt or color in the fuel. One easy way is to look at the back of the membrane and compare the
color of the front to the reverse side. The difference in color is a measure of the filterable dirt in the fuel
sample. It really astonishes us why this old, but simple technique has not been used except by a few
people.
A refinement of this procedure is to put 2 membranes in the plastic monitor and then compare the topside
colors of both. We like this much better, not only because you may disturb the collected dirt on the top
when you turn it over on a color chart, but because color on top can show through to the underside of the
membrane. Note: Do not use matched-weight refill membranes for this test because they cost four
times more than standard membranes.
If we accept the fact that the above techniques are logical, the big problem now is how to decide how
many numbers difference in rating between the top membrane and the lower one is acceptable. To our
knowledge, no laboratory has published the results of any research on this, but we surely hope they get
started.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
One of our oil company customers has the following procedure for delivery of fuel to the aircraft:
He uses ASTM Method D-2276 as the test method, collecting 10 liters:
1. If a single membrane shows a 3 or higher reading (rated wet), run a second test with a
double membrane.
2. If the difference is more than 2 numbers, do not use the fuel until a gravimetric test has been
completed.
3. If the top membrane is rated 6 or darker, the fuel must be tested gravimetrically before use,
regardless of the color of the lower membrane.
We would modify this procedure by rating the membranes when dry and by specifying that a gravimetric
test be performed if the color difference is as great as 2 numbers. In this way, you learn the weight
significance of a 2 number color difference for that fuel. Once you know this, we feel the above plan can
be used with confidence.
Do not forget that the color rating technique serves its greatest purpose as a way to detect a change. That
is why tests must be performed on a regular schedule with absolutely no variation in procedure. We do
not propose to go through a step-by-step procedure because you can easily get this from other sources
such as our MiniMonitor instruction booklet. However, there are a few special points that bother us:
1. The Sampling Point -- Read GamGram No. 6 and Bulletin No. 3. Why do some people
expect to obtain accurate results from a sampling connection that generates rust and
debris? Don't laugh! This is one of the worst problems. We often find rusty gate valves
with graphite stem packings in a sampling connection where all other components are
stainless steel.
2. Technique
A. Do not over-tighten the monitor holder. There is no need to apply great force.
O-rings do the sealing. If you have leaks, order new o-rings. Over-tightening
can cause membrane breakage around the clamped edge.
B. Never move a valve or start and stop a pump while a test is in progress. If you
must do these things, you must first stop flow through the membrane with the
Flush/Test valve. Then after system flow has been re-established, continue
the test by opening the Flush/Test valve.
C. Never turn a flushing valve rapidly. How many times have you found a broken
membrane? We believe that this is caused by rapidly starting the flush cycle
in a high pressure system. The fuel bypasses the membrane, but it can enter
the plastic monitor from the outlet side, compressing the trapped air in the
monitor. A membrane has little strength and fails from this slight reverse flow.
Turn the flushing valve very slowly.
D. Another cause of broken membranes is the double-acting syringe that a
competitor supplies with his test kit. Sometimes the internal check valves
stick, allowing fuel to be forced backward through the membrane when you
push the handle inward. To avoid this, remove the plastic monitor before you
push in the handle.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 26 AN EVEN NEWER LOOK AT PRESSURE DROP, OCT. 1982
REVISED JUNE 2013
CORRECTED AND UNCORRECTED

One thing is certain in this universe, there is no such thing as a perpetual motion machine. In the real world, which
means outside of politics, you cannot get anything done without expending energy.

This rule applies in fuel systems: when fuel flows, it takes energy to push fuel through any valve, meter, filter or pipe.
This results in a drop in pressure.

A clean filter element in a vessel will have many open passageways for the fuel to take, so it is easy for the fuel to get
through. This is why new filters show a low pressure drop indication on your Gammon Gauge (or other differential
measuring device), it takes very little energy to push the fuel through.

As a filter removes dirt or as a monitor removes dirt or water (monitors trap water as a gel), some passageways are
plugged. This means that more energy has to be used to push the fuel through the remaining passageways. If half
of the holes plugged, the fuel has to move through the remaining holes at twice the velocity. We measure that lost
energy as pressure drop.

Filter separators add a complication. Dirt causes pressure drop in the same way as in any other filter element, but
water acts different than in a monitor. A coalescer element only collects tiny water drops and makes them into
larger ones, and if no water is present, the pressure drop is low. If significant amounts of water are present, the
pressure drop increases, but if the fuel becomes dry again, the pressure drop can go back down. The difference is
not very large, but can observed on the DP gauge.

On the other hand is the “clay treater” vessel, often called a “clay filter”. These are most commonly found in pipeline
terminals and ship unloading facilities, but some are located on airports. In reality, they are not filters at all; the
“activated clay” (like activated carbon) is designed to remove chemical surfactant contamination, not dirt or water.
Increased pressure drop happens only if there are a LOT of big dirt particles or large amounts of water, which
blocks off flow in the clay.

PRESSURE DROP = DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE = DP

So you don’t get an increase in the pressure drop (differential pressure or DP) between the inlet of a vessel and the
outlet without something bad in the fuel, right?

Not true. Velocity is important. At zero flow, there is no pressure drop, even with virtually plugged filters. As the
flow rate increases, DP increases, so an increase in the DP can take place simply because the flow rate is higher or
decrease because flow rate is lower. For example, some aircraft can accept 850 gpm/3,200 lpm when the fuel
tanks are empty, but this may decrease to just 150 gpm/560 lpm when you are flowing into the last small fuel tanks.
The same is true in filling an above ground storage tank, the flow rate can vary as much as 50% or more from “head”
pressure as the tank fills.

It is simple if you are at full system flow, you don’t need correction. But if you are flowing at a rate below 100% , you
need to correct the indicated DP to what it would have been if the flow rate had been at 100%. Then you can keep a
chart and see the trend. 100% is not the rated flow of any component, it is actual maximum flow you can achieve.

For manually correcting DP, there are charts, spreadsheet programs and electronics that can do this.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 MEANINGFUL EVALUATION OF
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

There are different views on monitoring

DP and an increase in corrected DP
means different things in different places.
A gradual increase is expected
anywhere. A sudden increase can signal
a serious problem, depending on your
experience at this facility. A sudden drop
in corrected DP is always serious, it
means that a filter element has come
loose or failed.

Some people watch DP to spot sudden

contamination changes. Some watch DP
to schedule the next element change.
Some watch DP to make sure the system
is shut down and elements changed
before DP becomes too high, damaging
the filter elements and allowing debris Percent of system flow limit
downstream.

We have four alternatives:

1. Simply put a shutdown switch onto the Gammon Gauge (or other differential pressure control) and
stop flow if DP gets too high.
2. Add a low pressure switch to determine if the DP is too low, indicating a loose element.
3. Add a differential monitoring control that automatically corrects the DP and keeps a record. Such
controls have alarms and shutdowns for high corrected DP, notice trends and sense a decrease in
corrected DP that could mean an element has come loose.
4. We can manually calculate corrected DP, with a spreadsheet or by using a chart. The weakness is
that you have no automatic shutoff if DP suddenly goes up.

Clearly #4 is no longer allowed on into plane monitors by either JIG or ATA-103.

There are arguments, we’d prefer to avoid, as to what is best. We make a DP transmitter that gives the Gammon
Gauge an output that can be connected to an electronic DP correction control and we make switches that can be
added to a Gammon Gauge to indicate low or high DP. We also make a High DP shutdown control.

On refueler trucks and on other types of filter vessels, it gets more complicated. Refueler vessels with monitors
usually have a higher flow rate through the monitor than the meter shows, because of the pressure bypass control,
so correcting DP is very difficult. Some refueler trucks have filter separators, which are not as vulnerable to
bursting. Some (rare) have filter separators AND monitor elements, either in a separate vessel or inside of the
separator elements.

On fuel farm and terminal filters, it depends on experience. If you never see high DP and the flow rate really doesn’t
vary, just keeping records and graphing DP may be enough. Any sudden increase, however, could mean much
more than just some dirt, it may mean a mixture with other fuels, like diesel, where the mix is more of a problem than
the dirt.

On clay, it means you have problems with water or gross dirt, and could also be more serious than you would think,
due to mixed fuel. A low DP does NOT mean the clay is working.

REMEMBER: On any filter, a decrease in corrected DP can be as serious a problem and even a more
serious problem than high corrected DP, it means you are very likely pumping unfiltered fuel!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 27 SALT DRIERS NOV. 1983
REVISED JULY 1997

A hundred years ago, you could buy patent medicines that were claimed by the salesmen to cure
everything from sore feet to blindness. People bought them in desperation for a cure. With ever
increasing frequency when a jet fuel problem occurs, we are hearing people exclaim desperately, "Maybe
we should consider a salt tower." Somehow, there has developed (mostly in the USA) an idea that salt will
do everything, including removing dirt, water, surfactants and micro-organisms.

We thought it would be useful to review this subject and identify just what this equipment can do. First of
all, the correct name is "salt drier", not "salt tower", in spite of the fact that they are often big and tall, like a
tower. A salt drier does exactly what its name implies; it "dries" and it does it by an elementary process of
dissolving salt into water to make brine. Everyone knows that brine is heavier than ordinary water - brine
settles more rapidly than water.

Basically, all that is needed is to put rock salt in a vessel and pump fuel through the salt. It is an ancient
process that has been used by refiners for decades.

Salt does not remove dirt, and it does not remove surfactants or micro-organisms. However, a system
that has no water will grow no micro-organisms. The really interesting thing that salt does is to remove
more than just the free water -- it super-dries the fuel, removing a significant amount of the dissolved
water. Actually, it is this capability that makes the process appealing to many people.

Suppose you have a situation where jet fuel is being transported by ship, barge or pipeline. Water is
always present. If the fuel also contains surfactants and has a low MSEP rating (formerly called WSIM),
the conventional procedure is to clay treat but the water degrades the clay, resulting in short life. We
know that surfactants will burn in a turbine engine but if we do not remove them, the filter separators will
become disarmed and will not remove water. It is almost like going around in a revolving door.

Those who promote salt driers, use the following rationale:

▪ Dry the fuel well below saturation in the airport storage tanks.
▪ Use extreme care to prevent further water contact, but just in case some water does contaminate
the system, it will re-dissolve into the fuel.
▪ Do not worry about disarming the coalescers with surfactant between the storage tanks and the
aircraft, because there is no water to remove.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The fear in the minds of many people is that there will be a brine carry-over which might result in
catastrophic corrosion of aircraft. Some aircraft did suffer severe salt corrosion several years ago, but it is
not clear whether it was salt drier carry-over or simply sea water contamination. Intelligent design of salt
driers and careful maintenance and operation on a continuing basis could surely offer complete safety.
The maintenance practice of "taking action only if something goes wrong", currently used at some
airports today, is absolutely impossible with a salt drier. It is a chemical process plant and must be
operated as such at all times.

Have you now decided that you really need a salt drier? Have you convinced yourself that the design
engineers will "think of everything" to prevent salt carry-over? Have you also decided that your superb
management skills will insure that the equipment will always be operated "by the book"?

If you answered "yes" to the above 3 question, maybe you should examine the basic premise – that if you
super-dry the fuel, you have given yourself enough water re-dissolving capacity so that you do not have to
worry that coalescers may be disarmed by surfactants. How much re-dissolving capacity do you have?

Jet fuel can hold roughly 70 ppm of water in solution at average temperatures. If you dry it to 20 ppm, you
can afford to have 50 ppm of new water contact before you will have free water. Take a 5000 US gallon
batch of jet fuel and calculate the amount of water we are talking about:

5000 gal. x 50
=0.25 gal.
1,000,000
This means that one quart of water is your factor of safety In other words, if water accidentally gets into a
5000 gallon batch of fuel, one quart will dissolve and the remainder will be free water that the coalescers
must remove to protect the aircraft. Is this factor of safety large enough? We don't think it is because our
experience shows that large amounts of water cause incidents. We have never heard of a real incident on
a commercial jet airplane caused by a quart of water in 5000 gallons of fuel. An "incident" is usually 20, 60
or 130 gallons.

Can all airports use salt driers? Absolutely not! The cost is prohibitive for small and even the medium
sized airports. It is not just the investment, it is the cost of qualified personnel to monitor the equipment.

In conclusion, we believe that salt driers can serve the very useful purpose of removing water before clay
treatment to remove surfactants. The effective life of clay can be greatly extended if there is no water
present. We simply do not agree that the surfactants should be left in the fuel. The filter separator must be
given the capability of removing water in an emergency; surfactant contaminated coalescers cannot be
relied upon to protect an airplane.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 28 WSIM, MSEP AND SWIFT KIT APR. 1984
REVISED OCT. 1996

This is a totally revised issue of GamGram No. 28. Rewriting it became essential because during the 12
years since the original issue was published many changes have occurred.

The basic problem has been that the industry requires more exacting information, better test
reproducibility and data that relate more closely to the filter separators that are being used in aviation
today. This has resulted in the development of better test procedures and refined testing apparatus. The
original title was "How to Measure WSIM".

Most jet fuel supply systems include a piece of equipment known as a filter separator. Monitor filters are
also used but they are not the subject of this GamGram. Unfortunately, very few people know the
conditions that must exist for the filter separator to do its water removal job properly. If the water could
always be expected to lie in the bottom of a tank with the fuel on top, it would be a simple job to drain it
away, and most operators do that regularly. But fuel with water in it that goes through a centrifugal pump
becomes an emulsion of literally millions of tiny water drops that do not settle to the bottom of the tank for
long periods of time. It is this emulsion that the coalescer elements in the filter separator must deal with.
They must gather the tiny water drops together so that they will become large drops (coalesce) that can
rapidly settle to the bottom and be drained away.

The enemy of a coalescer element is "surfactant" or surface active agents that prevent water drops from
gathering together into large drops. They are chemical molecules that seek and influence a surface. The
particular surface they "like" is the surface of a water drop in the fuel. The reason they like a water surface
is because they have 2 "heads". One head likes fuel; the other head likes water. So, if the fuel contains
surfactants and if water is present, those 2- headed molecules "zoom" to the surface of the water drop just
like bees go for honey. The fuel "heads" orient themselves to stay in the fuel and the water heads are
captured by the water. Ultimately, the entire water drop is surrounded by a surfactant film making it
impossible for 2 water drops to coalesce together because they cannot come into contact.

In the early days of jet fuel handling, it became obvious that a test was necessary to find out if a batch of
fuel was contaminated with surfactants to an extent that coalescer performance would be jeopardized.
The Water Separometer Index (WSI) test was developed and after modification it became the WSIM test
(pronounced "wiz-um"). A reading of 100 was excellent, meaning that coalescers would perform very
well. If the reading was as low as 70 the fuel was considered very poor. Extremely contaminated fuel
could be "zero".

The modern instrument that measures the surfactant contamination of the fuel is currently called the
®
Micro-Separometer . It is a highly refined version of the original equipment. The reading is still 100 for the
best fuel but instead of referring to it as the WSIM rating, it is called MSEP (pronounced Em-sep).
® Registered trademarks by Emcee Electronics Corp.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Both the WSIM and the MSEP equipment are based on the same idea; an emulsion of water and the fuel
sample is forced through a pad of fiberglass coalescing media. An optical device measures the haze in
the effluent. The less haze detected, the higher the rating and vice versa. While precision (repeatability)
has never been very good for either test, MSEP has proven to be superior to WSIM. Another big problem
has been that the test over-reacts to Stadis 450, the additive that improves fuel conductivity. In other
words, a low MSEP fuel may perform quite adequately in a real coalescing performance test.
Considerable pressure from users has influenced great effort to overcome these problems.

Possibly the most important variable that has been investigated has been the replacement of fiberglass
with the same coalescing media that is used in manufacturing modern coalescer elements that have
passed the tests that are specified in API 1581, Revision 3. The new material looks somewhat like heavy
paper; it contains very, very fine glass fibers. Fiberglass insulation is such an inconsistent material that
coalescer manufacturers were forced to find better media several years ago. The device that holds the
fiberglass pads in the current version of the Micro Separometer is an aluminum capsule called the
Alumicel®. So what we are saying is that in the future new Alumicels are expected to contain a paper-like
coalescing material instead of fiberglass. Meanwhile, the currently available Alumicels must be
considered valid. As of June 1996, encouraging test results show that the instrument itself will probably
not have to be revised. This is very good news for owners of the model known as Mark V Deluxe.

This review of tests that attempt to determine the effect of surfactants on jet fuel would not be complete
without a comment on the technical property that is involved. That property is "interfacial tension", and in
our business it means "strength of the interface between the fuel and water.” If the film of molecules at the
interface is strong, large water drops can exist. As the interfacial film decreases in strength, the smaller
the water drops will be until the mixture of water and fuel becomes an emulsion. The measurement of
interface strength is performed in the laboratory by a delicate instrument called a "tensiometer". It is
definitely not a field instrument but a kit has recently entered the market that performs this measurement
in the field. It is called "SWIFT KIT" and is marketed by Velcon Filters, Inc. This kit is particularly useful in
checking the performance of clay treaters that are used in our industry to capture and remove surfactants
that cause the interfacial tension to decrease; clay adsorbs the surfactant molecules as described in
GamGram No. 14. Therefore, by checking the interfacial tension (IFT) before and after the fuel has
passed through the clay, the operator can quickly assess the performance of the clay. This can also be
determined with a Micro-Separometer but that is a more time consuming and expensive test.

In conclusion, the Micro-Separometer has proven to be the most reliable instrument for evaluating the
ability of a fuel sample to have its water removed by a filter separator. A program is currently underway to
improve repeatability, and we will further revise this GamGram to reflect the results of that investigation
when it has been completed.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 29 PREVENTING MISFUELING DEC. 1984
REVISED AUG. 1997

Did you know that there are 5 times more aviation accidents caused by water and dirt in the fuel than
from misfueling (pumping the wrong fuel into an airplane)? We heard a supposedly responsible
representative of an aircraft manufacturer say that this means the industry should concentrate on the
water and dirt problem instead of the misfueling problem. What a monkey!

We already do many things to keep fuel clean and dry but what has been done in the past to prevent
misfueling? The answer is almost nothing. Oh yes, we do label trucks, tanks, pipes and fill stands,
but not always. The aircraft are supposed to have placards stating what fuel to use, but they do not
always. Bottom loading equipment can easily be keyed with product selectors that have been on the
market for 30 years but they are not always installed. In fact, only a small fraction of the apparatus is
so equipped.

Misfueling accidents all have one thing in common -- human error.

After an air show, an experienced and highly professional pilot watched his light twin being refueled
with a truck marked "jet fuel". Fortunately, he crash-landed safely.

A very young, untrained line serviceman put jet fuel in a cabin twin because he saw the word TURBO
in the name of the airplane. Seven people were killed.

A dealer had a practice of keeping the unmarked jet fuel truck in one location and the unmarked avgas
truck in another. Guess what happened. Someone made a mistake in parking the jet truck. The
accident was inevitable.

A corporate pilot arrived at one of the world's largest airports and deliberately specified that he did not
want fuel. He got it anyhow, jet fuel in his avgas cabin twin. The dealer caught this error before the
pilot departed.

So you see, it is always human error. Fortunately, someone decides to do something positive about
this crazy situation. The General Aviation Manufacturers Association promoted a campaign which is
summarized below:

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 1. The word TURBO has been eliminated from airplane names.

2. Decals were designed and distributed for labeling filler caps.

3. Bands were designed for labeling all overwing refueling nozzles.

4. A keying system was devised to prevent a large jet fuel nozzle filler spout from entering a
smaller avgas filler opening.

The fourth action is the one that is the most important, because it overcomes human error. Research
showed that 74% of avgas aircraft have filler openings that are less than 2.3" in diameter. Therefore,
only 26% of the aircraft fleet needed to be modified with smaller openings if all jet fuel spouts on
overwing nozzles were made larger. Through some very clever design, Shaw Aero, the largest
manufacturer of caps and filler openings, developed an insert to reduce the size of large openings.
These kits are offered by the airframe manufacturers, such as Piper, Cessna, Beech, Mooney and
Aero Commander. All new avgas aircraft manufactured after early 1984 have a small filler opening.

The spouts on all overwing nozzles prior to 1984 were sized to fit through the smallest filler openings.
However, to make the interference system work, every overwing nozzle that dispensed jet fuel had to
have a new spout that is large enough so it would not enter an avgas opening. The problem was that
some jet fueled aircraft have a "D" shaped opening; they are not round. The solution was a spout that
is oval shaped. It measures 2.6" at the largest point so it will not enter a 2.3" opening, but it will enter
the "D" shaped opening.

So now you may think that the problem of misfueling is solved. Unfortunately, it is not solved because
of several other problems:

1. The FAA has not developed a clear, consistent policy. For example, owners of Cessna 300
and 400 series aircraft received AD's that mandated installation of restrictor kits but owners
of Beechcraft twin engined aircraft only received Service Bulletins; compliance is not
mandatory. The Piper AD only applies to Navajo and Aerostars, not to Aztecs! Very
Confusing!!

2. There is no law that forces a dealer, FBO or oil company to install the new oval spouts on
their jet fuel nozzles.

3. After all of the heavy research that went into the design of the system, some aircraft that
use jet fuel have been found to have filler openings that are too small for the oval spout.
Fortunately, some of these can be modified to the large size but others remain a problem.
More about these cases will be found later in this article.
4. The real "zinger" in the program is people who "bad-mouth" the idea, just because it is
different from what they are accustomed to.

For Example:

a. Some line personnel said that the new oval spout causes excessive splash-back in the
Cessna Citations and Beech King Airs. To investigate this, tests were run that showed
that round spouts also will cause the same splash-back problem at the same flow rate.
The difficulty is that the fuel cannot flow down the slope (dihedral) of the wing rapidly
because of the small holes in the wing structure.

b. Some people say absolutely that the shape of the oval spout causes a spray pattern that
results in splash-back. This is pure "bunk" - look at these photographs of the fuel flow
pattern.

c. Some people have stated that the flow rate is reduced by the new spout, as compared to
the 1½" diameter spout it replaces. Tests by Cessna and OPW prove this is simply not
true.

d. An article was printed stating that the flow in a round spout is laminar but not in the oval
spout. Fantastic!! Try to find a qualified engineer who will agree that laminar flow can
exist at 9 feet per second downstream of a cone strainer. That is the velocity in a 1½"
round spout at 50 gpm. Man! -- That is turbulent flow, not "laminar".
"People" problems are an aggravation but hopefully they can be solved by real facts. Big problems?
Yes, there are a few. The biggest one is the Hawker Siddley 125. There are 200 of these aircraft in the
U.S.A. (through the 600 Series) that have filler necks that are about 1/4" too small for the oval shaped
spout to enter. Obviously, these executive jets must be refueled somehow but FBO's resisted
installing the new spout "just in case" a HS125 landed at their airport. This problem was solved by
British Aerospace (the manufacturer) when they developed an adapter spout for HS125 operators.
The crew simply hands this adapter to the refueler who slips it on to his oval spout.

But what is to be done about the helicopters that have been found to have small filler necks? These
are the Wessex, Boelkows, Puma, Dauphin, Gazelle, Twin Star and the extended range mods for the
Hiller OV-12 and the Bell Jet Ranger. Eventually, it is hoped they will all be modified with large filler
necks. There is an adapter available from Fjord Aviation Fueling Products. Clearly, this is not a
solution to the misfueling problem because someone could use the adapter and put jet fuel in an
avgas airplane. However, the adapter was purposely planned to be awkward, to encourage
operators to remove it unless it is absolutely needed to refuel one of the listed aircraft.

The end of the story is liability!!!

Regardless of aggravations and inefficiencies that can be blamed on the oval spout, do you think that
a misfueling law suit can be won by an FBO because the new spout was not installed? The reason "it
would not fit in 200 executive jets and helicopters" that represent possibly 1 percent of the jet fleet in
the USA would mean nothing to a jury.

All is not lost! Think of it this way. Any jet fuel nozzle that is equipped with the oval spout will not be
capable of putting jet fuel in 74% of the avgas aircraft fleet. That is a real accomplishment!

In conclusion, we feel that the new spouts simply must be used regardless of aggravations they
create. People who refuel aircraft do make mistakes, like all other people in this world. No FBO can
afford not to install the new spouts and no owner of an aircraft with a large filler opening can afford not
to have the restrictors installed.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 30 COLD WEATHER OPERATION APR. 1985
REVISED JULY 1997
OF FILTER SEPARATORS

When an engineer specifies equipment that has little technical foundation, we often call it, "Seat of the
pants engineering". This is a perfect description of the way people specify heaters for filter separators.
Call it intuition, guesswork, hocus-pocus or pure charlatanism; there really is no apparent technical basis
for the way most heater systems are designed for filter separators.

Filter separator salesmen are known to make stupid statements, such as, "A heater keeps the filter
separator warm." We recommend that you throw the guy out, because he simply does not know what he
is talking about. Consider the fact that if your filter separator operates at 600 gpm, and the incoming fuel is
at 20°F (-6.7°C), the amount of heat required to raise the temperature to 32°F (0°C) is 24,000 BTU/min..
This requires a heat input of 421 KW. Even if you totally ignore the incredibly high heat loss from the
vessel surface to the atmosphere, you can easily see that the typical sump heater rated at 1 KW achieves
nothing toward heating the vessel. It is like trying to melt steel with a match!

There are really two separate problems in operating filter separators in cold weather:

1. Preventing the vessel drain fitting from freezing. (How can you change elements if you are unable
to drain it?)

2. Maintaining fuel flow through elements that are blocked with ice.

The first problem is the most common one. The second problem is restricted to regions where fuel in
storage tanks drops well below the freezing point of water.

To keep the drain fitting clear of ice, an immersion heater provides a simple answer, but it takes some
careful thought to insure that the heat will be located where it is needed. Figure 1 is an example of
thousands of poorly designed installations. The drain valve is located for operator convenience, but the
heater will not prevent freezing at the valve. The design in Figure 2 is good because the drain valve is as
close to the heater as possible, and the heater is directly under the drain connection. Convective
recirculation up through the drain into the vessel tends to prevent ice formation that might bridge over the
drain entrance in the vessel. Heaters rated 300 to 750 watts have been found suitable.

To assist the drain line heater, a sump heater is often used. However, many of them are installed as in
Figure 3. Clearly, a heater at this location in the vessel is worthless, because heat will not be located
where it is needed, at the drain entrance. In Figure 4, the heater is located so that it can assist the drain
line heater in maintaining a clear path for water to leave the vessel. There is no way that the entire deck-
plate can be heated, so it must be resolved that ice will exist in areas located away from the inlet of the
drain. Obviously, most of the heat from such a heater will rise upward, away from the water that collects,
so it is very important that the heater be located as close to the sump surface as possible -- hopefully no
more than ½ inch (12mm) above it.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 FIGURE 1: POOR DESIGN FIGURE 2: GOOD DESIGN FIGURE 3: POOR DESIGN FIGURE 4: GOOD DESIGN

We now return to the problem of dealing with ice that forms in fuel before the water has settled to the
sump. Underground storage tanks almost never have very low temperatures, except possibly in arctic
regions. The fuel in above-ground storage tanks can drop far below the freezing point in many parts of the
world. As the temperature of fuel drops below the freezing point, water that was dissolved in the fuel
appears as ice crystals in the form of microscopic needles that do not tend to settle, because they are too
small. Coalescer elements become hopelessly blocked by these slivers of ice.

Dealing with this problem is extremely difficult and there are few alternatives. All are very expensive and
none are simple:

A. Use anti-icing additives.

B. Install the filter equipment in a heated building. When the elements become plugged with ice, stop
the flow and wait until the ice melts. If you have extra money, install two parallel filter systems so
you can switch from one to the other to allow thawing.

C. Heat the fuel storage tank to keep ice from forming.

In case you would like to know some other methods that have been used in the last 40 years, consider
these:

1. One filter separator manufacturer had a specially designed unit that you buried in the ground with
only the cover exposed. Earth is a great insulator!

2. Hundreds of filter separators were installed inside of plywood boxes having electrical space
heaters inside. It was necessary to dismantle the box to change the elements.

3. Hundreds of installations were made with the sump and drain piping thermally insulated (lagged).
Rain water always leaked into the insulation making the heating task far worse; many vessels
rusted on the outside nearly to the point of structural failure.

We know of two airports that were kept in operation in a recent winter, because the ice-blocked coalescer
elements were periodically removed and thawed in a heated building. Fueling of aircraft was maintained
by alternately using two sets of coalescers. There are no low-cost solutions to this problem.

In conclusion, concentrate on keeping drain systems clear of ice, and then hope and pray that you will not
have to deal with wet batches of jet fuel.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 31 PIPE, PIPE THREADS, AND TUBING DEC. 1985

This issue of the GamGram is written out of total frustration. The problem is that it seems necessary for a person to work with
tubing, pipe & pipe threads for at least 5 years before understanding them, and then he orders the wrong size fitting half the
time.

CUSTOMER: “I ordered ten (10) 3/8 inch toggle valves, and you sent me these big things with threads that are almost 3/4 inch
in diameter”.

ANSWER: “Well, 3/8 inch pipe has an OD that is about 3/4 inch -- only 0.075 inches less, so we sent you what you ordered.”

CUSTOMER: “But I measured my pipe and it was about 3/8 inches OD. How can you say that your 3/4 inch is what I ordered.”

ANSWER: “If you had told us what your pipe measured, we would have sent you 1/8 inch valves. Pipe that 1/8 inch size has an
OD just 0.03 inches greater than 3/8 inch.”

CUSTOMER: “You guys are nuts!”

The customer is frustrated, and so are we. So now we are going to tell you the “facts of life” about pipe sizes. We do not want to
appear to justify the peculiarities of the system – all we will do is explain it.

Pipe was originally made by casting processes. The inside diameter measured 3/8 inch or 1 inch or 3 inch, whatever the size
was supposed to be. Within the last 120 years, wrought pipe was perfected, but it was found unnecessary to use the heavy wall
thicknesses that were required to avoid problems of cast pipe. Wrought materials such as steel and brass could withstand far
greater pressures than cast pipe. Obviously, the wall thickness had to be reduced to save metal, but the question was whether
the OD should be reduced or the ID increased. Someone decided that the ID should be increased. This way, the wrought pipe
could be connected to the same fittings that had been made for cast pipe. This is how the world became confused about pipe
sizes.

The following chart gives the sizes of standard schedule 40 pipe. Manufacturing tolerances are not shown. Schedule numbers
that are less than 40 or greater than 40 all have the same OD; only the ID changes. Pipe that is made for high pressure has a
thicker wall, and the schedule number is greater than 40, such as 80, 120 or 160. Light duty pipe has thicker walls and smaller
schedule numbers, such as 20, 10, or 5.

PIPE SIZE THREADS OD ID

INCH INCH INCH MM INCH MM
1/8 27 0.405 10.3 0.269 6.8
1/4 18 0.540 13.7 0.364 9.3
3/8 18 0.675 17.2 0.493 12.5
½ 14 0.840 21.3 0.622 15.8
3/4 14 1.050 26.7 0.824 20.9
1 11½ 1.315 33.4 1.049 26.6
1¼ 11½ 1.660 42.2 1.380 35.1
1½ 11½ 1.900 48.3 1.610 40.9
2 11½ 2.375 60.3 2.067 52.5
2½ 8 2.875 73.0 2.469 62.7
3 8 3.500 88.9 3.068 77.9
3½ 8 4.000 101.6 3.548 90.1
4 8 4.500 114.3 4.026 102.3
5 8 5.563 141.3 5.047 128.2
6 8 6.625 168.3 6.065 154.1
8 8 8.625 219.1 7.981 202.7
10 8 10.750 273.1 10.020 254.5
12 8 12.750 323.9 11.938 303.2
14 8 14.000 335.6 13.234 336.0

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The lesson to learn is that it is impossible to find a dimension on a fitting or a pipe that tells you the actual size until you get up to
14 inch pipe. The OD of 14 inch pipe is really 14 inches; the OD of 20 inch pipe is 20 inches, etc.

So now if all of our good customers would please measure their pipe or pipe fittings, our problem will be solved forever -- but we
don't really believe that. Why? Because then we develop confusion about tubing sizes.

TUBING

Tubing is measured by its OD not its ID; 3/8 inch tubing really measures 3/8 inch on its OD, but its ID is usually only about 0.3.
Where we have a tubing problem is overseas where metric sizes are used; American fractional inch tubing fittings will not fit.
That is why we have to insist that our overseas customers actually take very close measurements. This will insure that we
provide the right metric sized tubing fitting.

PIPE THREADS

Most pipe threads in petroleum service outside of North America are straight, not tapered. A gasket does the sealing. When an
American product reaches an overseas destination, the mechanic thinks that the fitting should be tightened until no threads
can be seen on the pipe. The result is usually that the fitting splits open because of the tremendous forces that are created
when two tapered parts are driven together. Regrettably, there is no standard torque that should be used. Generally speaking,
from 4 to 7 turns will produce a tight joint if a thread sealant, such as Teflon tape, is used. Our experience shows that most
manufacturers of stainless steel fittings do not adhere to the standards which specify that hand tightness is reached in 4 - 5
turns. You are lucky to have 2 turns. The number of turns after hand tightening should be 2 or 3.

An exceptionally severe problem develops when stainless steel fittings are screwed into aluminum castings with Teflon tape as
the sealant. Although the Teflon provides some lubrication, it is not consistent. If a thread is rough at one point, the Teflon tears
away; the mechanic feels the resistance and thinks the joint is tight. It leaks. We have learned over the years that adding
petroleum jelly (Vaseline) to the tape after it is applied, makes “all the difference in the world”. But we warn you, the very low
friction can easily result in a split fitting. Little more than hand tight will make a leakproof connection.

BRITISH PIPE THREADS

Although British tapered pipe threads are used in foreign industry, the petroleum industry in all areas out of North America,
seem to have standardized on the British parallel or straight pipe thread. A gasket makes the seal. We refer to it as BSPP for
British Standard Parallel Pipe threads, but we are criticized for adding the second P. The reason we insist on doing it is because
BSP can mean either tapered or parallel threads.

PIPE SIZE THREADS OD OD

INCH INCH INCH INCH
1/8 28 0.383 9.7 The dimensions of BSPP threads are remarkably close to
1/4 19 0.518 13.2 NPT as the chart shows, but the thread form is 55°
3/8 19 0.656 16.7 instead of 60° and the number of threads per inch is
1/2 14 0.825 21.0 different. Nevertheless, some mechanics consistently
3/4 14 1.041 26.4 make tight connections with Teflon tape when installing
1 11 1.309 33.3 NPT male fittings into female BSPP threads if one
1¼ 11 1.650 41.9 material is soft, like aluminum.
1½ 11 1.882 47.8
2 11 2.347 59.6

SUMMARY

The only safe way to know what you are doing when you order pipe fittings is to measure with a caliper or a micrometer. We
surely do hate to ship parts half way around the world and then find the customer ordered the wrong size.

NOTE: Just to clarify, OD stands for Outside Diameter, and ID stands for Inside Diameter.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 32 VENTURI AND NOZZLE PRESSURE APR. 1987
REVISED JAN. 1998

On nearly every refueler truck and hydrant cart which is capable of underwing (pressure) refueling there is a gauge marked
"nozzle pressure". Since it is not connected to the nozzle, how can it really show actual nozzle pressure? There is no magic
involved. Actually, it does not show nozzle pressure! What it shows is simulated nozzle pressure. The gauge is connected to a
device called a VENTURI. It is usually mounted at the inlet of the hose reel. Few people understand what the venturi does or
how to adjust it properly. A large number of the venturis in the world are not properly adjusted.

To understand a venturi, we have to understand energy. In a flowing pipe, the energy at any point depends on velocity and
pressure. The energy level remains the same except for gradual decreases caused by friction as the fluid passes through
valves, fittings and pipe. In Figure 1, the pressures at A, B and C will be exactly the same if there is no flow. If flow takes place,
the pressure at C will be nearly the same as at A, less a friction loss. However, the pressure at B will be much lower than at C.
The reason is that we turned some of the pressure energy into velocity energy to get the fluid through the small opening. After
the restriction, the velocity energy decreases so the pressure energy must increase accordingly.

Giovanni Venturi, the Italian scientist, discovered 200 years ago that he could make an excellent flow meter with very little
pressure loss if he carefully designed the outlet after the restriction to avoid turbulence and friction. See Figure 2. The pressure
recovery zone is a long gradual taper back to the original pipe size. The pressure drop (energy loss due to friction) in his design
is much less than in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2

The purpose of a venturi in a fuel system is not to measure flow rate but to provide a simulation of nozzle pressure at B and to
use that pressure as the control signal for the pressure control valve. When fuel is pumped to an aircraft, you want maximum
flow, but pressure must be kept below 50 psi maximum aircraft fueling pressure to achieve maximum flow rate into the aircraft.
See Figure 3. Such a system may require 80 psi at point C in order to result in 50 psi at the aircraft (D), assuming a 30 psi
pressure drop in the reel and hose. The problem is that when the aircraft is full, there is no flow and therefore no pressure drop.
Without a venturi such a system would, at no flow, put 80 psi on the aircraft. This could cause damage to the aircraft fuel
system. If set at 50 psi, the actual fueling rate would be very slow, no where near the design rate because the pressure drop
between points C and D would use up much of that 50 psi.

FIGURE3

(The above example shows a simple, non-compensated single pressure control valve system, for simplicity.)

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The venturi system (Figure 4) solves this problem. By locating the venturi just before the hose reel, pressure drop across the
filter and meter is ignored by the pressure controller. The venturi's job is to compensate for pressure drop in the hose reel, hose
and nozzle. As flow increases, the venturi "fools" the pressure control valve into delivering enough pressure so that there is 50
psi at the low pressure point (B). The venturi is "tuned" so that B and D match. Under full flow conditions, supply pressure (C)
may be 90 psi and pressure at point A may be 70 psi, but pressure at the nozzle and at point B is 50 psi. When the aircraft is full
and flow stops, pressure A, B, C and D return to 50 psi.

FIGURE 4

ADJUSTMENT OF THE VENTURI

Venturis are not designed to match each system because it would be far too expensive to custom machine each one. Instead,
a venturi is selected that has too much compensation. The Whittaker (formerly Thiem) F505 provides up to a 34 psi pressure
depression at 600 gpm. If you only need 27 psi of depression to compensate for the pressure drop through the hose reel, hose
and nozzle, you must "bleed off" some of the signal. This is done by adjusting a needle valve (Figure 5) so that some fuel from
the high pressure zone at the venturi inlet will flow to the venturi throat. The resulting "mixed" pressure signal (27 psi below
system pressure) is then fed back to the control valve as its "command". When correctly adjusted, the pressures at gauges B
and D read the same. This should be checked at no flow and at full system flow rate.

FIGURE 5

▪ When properly adjusted, the system allows maximum flow rate without danger to the aircraft. If you change to a different
hose length or size (diameter), the venturi must be re-adjusted. We recommend that this adjustment be checked at least
once a month. In this way, a possible problem with the pressure control system may be detected and maximum safe flow
rate is assured.

▪ If a hose-end pressure control valve (HECV) is mounted on the nozzle, it must be either removed or "blocked out" to adjust
the venturi "nozzle pressure". When finished testing the system, remove the block-out device and re-test the system. (The
HECV vent will spray some fuel when next used!) Bear in mind that if the HECV is removed for this test, its own pressure
drop will not be compensated for by the venturi.

▪ Most specifications for fueling equipment now require dual pressure controls, one primary and one secondary or "back
up". This can be achieved by various combinations of inline, bypass and hose-end controls. (We will address this subject in
a future Gamgram). A common method has the deadman valve serve as a primary pressure controller with the bypass
valve as a secondary controller. Figure 6 shows how this is done. Both valves must not be adjusted to control the same
pressure because they will "fight" one another with resulting instability. In any system, the primary regulator controls
pressure 5 to 15 psi lower than the secondary. This may be done either by setting the regulators at different pressures, or
by sending the regulators differently tuned venturi signals. In this example, the in-line (primary) controller is set at 45 psi,
(pressure E). The bypass (secondary) controller is set at 50 psi (pressure B). With this arrangement, if the aircraft valve
closes suddenly, the secondary valve backs up the primary valve by opening quickly to relieve pressure on the primary.
(Primary pressure may be set as high as 55 psi).

FIGURE 6
Shown: optional dual
regulated sensed lines.

Many systems on refueling trucks use air pressure as a reference using an air pressure regulator. It is a good idea to use a
locking regulator (See Bulletin 70) to prevent unauthorized or "accidental" adjustment. On a Whittaker regulator, this will be 16
or 25 psi higher than the desired fuel pressure. This difference is called the "bias" pressure. The purpose of this bias pressure is
to allow smooth operation of the controller. To better understand this system, think of it this way: The air reference pressure is
on one side of a sensing pilot piston with the venturi pressure on the other side with a bias spring. If the total of spring force and
venturi pressure is greater than the air reference pressure, the piston moves slightly toward the air side; this results in the
control valve closing slightly to reduce system pressure and make the sensing piston return to a balanced position.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 33 HOSE END PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES JULY 1987
REVISED 2004

Keeping the barnyard gate closed is the surest way to keep a horse from getting away. Think of a Hose End
pressure Control Valve (HECV) as the “gate”. You could tether the horse to a stake with a rope, but if the rope fails,
the horse leaves through the open gate. Think of the “rope” as the on-board pressure control valve of the refueling
vehicle. The majority of equipment specifications today require that there be two separate fueling pressure
controls; one backs up the other in case of a failure. The gate plus the rope gives better odds! The HECV valve is
clearly the least expensive of all pressure control devices on the market and has become very popular as a second
control.

The HECV came into use in the 1960's when fueling rates were increasing and the industry recognized that it had
really not paid enough attention to pressure control, and in particular, prevention of pressure surges at the aircraft.
The first product on the market was a massive fueling nozzle having an integral pressure control device. This rather
complex device gave way shortly to the relatively simple HECV that we know today. There are at least four versions
available today; we will restrict this essay to the most popular variety which is made by Carter Ground Fueling,
division of Argo-Tech and Whittaker, division of Meggitt.

Before we describe how they work, there is one thing we must get straight. If you want to measure something
(length, pressure, weight, light, etc.), you must have a reasonable starting point, a “base-line”, a datum. You would
not measure your height by starting with your nose! If you want to measure a pressure in a fuel system, the only
logical starting point or datum is atmospheric pressure. If an oil pressure gauge on an engine reads 100 psi, that
means 100 psi above atmospheric pressure.

In a fuel system, we must use atmospheric pressure as

our “base” or datum. If a HECV valve is supposed to
control at 45 psi, it must be 45 psi above atmospheric
pressure. But, how does the valve know atmospheric
pressure? Obviously, we must tell it -- this is done in a
HECV with a Vent Port that will duct atmospheric
pressure to one side of a piston. See drawing. If fuel
pressure is on the other side of the piston, we have
“created” a pressure measuring device. By using a
spring on the low pressure side, the fuel pressure is
measured by how much the spring is compressed.

Now, with the matter of a base-line established, we see

in the drawing that the more the Sensing Piston moves in
compressing the spring, the smaller is the passageway
for fuel to pass through between the lip F and the seal C.
The outer ring A which is attached to the Sensing Piston
with cross webs, is often called the “outer piston”, but it is
clearly not a piston. As there is no proper word, think of it
as a “cookie cutter” -- it literally shears the fuel stream! It
creates a pressure drop. The more it cuts off the fuel
flow, the lower the downstream pressure.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Now that the action of the HECV valve is understood, what do you think of an operator who puts a plug in the vent
port “because it leaked”? It has really happened! The HECV valve then became inoperative, because it had no way
to sense atmospheric pressure. What should have been done was the replacement of the seal B.

Back in the first paragraph, we talked about the horse in the barnyard and how the HECV could be thought of as the
gate. Then we said that a tether rope could be considered as the on-board pressure control valve. Periodically, we
must check the performance of both valves. It is not very difficult to check the HECV valve, because all you need is
a pressure gauge in the side port of the nozzle or on a fitting just downstream.

Think about how you can check the truck's on-board control valve. This is more difficult because there is no
convenient port to mount a pressure gauge. What we must do is simulate a condition of failure of the HECV, and
then see if the nozzle pressure would be controlled by the on-board valve alone. A simple way to do this is with a
tube having quick disconnects on both ends. It is called a Block-Out Device. All it does is provide you with a way to
temporarily put fuel pressure at the Vent Port to keep the piston from sensing atmospheric pressure. With fuel
pressure on both sides of the piston, the HECV is prevented from operating. Unfortunately, this simple test method
creates an aggravation -- it makes the normally dry vent port be wet with fuel. So after this test, it is a good idea to
cycle the HECV several times to blow fuel out from behind the piston; this avoids false reports that the HECV is
leaking.

In recent years, the manufacturers have devised block out devices that mechanically interfere with motion of the
piston. No tubes are needed and there is no wetting of the vent port.

Which brings us to the question of how to determine if the spring has lost some of its force or if any of the seals in the
HECV need replacement. Clearly, if seal B leaks, we can easily see fuel leaking from the vent port. But how do you
test seals C and D? This requires a pressure gauge in the side port of the nozzle - or in the downstream piping of a
test stand. The best way to run these tests is with a piston-type hand pump, because it allows you to increase
pressure very slowly. A hose tester serves this purpose, but only if you connect it upstream of the HECV and
downstream of the on-board control valve on the vehicle. As you pump, the hose tester pressure gauge and the
nozzle pressure will be very nearly the same until the outer piston reaches seal C. If seals C, D, and E do no leak,
the pressure in the nozzle should hold at the pressure rating of the spring as you increase the hose tester pressure
to 100 or 200 psi. If the nozzle pressure holds at a level more than 3 psi different from the spring setting, you may
need a new spring.

Here is where we learn about the pressure relief valve E. Many people who have worked with HECV's for years
have no idea it is there. What it does is allow the HECV to open again after it has closed. You can check its action in
the above test by releasing hose pressure after the test and watching the nozzle pressure gauge. The relief will
usually pop open when hose pressure has dropped to about 30 psi below the spring setting.

Now we are at the end of the page, and we still have not mentioned the very best feature of the HECV -- pressure
surge control. Here is a simple device, not much larger than your fist. It has one moving part and no external
controls. You mount it on the fueling nozzle where it can sense instantly that the internal valve of the aircraft has
closed. The HECV simply closes -- fast! In test after test that I have witnessed on HECV's, the surge at the aircraft
has never gone above 90 psi. Most specifications permit 120 psi as a maximum. Unfortunately, you cannot
measure a surge pressure on an airport with common pressure gauges, because the mechanism will not respond
quickly enough. You may think your gauge shows the surge, but it is telling you a lie. The only way a surge pressure
can be measured is with a pressure transducer having high frequency response. The surge is then traced on a
recorder.

Failure of the on-board valve or of the hydrant valve may occur in modern systems having ratings of 275 psi, but
with a HECV weighing only 2.3 lbs, you can positively protect the aircraft. What a fantastic device!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 34 THE PIPE PLUG PHANTOM SEP. 1987
AND OTHER FRIGHTENING STORIES
One of the truths of quality control is that the better it is, the easier it is to take it for granted. When you have very few problems, it
is hard to be as careful as you should, and the problems you do have are more difficult to anticipate. In any business, you do not
announce your problems to the world, and unfortunately, this makes it difficult for others to learn from your mistakes. This
GAMGRAM is a collection of stories about problems other people have experienced. You may learn from their mistakes. To
avoid embarrassment, no names or locations are given. We have tried our best to tell these stories accurately, although some
are based on second hand information. The problems are real and can happen anywhere

#1 BEWARE OF THE PIPE PLUG PHANTOM!

At nearly every airport fuel terminal there is a “phantom”. The “phantom” puts a pipe plug in every leaking air eliminator,
pressure relief, manual drain and automatic water drain valve. Look around your facility, and you will likely find these
“temporary” fixes. The danger can be greater than you think. A plug in a pressure relief valve can cause more leaks or a rupture.
A plug in an air eliminator can keep a filter vessel full of air causing an internal fire (see GAMGRAM #15). A great danger is a
plug in the float control vent or automatic water drain valve (often the vent is piped into the outlet side of this valve; see
GAMGRAMS 10,11,12). This can prevent operation of an otherwise functional water control and slug valve. Be sure leaks are
fixed, not plugged REMEMBER ALL FLOAT CONTROLS HAVE TO HAVE A VENT!.

#2 FLAMEOUT
At a major US airport, a refueler truck was parked unused for several rainy days. The manway gasket had deteriorated, and a
mechanic had to replace it. He was not able to entirely remove the old gasket and glued the new one over this uneven surface.
The result was an imperfect seal. The trough hoses that were supposed to allow rain water to drain from the tank roof had been
plugged with leaves and other debris. In addition, the float operated water control on the filter separator had not been tested in
a long time and the mechanism was not able to move smoothly.

The driver went to the truck, took a sump sample from the filter separator and got good, clear jet fuel. He could not or did not
take a cargo tank sample. Since the internal valve was not open (it opens when the PTO [power take off pump drive] is
engaged), the water in the cargo tank went undetected. Two aircraft were refueled. The first one took off without a problem. The
second flamed out on the taxiway ramp. Some very smart individual immediately radioed the first aircraft which made a
precautionary landing. Over 100 gallons of water was drained from each of these aircraft. It was a very close call indeed.

We know of at least seven similar stories. In one, a sample was taken from the wing tank and since the jar still smelled of fuel
from past use, the operator thought it as “water white” jet fuel! In another case, the cargo tank drain was operated, but because
the refueler was parked on a slope, the water had run to one end. In still another case, snow and ice plugged the drain hoses
from the tank roof.

The morals are: These water controls, get tank and filter sump samples, keep drain hoses and manway gaskets well
maintained and use food coloring dye or spill coffee into a sample to be sure it is not 100% water.

#3 CONCRETE
At a mid-sized airport, a transport truck made a normal delivery. The terminal, driver and truck were all from a major oil
company. The FBO had been in business for 20 years without a single fuel problem. Somehow, the paperwork on the trailer
was mixed up with another. Because of complacency caused by their perfect safety record, white bucket samples of each
receipt load were not taken. The pump ran for a few seconds and stopped. It seems that one particular grade of liquid fertilizer
turns into a solid similar to concrete when mixed with jet fuel.

Moral: Obvious. But what if it had been a product that could go through the system, like acetone or varnish?

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
#4 BOOM!
At a large airport fuel farm, every filter vessel and tank had a sump sample taken at the beginning of each shift. When a
particular system was temporarily shut down, the filter separator was still sampled three times a day. By the time that system
was needed again, the vessel was empty. When the pump was started, 600 gpm of fuel at high pressure sprayed out of the
coalescers into an empty vessel full of air. Fuel, oxygen and electrostatic charges caused by the elements were present and
BOOM!! It took some time to find the vessel cover, it was in a field across the road.

Similar explosions and fires have occurred numerous times, because the operator did not fill the vessel slowly after an element
change or because a positive displacement pump was allowed to run after a transport truck was emptied, thus pumping air
instead of fuel. Vertical vessels are more susceptible to this type of problem than horizontal vessels.

Moral: Several and obvious!

#5 8,000 GALLONS IN A 5,000 GALLON TRUCK

A refueler truck driver was tired. He was reportedly working the end of a double shift. He pulled his truck into the fuel farm,
hooked up the loading hose and jammed the deadman handle. He went back to sit in the cab for a minute and fell asleep. The
overfill control on the truck failed and he awoke to one heck of a mess!

Mortal: Obvious!

#6 MISPLACED TRUST
A major oil company inspector was on a routine inspection of his best FBO. The manager took great pride in exceeding all Q.C.
requirements with his own system, including a hand-picked and trained field man. The inspector knew he had to actually
inspect anyhow, and it's a good thing. He noticed that the handle of the thief pump on an underground tank would not move.
The manager was very embarrassed when a change of pumps yielded 20 gallons of dirty water. The check sheet showed no
water from that thief pump which supposedly had been tested four hours earlier.

Moral: Obvious!

#7 NO PRESSURE DROP (?!)

A lineman complained to the mechanic that the avgas truck flow rate was too low. The mechanic checked out the problem and
found a flow rate of less than 5 gpm. On further inspection, he found that the actual filter pressure drop was over 90 psi (no
error). Because flow rate had slowed due to high pressure drop, a driver had adjusted the pump bypass pressure control to get
more flow, and the mechanic did not notice, because the pump was so worn that it only delivered 25 psi at engine idle speed
(the mechanic checked the truck at idle). When the operator pulled the PTO (power take off) throttle lever out, trying to get more
flow, pressure went over 90 psi. A 90 degree selector valve and gauge were used to determine pressure drop. Because the
valve positions were not marked, no one got good readings. (see GAMGRAM #1). All readings had been taken at engine idle.

A study of the pressure drop records showed 1 psid for each reading for the 2 years (all inaccurate).

Moral: Check your equipment and personnel. Do not trust consistent records.

It is not possible to find humor in these stories. The chance of disaster is remote. Usually several errors, failure or mistakes
have to occur simultaneously for a disaster. The question is, could you live with yourself if you were responsible for death or
suffering? Intentions are not important, performance is. One accident a year worldwide is one too many. We have come too
close to major disasters in the past -- it can happen.

BALANCED POLICY - In ancient times, it was policy to kill the messenger that brought bad news. We assume that not all bad
news got through! CAN'T DO THIS! Review your methods, and don't make the punishment for a mistake equal to the
punishment for covering up a mistake. This especially applies to fuel spills and other legal and safety related situations. Don't
laugh, we've heard of people who tried to hide fuel spills to protect their jobs! In one example, an employee washed the fuel into
a stream -- resulting in a much larger mess to clean up. The government sees this as your fault and may levy larger fines!!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 35 AIRCRAFT FUELING HOSE MARCH 1989

The most abused piece of refueling equipment is the hose. Do people enjoy “beating up” on hose? Or do
they do it because it is the only major component that they can kick, bend and generally mistreat without it
fighting back? The fact is that aircraft fueling hose is a remarkable product that can take a lot of abuse, but
in some respects, it is delicate. In this GamGram, we are going to point out the astonishing things aircraft
fueling hose can do, and we will also tell you how to treat it kindly.

First of all, consider speed. Would you believe that the conventional 300 gpm (U.S.) refueling rate for an
airliner means a velocity of 19.2 feet per second (fps)? It's true! That is nearly 3 times faster than the rate
we design for steel pipe. And in deck hoses, many operators run at 500 gpm in 3” hose; that is 22.2 fps.
The U.S. Air Force packs 600 gpm through 3” hose for a velocity of almost 27 fps. High velocities like this
create turbulence that requires exceptional “adhesion”. (That is the property that determines how strong
the bond is between the inner liner (called the tube), and the first layer of reinforcing cord). Poor adhesion
results in the tube coming loose and being literally pushed right out of the hose body and into the fuel flow.
Is it any wonder that all responsible operators insist on using fully qualified aircraft refueling grade hose,
either to API-1529 (American Petroleum Institute) or to the British specifications BS-3158?

What about bending? Think of a piece of common rubber tubing having no reinforcing cord in it. Bend it
sharply until it is double; it kinks. Let it straighten out, and it will look like new. Bend it again, and it will kink
in a different place. Now think about bending a piece of fueling hose until it kinks. (Please use one that has
been retired from service). It takes a lot of force, and notice that the cover is smooth and uniform on the
outside of the bend, but it has fine ripples on the inside of the bend. Also, there are two points that stick out
on opposite sides. (See Figure 1). When you release the force that caused the kink and let it straighten
out, the hose stays out-of-round where it was kinked, sometimes for a long period. It depends on how long
the kink is held.
FIGURE 2

THREAD
STRETCHED
AROUND
WRINKLES BEND

INSIDE
POINTS WALL OF
HOSE

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 1. If a kink has been held very long, the hose will kink again and again at exactly the same place for
the rest of its life.

2. Those two points that are on both sides of the kink are where the hose wall was bent absolutely
double.

3. Those 2 points are where the hose cover will be worn through very quickly as it is dragged around
on the fueling ramp.

What is the reason that a kink in a reinforced hose can become permanent? Rubber is flexible and it
surely straightens out after it is bent. Rubber tubing does not take a permanent kink. The obvious
difference is the reinforcing cord in the hose wall. We were puzzled over this phenomenon several years
ago, and finally came up with an explanation that no hose expert has been able to knockdown. So here we
go!

Consider the cross-section of hose in the photograph, (Figure 2). Now let's consider what is really
happening at the bend. The rubber on the outside of the bend (cover) stretches, but the thread will stretch
only slightly with respect to the rubber, without taking a permanent set. The rubber that forms the tube of
the hose bunches up because it cannot move anywhere. The thread is literally being stretched around the
tube rubber. It is overstressed, overstretched and weakened.

Burst tests of kinked hose have not proven that the hose will fail at locations where kinks have occurred
once or twice, but it is a well known fact that the hose will be worn through by being dragged on concrete
where the kink points are located. However, if the hose has been kinked for a long period, a soft spot
develops and bursting can occur.

Just how strong is aircraft refueling hose? The latest specification defines two grades, 1 and 2. Grade 1
has a working pressure of 150 psi while Grade 2 is rated at 300 psi. The burst ratings are 4 times higher -
600 psi and 1200 psi. These hoses must be pressure tested at 300 psi and 600 psi to conform to the
newest industry requirements.

Think of it! The valves and pipe on a refueler truck are tested at only 225 psi which is 1½ times more than
design pressure. But the hose is tested at up to 600 psi! Why is this so? In this author's opinion, such a
high pressure test is necessary to insure that the couplings are securely attached, but also, because this
is the best way to find manufacturing flaws. Tests on used hoses find areas of weakness that have been
caused by handling abuse and damage.

The main point we want to leave with you is that hose kinks simply must be prevented. Many times a
nozzle storage receptacle will be found in a position such that the hose must be kinked for the nozzle to fit.
Sometimes hose reels have fitting connections that force the hose to kink as it winds on the drum. We
have seen severe kinks caused by personnel who pull out a hose at high speed. When the last coil of hose
comes off the drum, the inertia of the fast turning drum makes it keep right on turning; actually pulling the
shoe back. This abuse causes the worst kinks we have ever seen. In fact, we have seen small diameter
hose broken in this way.

Hose must never be allowed to lie on the ramp with a complete loop. When the hose is pulled, a kink
almost always occurs, especially if the end that is under the loop is pulled.

With reasonable care, hose can provide reliable service for many years. Abuse by personnel is the
greatest single cause of shortened life.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 36 IS IT PRESSURE OR IS IT FLOW CONTROL? AUG. 1989
REVISED SEP. 2010

The fuel pressure that reaches the aircraft is simply a matter of how much a valve has been opened.
Right?

But how much a valve is open controls flow rate! Right?

Then how can the same control valve regulate downstream pressure and also the rate of flow? This
question puzzles many people, so we thought this would be a good subject for a GamGram.

First of all, let's review how a control valve works. Diagram A shows the conventional diaphragm valve
made by many manufacturers, such as Cla-Val, Watts (formerly named Muesco), OCV, etc.. Diagram B
shows the same valve in piston configuration which is made by Brooks/Brodie and Thiem/Whittaker.
Diaphragm and piston valves both work the same way so we will select only one, the diaphragm type, for
this discussion.

The only action a control valve can take is to open or close. How much the valve is open is totally
dependent on how much fuel is trapped above the diaphragm or piston (see the shaded area). Therefore,
if the cavity above the diaphragm has the maximum amount of fuel in it, caused by upstream pressure
being directed there, the diaphragm is forced downward and the valve G is closed (or valve D in the piston
version). However, if you permit a small amount of that fuel above the diaphragm or the piston to be bled
off to the downstream side, the valve will open slightly. If you allow the cavity to be completely vented to
the downstream side, the valve opens wide.

KEY
A Pilot flow restrictor
B Rate of Flow Pilot
C Pressure Control Pilot
D Piston/Valve
E Orifice Plate
F Adjusting Screw
G Valve
H Diaphragm

DIAGRAM A DIAGRAM B

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
This is done automatically using small auxiliary valves called “pilots”. Different pilot valves perform
different functions; rate of flow control, slug, pressure control, etc.. As pilot flow increases, the lower the
pressure on the main valve diaphragm and the main valve opens. As pilot flow decreases, the opposite
happens.

A Rate of Flow Control pilot B senses the flow rate by measuring the pressure difference across the
orifice. Tubing connections are located upstream and downstream of the orifice plate. These 2 pressures,
P1 and P2, are compared across a diaphragm that has a stem connected to a valve. If this pilot diaphragm
moves because of a change in pressure drop, the valve connected to the stem opens or closes to regulate
the amount of pilot flow, and therefore, the amount of fuel above the diaphragm H in the main valve. This
regulates the flow rate through the main valve. Actually, the rate of flow pilot is named incorrectly by all
manufacturers; it should be called a “flow limiting pilot” because it simply prevents flow from exceeding a
desired limit. This can be adjusted by turning a screw F that regulates the spring force on the pilot
diaphragm. Think of it this way; the spring force makes up the difference between the 2 pressures (P1
upstream and P2 downstream) of the orifice plate.

The Pressure Control pilot C is also usually a diaphragm valve that senses the pressure downstream of
the main valve and compares it to the force of a spring that is on the other side of its diaphragm. Just as in
the rate of flow pilot, there is a stem connected to the diaphragm that adjusts a valve that is connected to it.
This valve regulates the amount of fuel above the diaphragm in the main valve by regulating the flow rate
through the pilot system. Therefore, if more pressure is required, the pilot valve opens slightly to let more
fuel leave the space above its diaphragm. This allows the main valve to open a bit to build the downstream
pressure to the desired level. If downstream pressure gets too high, the pressure pilot closes slightly,
preventing escape of fuel from above the main valve diaphragm, forcing the main valve to close slightly,
and therefore, reducing downstream pressure.

The question we posed at the start was, “How can the same valve control pressure and rate of flow?” The
answer is that the manufacturer arranges the 2 pilots in series with the rate of flow pilot first, as shown in
the diagrams. Therefore, if the flow rate is below the desired level, the rate of flow pilot will open to allow
more pilot flow, thereby decreasing the volume above the main valve diaphragm to allow the main valve to
open more.

The pilot flow proceeds to the pressure control pilot. If the downstream pressure is less than desired, it
opens to allow more pilot flow, just as the rate of flow pilot did. However, the rate of flow pilot is in
command because it already has opened to allow maximum main stream flow. Therefore, if the pressure
control pilot opens to cause more downstream pressure when the flow rate is already at the maximum
allowed by the rate of flow pilot, nothing happens. The rate of flow pilot is “the boss”. On the other hand, if
the downstream pressure is greater than desired, the pressure pilot will close slightly to reduce pilot flow
and cause more fuel to fill the space above the main valve diaphragm, causing the main valve to close
slightly to reduce downstream pressure. But this also reduces main stream flow rate! So the rate of flow
pilot opens more -- and more – and more until it is wide open but the flow rate will not increase because the
pressure control pilot is now “the boss”.

The remarkable thing about diaphragm or piston valves is that they can do many other tasks, simply by
use of various pilot valves. For example, they make excellent check valves, fuel level controllers, back
pressure regulators, slug and deadman valves. As an example, we regularly use one pressure control
valve to control 2 different fueling pressures, simply by use of a manual selector valve. One position
controls pressure for underwing fueling while the other position provides a much lower pressure for
overwing fueling. In addition, we use a solenoid pilot to provide deadman control, only in the underwing
mode. All this with one valve!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 37 WASTE FUEL = WASTED MONEY OCT. 1990

There is a story about two men repairing a fuel system. The young one, new to the job, remarked that the fuel smelled awful.
The older one smiled and answered, “It may smell awful to you but it smells like money to me”. Fuel is an expensive part of
aviation operations. In the life of an aircraft, fuel is the single greatest expense.

You would never throw away money, would you? Well maybe you do and possibly more than you realize. There are many ways
to be “penny wise and pound (or dollar) foolish” in our industry. Our industry’s habits are rooted in the past. Many people still
treat fuel as if it cost 10 cents a gallon. Do you?

WASTE FUEL = MONEY

When you decide to call fuel “WASTE” or “SLOP”, use your head and not tradition. A lot of people now find themselves paying
big money to have this fuel removed and disposed of. Remember, the moment you call it “waste” or “slop” fuel, it may legally
become HAZARDOUS WASTE! What's the difference? Plenty! You will likely not be ALLOWED (by law) to recover this fuel --
even for diesel or fuel oil use. You should call this fuel either “fuel” or, if you must, “downgrade fuel”.

DEFINITIONS

Waste (slop) Fuel: This is fuel unacceptable for aircraft or ground equipment use and must be disposed of accordingly. Waste
fuel cannot be reclaimed or recovered by the facility operator for aircraft use. Waste fuel is generally contaminated fuel
resulting from exposure to biological degradation, surfactants, oily water separator systems, chemicals, product mixtures,
yard (surface) drains, spills, or from other various contamination sources that can be detrimental to fuel quality and flight
safety.

Sump and Sample Test Fuel: This is reusable fuel removed from facilities and equipment while performing routine quality
control testing or when performing fueling equipment maintenance. Sump (sample/test) fuel is generally considered aircraft
quality after removing small quantities or traces of water and/or solid particles that may result from testing or draining of
equipment. Fuel removed from filter vessel drains, jar and bucket sampling, filter membrane testing, sump (tank bottom)
drains on fuel storage point vents, low point drains, and other fuel samples from locations where the fuel is generally
considered clean and dry, is usually of excellent quality. This fuel can be returned to the storage tanks (you may want to filter it
first) or use as a ground equipment fuel.

IMPORTANT: Sump/sample fuel becomes waste fuel only if it becomes unacceptable for aircraft or ground equipment use.
The point here is that there is, most likely, nothing wrong with at least 99% of that fuel. Think about it! In most fuel systems, your
samples are all perfectly clean and pure. IS IT REALLY NO GOOD WHEN IT COMES OUT OF THE FILTER DRAIN
PERFECTLY CLEAN?

Many people consider the fuel from a filter membrane test (Millipore® or MiniMonitor®) to be slop fuel. The truth is that it is surely
the cleanest fuel you have. The membrane is a VERY fine filter. Fuel released from air eliminators and pressure relief valves is
clean fuel. Sump samples from tank or filter drains rarely contain more that traces of dirt or water.

You not only lose the cost of the fuel, but the waste hauler's charge and your mark-up, because you could have sold that fuel.
We have heard of people having to pay over $3.00 per gallon to have waste fuel removed.

A common practice is to run pipes from filter accessories (air eliminators, pressure relief and automatic water drain valves) to
the slop tank. Eventually these items leak, filling the slop tank or oily water recovery system quickly. We know of a location
where over 1,000,000 gallons/year was wasted in this way. The use of inline flow indicators can help you discover such leaks.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 SIMPLE SOLUTIONS

We recommend you spend a little time and money now, to save a lot of money later. BE SURE YOU CONTACT YOUR AIR
LINE AND OIL COMPANY FUEL QUALITY PEOPLE FIRST! Be sure to meet all state and local requirements with any system
changes.

1. Connect the air eliminator and pressure relief valve outlets together with pipe or metal tubing and run this back
to the storage tanks (DO NOT DO THIS WITH AUTOMATIC WATER DRAINS). If you have above-ground
tanks, you must mount a check valve at the tank.

2. When you drain a filter to change elements, take sump samples (start with a clean bucket) until you get a
clean sample, then use a CLEAN hose, tubing , bucket or other means to put the rest of the fuel back into the
storage tank. If you have underground tanks, you can install two manual drains. Connect the extra drain valve
to the air eliminator and pressure relief tube we recommended in Solution #1. It might be a good idea to use a
self-closing, spring-loaded valve so that it will be unlikely to be left open. Then you can drain the vessel very
easily and cleanly, directly to storage.

3. Filter membrane samples (MiniMonitor® or Millipore®) are collected in buckets. If you clean the bucket before
the test, you can return the fuel to storage. If you use automatic drain systems, they should be connected to
the slop tank or a sump separator. If you run the auto-drain to a slop tank, it is a good idea to mount a flow
indicator on the pipe so you can see if the valve leaks.

4. Sump samples (white bucket) can have dirt or water in them, but usually no more than traces. Start with a
clean bucket and after the test you can let the bucket settle a half hour and return a majority of the fuel to
storage, then pour the sediment into the slop tank or drum.

5. Review your operations carefully, and check your slop removal costs. As you can see, a majority of these
changes cost very little to implement. Many military services, air lines, and oil companies follow such
practices. We recommend you re-think your policies if you are throwing money away. Also, let's face it: even
with our knowledge of environmental damage, some people still dump fuel on the ground. WE MUST
CHANGE THIS HABIT!

Bucket samples or fuel drained from a filter separator must never be allowed to splash into a storage tank because of the
danger of an electrostatic explosion. However, this operation can be performed safely by using a connection added to the
storage tank fill piping (if you have an underground tank). If you have above ground tankage, this problem can be handled by a
Sump Separator with a pump).

We would be remiss if we didn't mention our Sump Separator fuel recovery unit (see our Bulletin 22).

The Sump Separator fuel recovery unit is basically a heavy gauge steel tank, bright white epoxy lined, with a cone bottom. It is
specially designed to serve as fuel recovery unit, reducing “slop” to a minimum. The Sump Separator valve mechanism is
specially designed to concentrate sediment and water. You can run air eliminators, pressure relief, automatic water drains, etc.
to a sump separator. You can also pour white bucket samples and filter membrane test buckets into your sump separator. After
settling, you can recover at least 95% of the good fuel. Options include filters, pumps, etc., so you can be confident of not
putting dirt or water back into the storage tank.

Following these practices can reduce your wasted fuel and save money.

NOTE: If you don't want to reuse this fuel as jet fuel, you may consider using it as fuel for diesels or oil furnaces. At many
airports, the only fuel used in diesel refueler trucks and tugs is Jet A. Consult the manufacturer of the furnace or engine. You
may want to blend jet fuel with diesel for engine use. Also, if you use it as motor fuel, for use in vehicles which go on the public
roads, you will have to keep careful records and pay taxes. You will still save a lot of money.

MINIMONITOR IS A REGISTERED TRADEMARK OF GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS, INC.

MILLIPORE IS A REGISTERED TRADEMARK OF THE MILLIPORE CORPORATION
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 38 JET REFUELING FACILITY BASICS, PART 1 DEC. 1991

When I had my first car, I cleaned it and polished it, but no matter what I tried, the windshield wouldn't come clean. A friend of
mine told me to use a simple trick used by car dealers; clean it with newspaper, not a cloth. I was amazed at how well this odd
trick worked! Jet fuel system design, like all specialities, has its tricks. We've spent 32 years learning them. We have seen
many different jet fuel system designs over the years. Some of these systems are good, some are poor and some are
dangerous and frightening. In the USA, flight safety from a fuel quality standpoint has proven to be excellent without direct
government regulations. There may be a lesson about regulations in that!
There are literally hundreds of special points we could make to anyone who wants to build a fuel system. This article crams
dozens together in a small space. See the next issue of the GamGram for our advice on tank design and pumps.
Where do you begin in planning a new jet fuel facility? If you are not really experienced in the industry, you will need help. The
first step should be to ask the oil company whose fuel you plan to pump. If you plan to refuel airline or commuter aircraft, these
companies can provide help and should be called. We recommend you consider hiring an independent engineer who really
knows jet fuel. Not diesel, not gasoline or plumbing -- read my lips “JET FUEL”.
Be careful of people who claim to be able to give you the perfect solution. We know of one company that claims that their
systems meet all FAA regulations. This may seem pretty good except that there are no FAA regulations. There is a good
“advisory”, but it is not a regulation.
We offer the following as a basic guideline. Use this as a starting point. You may ask why is Gammon giving away what has
taken them 32 years to learn? Well, we're simply getting tired of running into inadequate designs.
NOTE: This GamGram is copyrighted 1991 to Gammon Technical Products. We will gladly grant rights to copy this document
for educational use by airlines, oil companies and industry groups. Please call and ask.
SYSTEM BASICS
1. Pump the fuel through a filter separator as it flows into storage, to refueler trucks and to aircraft. Why all three places? To
keep fuel as clean as possible and to help avoid contamination. The truth is that you can get a bad load of fuel!
2. The flow rate to storage from the delivery vehicle should be at least 150 gpm or the truck will have to wait too long. A 7,500
gallon tanker truck takes 50 minutes to unload at 150 gpm.
3. Locate emergency stop switches and fire alarms properly. Ninety percent of all systems we have seen are missing or have
improperly located emergency stop switches or fire alarms.
4. We do not recommend you meter fuel as it flows into storage. If you insist, you must take special care to get rid of all air. The
only sure way is to install a special high volume bulk air eliminator between the pump and the meter. This valve closes if air
is being released by the air eliminator and stops flow until the air is gone. Without this or a similar control, you will have
great trouble with air. The pump and filter both break the air into tiny bubbles. The air eliminator on the filter separator is
totally incapable of removing all of this air. Ask the meter manufacturer for his advice. In addition, when this air is released,
it will be in the form of foam. This means that it will create a mess if allowed to be discharged into the ground.
5. You should design your system to handle a spill. Try to prevent spills, but design to deal with them. If you do not prepare,
you will regret it. Spills can take place while unloading delivery trucks, loading refueler trucks, refueling aircraft or even
when the system is not in use. Do not only protect against storage tank leaks. What if the transport (delivery truck) hose or
the refueller truck high level shutdown fails? These failures are just as likely as a tank leak.
6. Clearly identify the type of fuel in the system to help prevent the wrong fuel from being unloaded from a transport truck. In
addition, either use different connectors for loading jet fuel and avgas into refueler trucks or use connectors with special
product selection. We recommend transport unloading connection dust covers be equipped with different locks for
different fuels.
7. Deadman controls for truck loading and underwing fueling should have sufficient length so you can operate the deadman
while you observe fueling. It is important that the operator be able to test the operation of the high level control. In addition,
if the deadman control is electric, the amount of power in the cord and handle should be rated at the intrinsically safe level.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
8. We recommend static relaxation for truck loading. This is to dissipate static electricity that is generated in the filter
separator. This can be done with a special chamber or an extra long pipe. You don't need it it you have static conductivity
improver in your fuel. See GamGram No. 7.
9. Be sure to use the right hose (Check with your oil company). The refueling hose should be to API-1529. The hose should
meet the latest edition of the specification.
10. If you have a hose reel, we suggest a short piece of aviation hose, a flexible metal hose or other means to prevent
misaligned pipes from putting stress on the hose reel swivel joint. This can greatly extend the life of the swivel. We
recommend power rewind, but you should also get a gear reduction type manual crank rewind as a backup. A spring
rewind reel can be a safety problem if the operator is pulling the hose out on ice or snow. You may find yourself skating --
toward the reel and out of control.
11. We strongly recommend the only pipe thread sealant you use on tapered threads is teflon tape. If you must use paste or
goop, be sure it is rated for use in jet fuel. No matter what you use, do not put it on the end of the pipe or it will end up in the
fuel. Teflon tape should always be put on firmly in a clockwise direction when observed from the pipe end. See GG 22.
12. Be sure to use flange gaskets which are rated for use in jet fuel. Never bury flanged connections, because they will leak
eventually and may need to be tightened periodically.
13. You must have a dike around an above ground tank and the pumping equipment. You may also need to put a catch basin
under the delivery and refueler trucks to catch spills. Be sure to use a concrete sealant or special paint. This is because fuel
will go right through concrete. We've seen it happen and it is amazing.
14. Do not use galvanized pipe. The zinc destroys the thermal stability of the fuel causing corrosion and deposits in the hot
section of a turbine engine. Minimize the use of copper and brass to essential components such as nozzle bearings and
hose fittings. Use stainless steel tubing.
15. Do not use plain cork or neoprene rubber. Buna N, Buna N/cork mixture and Viton rubber are accepted for use in jet fuel.
16. Centrifugal pumps may have pressure given in psi or feet of head. For converting head to psi, multiply the feet of head by
.35 for jet fuel. For example, 85 feet of head = 30 psi (85 x .35 = 29.75).
17. Jet A fuel has a flash point of over 100 degrees F. Some people feel that they do not need explosion proof electrical fittings
for this reason. We disagree. Use explosion proof (flame proof) electrical components.
FILTER SEPARATORS AND ACCESSORIES
1. Be sure to include an automatic air eliminator and a pressure relief valve. For below ground tank systems, install a check
valve on the outlet of the air eliminator. This check valve should have a Buna N or Viton seal and it should open easily. If you
don't have an air eliminator check valve, the system may drain back into the tank, resulting in a variety of air problems.
Without a check valve, the air eliminator lets air in as well as out. Pump inlet check valves will not positively prevent this, as
they tend to leak.
2. See GamGram No. 37 regarding air and pressure relief lines.
3. Specify stainless steel sampling connections at the filter separator inlet and outlet. We recommend sample probes that
draw fuel from the pipe flow stream. Rather than from a no-flow pocket on the side of the pipe.
4. A filter separator without a sump water control is just a “filter”. The water level, collecting in the sump, can build until it
reaches the outlet. This water control should stop the flow of fuel. If the water control is float operated, the float should have
a manual tester. Electric units should be explosion proof and have an indicator light.
5. We recommend you do not use automatic water drain valves because they tend to leak and don't respond until you have a
lot of water. Something may be very wrong if you get more than 2 or 3 ounces of water.
6. Specify a good quality differential pressure gauge such as the Gammon Gauge. If you must save money, use a single
regular pressure gauge and a selector valve. Even if the gauge is not accurate, the difference between the inlet and outlet
readings should give you a fairly accurate indication. A snubber ( a small fitting with a porous metal plug in it) will greatly
extend the life of a cheap gauge by removing pressure pulsations. No matter what you do, do NOT use two simple gauges.
7. Use a filter separator vessel that is API qualified to the latest standard. The filter separator must meet the current API 1581
requirements.
8. We highly recommend the use of a sump drain line heater for cold weather operation of a filter separator. This heater
should have a built-in thermostat and stainless steel elements. The heater should be specifically made for use in jet fuel.
The heater should not produce more than 20 watts per square inch. See GamGram 30.
There are many elements of design to be careful with when you put in a new aviation fuel facility. The fuel quality, fire safety and
the environment must all be considered.
Your customers cannot pull over to the side of the road and wait for help if the engine stops. Aviation fuel system designs
require special care. Don't build a cheap fuel system, too much rides on it.
This document copyright © 1991 by Gammon Technical Products, Inc.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 39 JET REFUELING FACILITY BASICS, PART 2 MAR. 1992

One of our employees had an idea a few years ago. He wanted to get a gallon or two of jet fuel to mix with the gasoline for his
motorcycle. He had the idea that this would make his motorcycle go like a rocket! He was disappointed when I told him that jet
fuel was really just kerosene and would ruin his engine. He had great expectations, but did not know the facts. The same can
be said for people who feel that above ground tanks are a simple solution to their below ground tank problems. Above ground
tanks can be a good decision, but they have their own design problems. For example, a leak anywhere in the system can drain
your entire tank out on the ground. Whether you go above ground or below, the regulations are changing and you must be sure
to meet the latest applicable standards and have an intelligently designed system. In addition, proper fuel quality control
practices must be followed. As we stated in GamGram 38, we recommend you get help from an experienced engineer. And the
engineer has to be sharp enough to specify what he really wants. As a humorous example, an engineer specified a 50'
deadman. The contractor provided a 50' string attached to a microswitch on the system. This was not what the customer
wanted! If your system is wrong, you have to deal with the consequences.
TANK DESIGN BASICS
1. A floating suction assembly will draw fuel from near the surface of the fuel in the tank. You avoid sediment and trace water
with a floating suction, but what is more important, you get an extra element of protection against a large water
contamination problem.
2. If a vertical tank has a greater height than diameter, you must install a float restraining cable (from the float to the tank floor)
to keep the arm from going vertical. If it does, it won't swing back down! We recommend the angle does not exceed 60
degrees, but some manufacturers may not want the angle to exceed 45 degrees. Don't forget a retrieving cable. This cable
is usually included with the floating suction by the manufacturer. A connection at the top of the tank allows you to check that
the floating suction swivel moves freely and that the float is floating.
3. Possibly the most prevalent problem in newer underground tanks is failure of the pump to prime or loss of prime after
shutdown. The fact is that pumps do not lose prime, piping or valves lose prime. In most cases this is caused by pipe joint
leaks on the suction side. The worst problem is found when the floating suction connection at the tank roof is leaking. This
is because the leak cannot be corrected without emptying the tank. Imagine installing a floating suction in a below ground
tank. You are on a ladder and the floor is slippery. The light is poor, and you must work over your head. First you must
tighten a pipe and flange into the roof of the tank. Then, to make things worse, the flanges are raised face type. If you don't
tighten the bolts evenly, you will have a leak. We suggest you make an extension so you can tighten the pipe into the roof
while standing on the floor of the tank. Then remove the extension and use a spacer gauge to make sure you tighten the
flanges evenly. We have seen many leaks at this point.
4. Epoxy lined steel tanks. Make sure that the surface is sandblasted to the SSSP specification and be sure to specify the
correct grade of epoxy.
5. Do not locate the tank fill inlet and the inlet end of the floating suction close together. If you have a contamination problem in
the future, you will not be able to clean it up properly by recirculating the fuel through the filter separator. You will only
recirculate the fuel between these two connections, For horizontal tanks we recommend the tank inlet be at the high end of
the tank slope, cut off at a 45° angle. This helps the incoming fuel to wash any water or sediment toward the low end of the
tank.
6. Either have a low point drain valve or a thief pump. Thief pumps mount to the top of the tank and have a ¾” or 1” pipe that
draws from within ¼” of the tank bottom. You can use a piece of hose for the last few inches so that if the tank settles, the
pipe will not poke a hole in the tank bottom. We recommend above ground tanks with drain valves to be of the spring-
loaded self-closing type.
7. Filter the fuel properly into storage! Use pump piping set up so you can recirculate the fuel in the tank through the filter and
back. Not only does this make sense from a fuel cleanliness stand point, but it allows you to run periodic tests during
recirculation.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
8. On all tanks, use a high level shut off. Do not rely on it. Test high level controls regularly. Having seen it happen, we can tell
you it is a very upsetting thing to see fuel spraying out of a vent! (No, it wasn't our fault, thank goodness.) I know of someone
just recently who spilled 60,000 gallons of fuel on a pipeline transfer. Both the primary and backup controls failed. A review
showed no procedure for checking these controls, and actually the controls were not designed to be tested. Are yours?
9. If the tank is horizontal, pitch (slope) the tank ¼” per foot. A 30 foot long tank should be 7.5 in. High at one end than the
other. Vertical tanks should have the floor pitched to a center low point drain.
ABOVE GROUND TANKS
1. On above ground tanks, use an automatic fire shutdown valve on the outlet pipe. This helps avoid feeding a fire.
2. Put a check valve on the connection for fuel going into the storage tank. This prevents reverse flow in a fire or if the
equipment is physically damaged. You may also want to put a check valve on the truck unloading connection.
3. On above ground tanks, you should specially protect the tank and the pumping equipment from impact.
4. Be sure to get a high capacity emergency tank vent. Otherwise the tank WILL explode in a fire. Expanding gases can't
escape fast enough with a small vent. It's like putting a sealed can of fuel in a fire.
5. Do not use fittings or valves made of cast iron or malleable iron on an above ground tank. These materials fracture in a fire.
Ductile iron is allowed, as well as steel. Some people call malleable iron “black steel” -- beware; it is not steel!
6. Do not use gaskets which will burn in a fire on the tank connections. Obviously, this will cause the tank to drain in a fire.
7. The greatest risk of an above ground tank is dumping fuel on the ground. For this reason, containment is necessary. Not
only for the tank, but for the pumping equipment. In addition, you may need containment for the delivery truck. What if the
unloading hose fails?
8. You will have to do something with the rain water which falls in the dike. This rain water is considered hazardous waste if
there is any fuel in it. Water drained from the fuel system is definitely a hazardous waste.
9. Be sure that flow stop when the deadman is released or when the pump power is shut off. Tank head can push fuel through
the system and you can lose all the fuel in the tank in the event of a leak. A new anti-syphon valve solution should be
available soon.
PUMPS
1. The two types of pumps you may use are either a centrifugal or a positive displacement type. There are advantages to
both. Positive displacement pumps usually cost more but prime better and faster. In addition, they must have an
adjustable bypass pressure control which allows you to adjust pressure - this is very handy. Centrifugal pumps are
cheaper and much quieter.
2. Pumps should have an inlet strainer to protect them from debris. The best is a top cleanout basket type strainer with a s/s
mesh screen, but we frequently use an inexpensive “T” type with a simple perforated metal element. We feel that on
aviation fuels, a perforated strainer is sufficient.
3. You should avoid high points in the suction pipe. We saw a bad one with a below ground tank. The suction pipe came out of
the tank and went 8 feet in the air, turned horizontal over a fence and turned back down 7 feet to the pump inlet. They never
got it to work because the pump could not draw the air out of the pipe. Even if the suction pipe rises a foot above the pump
inlet, many centrifugal pumps will choke. Positive displacement pumps are a little more tolerant of high points, but still can
be a problem.
4. The pump motor should be explosion proof. In addition to a circuit breaker and disconnect, you will need a magnetic motor
starter. This is really a big relay with an automatic shut-off if the motor draws too much power. If you can locate this starter
indoors, in a safe area, this will allow you to use one with an indoor housing instead of one rated explosion proof. This can
save as much as 60% of the cost. That may not seem like much, until you consider that small, explosion proof starters cost
$700.00 to $1,000.00. All electrical work should be explosion proof.
5. Be sure of the power available. For example, some explosion proof motors rated 220 VAC can be run on 208 VAC but
some can't. Do not assume voltage, measure it. If you only have single phase power, you will not be able to buy a very large
motor. This will limit the maximum flow rate.
6. Do not put restrictions or a long suction line on the inlet of a pump. We have seen installations with up to 200' suction lines!
Even if a pump were capable of creating a perfect vacuum, you would only have 14.7 psi to work with. We have even seen
installations with meter and filter vessels on the inlet side of the pump. Take our word for it, you will be in trouble even if you
have an above ground tank.
For more on related elements of fuel system design, see GamGram 38. The most important thing is to always have the oil
company and airline (if applicable) review the system design before you build.

This document copyright © 1992 by Gammon Technical Products, Inc.

 THE GAMGRAM
No. 40 BONDING vs. GROUNDING MAY 1992
REVISED JUNE 2002

Isn't it embarrassing and frustrating to learn that a life-long belief is incorrect or in some way not founded
on scientific facts? When I was very small, my parents refused to let me go swimming for an hour after I
had lunch - -leg cramps would surely get me. Two hundred years ago people would not eat tomatoes
because they were known to be poisonous. The earth was once known to be flat.

We had to face the fact here in America that grounding an aircraft to get rid of electrostatic charges
caused by refueling is not the safest way to deal with the problem. The rest of the world, and our own
scientific community has somehow known this for years. It wasn't until a revision of NFPA 407 was
published on August 17, 1990 that the rules specified grounding as well as bonding between the fuel
servicing vehicle and the aircraft since the 1960's, they said it was safer not to ground. Let's examine the
issue and try to understand why NFPA made this astonishing change.

When an aircraft is being fueled, an electrostatic charge develops that can discharge and cause a fire if
fuel vapors are also present. The primary cause of the electrostatic charge is the filtering equipment,
usually on a truck or hydrant servicer. And now you are saying - - “but charges can develop without
filtering and are caused by pumping or by the fuel passing through the pipes and valves”. And you are
correct - - BUT the real culprit by a factor of 100 to 1 is the filter, monitor or filter separator.

Let's think about what an electrostatic charge really is. Basically, it is pluses (+++) that are physically
separated from minuses (---). If you connect a wire or any other conductor between those 2 places, a
current flows and the pluses immediately cancel the minuses sot that no net charge remains.

So now let's think about what happens during fueling. Flow begins through the filter with a separation of
the pluses and the minuses. One or the other (pluses or minuses) go along with the fuel into the aircraft
and the other stays behind at the refueling vehicle creating a large voltage difference. If the fuel was a
conductor, this would not happen.

And now what do you have? You have the truck all charged up with minuses and the airplane all charged
up with pluses (or vice versa). You could ground the truck and get rid of that charge. You could ground the
aircraft and get rid of that charge. When there is no voltage difference, there is no charge.

A better way to deal with the whole problem is simply to connect the truck and the airplane together with a
bonding wire. Now the pluses on the airplane go back to the truck to cancel the minuses and you have no
net charge. A huge advantage is that you do not need to be concerned that a ground rod has deteriorated
and is no longer “grounded”.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The practice in the USA has been to bond and ground but recent tests have proven that if the aircraft and
the truck are bonded, a grounding wire carries no charge at all. This is why NFPA 407 no longer specifies
grounding for safety during aircraft fueling.

NFPA does not mean that an aircraft should not be grounded for electrical reasons or for maintenance.
Personnel who have those responsibilities must make their own decisions about grounding and provide
the PROPER SIZE of cable for their purposes. A typical cable used for electrostatic grounding is usually
far too small to satisfy electrical grounding needs and, in fact, some have simply melted right under the
aircraft where fuel vapors could be ignited. This condition is generally known as “frying the cable”. This
can happen when the aircraft electrical system or the ground power unit/generator malfunction. This was
a further reason for NFPA 407 to delete the electrostatic ground wire.

You may be thinking now that the bonding can be eliminated if the fuel has been made conductive by
adding a conductivity improver. That is surely not a good idea because the fuel can never be as good a
conductor as a wire. You might also argue that now that NFPA 407 specifies hose with a conductive cover,
this constitutes a bond between truck and the aircraft. NFPA 407 specifically forbids this because the wire
makes a superior bond. The conductive cover provides an added factor of safety – just in case.

In conclusion, you absolutely must bond the aircraft to the source of fuel where the final filter is located.
The source may be a refueler truck, hydrant servicer or a cabineted fueling station!

Grounding can become a hazard if the cable is insufficient to carry the power from electrical apparatus
such as a ground power unit or generator.

Conductivity improver or conductive cover hose is not a proper solution to the problem.

Grounding only the aircraft without bonding to the refueler creates a new hazardous situation because
the refueler will be left with a substantial charge.

For readers who want more information on this subject, order a copy of NFPA 407 and read section 5.4
and A.5.4 carefully. Also see NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 41 PUMP PRIMING PROBLEMS OCT. 1993

Many problems can occur in our industry, but few can be as frustrating as pump priming problems. Many
people think that such problems only occur with underground tanks. In reality, priming problems with an
above ground, horizontal tank with "top connections" can be even worse. The reason is that air gets
trapped in the "high points" in the suction pipe and many pumps (especially centrifugal type pumps)
cannot clear out this air. An air eliminator will not solve the problem, because the pipe is NOT under
pressure.

It is frustration getting a phone call that starts with "Your pump keeps losing prime". We know pumps can't
lose prime. PIPING and VALVES lose prime when fuel drains back into the underground tank. It is difficult
for people to understand that pump priming problems are almost always caused by suction pipe leaks.

The most common causes of pump priming problems are, in order of occurrence:

1. Leaks in the pipe connections between the floating suction outlet and the roof of the tank.

2. Leaks in the pipe connections between the tank and the check valve.

3. A leaking check valve (especially if the valve has no rubber seal).

Contractors typically claim that a suction leak is impossible because they "pressure tested the pipe".
There are three reasons that they could be wrong.

1. The pipe inside the tank is never properly tested because the test is done before the floating
suction assembly is installed.

2. Some pipe sealant compounds slowly dissolve in jet fuel. (Use Teflon tape.)

3. If the pipe was tested with compressed air, a small leak may have been over looked. In addition,
some evidence indicates a pressure test may not always reveal a suction leak.

FINDING THE CAUSE

1. Establish flow to a truck, aircraft or another tank, but not back to the tank being tested.

2. Shut the manual valve on the suction line and stop the pump. Have one person listen closely to the
open gauging stick opening and have another person place his ear directly on the pipe as close to
tank as possible.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 If either person hears bubbling, hissing or splashing, the test is over. If the sound is in the tank, the
leak is also. If the sound is in the pipe, the leak could be inside or outside of the tank. If no sound is
heard, wait an hour and start the pump.

A. If the pump primes quickly, wait a minute and stop the pump. Leave the manual valve open.
Wait an hour and start the pump again. If it takes a while to prime, your check valve is most
likely the problem.

B. If the pump does not prime quickly, go to Step 3.

3. It appears that you have a slow suction leak. This must be proven. The tester shown here can be
made easily and cheaply. Do not be misled by the lack of high-tech instrumentation; it is the most
accurate device of its kind. A 1 psi change causes 3 feet of level change in the tubing.

4. Connect the test device as shown. Cover the pipe with cardboard or other material to shade it from
the heat of the sun which will cause thermal expansion and produce a false result. Close valve "B",
and open valve "A". Operate the hand pump until it discharges fuel. Close valve "A," and open
valve "B". Fuel will rise up the plastic tube a distance equal to the vertical distance from the fuel
level in the tank to the hand pump. Be sure the ladder is high enough to prevent siphoning.

5. Mark the fuel level on the tube and wait. Very small leaks may cause a drop in fuel level of only 1"
every 2-3 hours. Most leaks are more dramatic.

To insure that no leaks are present in the test device, you may wish to coat every connection with a thick
layer of petroleum jelly.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 42 BEING AWARE OF CHANGES: MAR. 1994
THE KEY TO SAFE FUELING

The difference between a good doctor and a poor doctor is that a good one can examine you and figure out exactly
what is wrong with you. The secret is knowing what to look for and understanding what you see. This is also true
when you examine your fuel system. You have to look for things out of the ordinary and understand their
importance.

FILTER MEMBRANE TESTS

(otherwise known as "Millipore tests")

A change in membrane color in consecutive tests on incoming fuel could show a potential problem. Doing a test
before and after each filter vessel shows you how much of the contamination is being removed by each vessel.
Slight coloration of the membrane is normal. A darker membrane than usual on the inlet warns you to test the fuel
after the filter. Also compare the color on the membranes from these two tests. If there is little or no difference in
color, you may have either a burst, damaged or improperly mounted element or extremely fine (small) particles that
pass through the grade coalescer you are using. You may need a tighter filter (lower micron rating) to remove this
contamination. To evaluate this, put two new membranes in one monitor and run the test again to determine if the
contaminant is really only "color bodies" -- (dye-like materials which rarely are a real problem). If the top and bottom
membranes are the same color, it isn't dirt that is causing the color. A difference in color represents filterable dirt on
the top membrane.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE READINGS

Natural law says that differential pressure should increase with time. A decrease in differential pressure usually
means loose or burst elements. Be sure to correct for different flow rates (see GAMGRAM #26). Keep records on
graph paper. A sudden increase in differential pressure means that you have a sudden increase in contamination.
You should do a filter membrane test to be sure that the elements are removing all of the contamination. If the color
is unacceptable, some of the contamination may be too small to remove completely on the first filtering. You may
need finer elements (lower micron rating) or recirculation to clean the product properly.

An increase in differential pressure on clay elements means water 99% of the time. The other 1% is gross particle
contamination. Pressure drop cannot be used to evaluate clay treatment capability. See GAMGRAM #14. WSIM
and IFT (Interfacial Tension) are the only proven indicators of clay depletion. The important thing to look for is the
difference in WSIM or IFT between inlet and outlet readings. The greater the difference, the better the clay is
working. If you do not have an Emcee Microseparometer to read WSIM (the new term is MSEP rating), Velcon
makes a "Swift Kit" tester to read IFT but it does not yet have ASTM acceptance. Do not assume that a low
differential pressure means that the clay is good. Have MSEP tests performed.

An increase in differential pressure on a filter separator that is downstream of a prefilter is important. A small
increase can be normal, caused by a buildup of fine contamination that got through the prefilter and was stopped in
the coalescers. Water can also cause an increase in differential pressure but this increase will usually disappear
with volume throughput because the coalesced water will end up in the sump. Often, a buildup of differential
pressure means that the micron rating of the prefilter is too large to protect the coalescers. Modern coalescers are
filtering at the 1/3 to 1/2 micron level so it makes little sense to try to protect them with 2 to 5 micron prefilters.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 VISUAL TESTING

There is no substitute for a visual test on fuel delivered by transport vehicles. Considering the cost of the
equipment, the test is the most cost effective method of protecting your system. A white porcelain (or properly
grounded plastic) bucket is all that is necessary, but a glass jar is a good additional tool.

Clean the bucket (or jar) carefully and, before the truck driver connects the delivery hose, open the valve and take a
one or two gallon sample into the bucket. Look for:

1. Free water in the bottom.

2. Particles in the fuel.
3. Improper smell, (if allowed by personnel safety rules).
4. Improper color.
5. Haze (a glass jar is a great help for this. See GAMGRAM #21).
6. A wispy white film or a foam that does not break up and disappear easily.

Your experience will show you that small quantities of water or particles are acceptable but any substantial
increase is cause for concern. Run the test again. If you get the same results several times, you have a reason to
register a complaint. Improper smell and haze are conditions that should cause great concern. Color should be
perfectly clear to slightly yellow ("straw color"). A white film or "soap suds" can mean surfactant contamination. This
can ruin filter separator elements and make a mess of your fuel system. (See GAMGRAM #'s 14 and 28).

A change in any of the above conditions is cause for concern. Call your supplier's quality control people (or your
own) if in doubt. You are the last line of defense in the event of a fuel problem. You may prevent the great
inconvenience to your company of a fuel system being contaminated. You might even save lives (not to mention
your job).

SUMP DRAININGS FROM FILTER SEPARATORS

Please review GamGram #3 and #21. Changes in water quantity are important in filter separators, because water
has to come from somewhere. Small quantites can be normal, caused by condensation. You should trace larger
quantities to the source.

If you keep getting haze in sump drainings after several samples have been taken, it only means one thing. Your
system is in trouble. (Be sure you have established flow for some time before you take the sample. Fuel can get
hazy from cooling when the system is stopped. You must flush this out of the system). As coalescer elements
become contaminated with surfactant, they start to allow a small amount of haze through if water is present. Allow
us to repeat: Haze in a filter separator sump means that your system is in trouble. You are not removing water and if
you don't do something fast, this could mean that some airplane full of people may be in big trouble. Call your
supplier's quality control people or your own. This is very, very important. Even if your filter separator is close to the
airport and the fuel will be filtered again, the surfactant and water can go right on through. Every filter separator
along the way to the aircraft can become disarmed. Only carefully controlled and monitored clay treatment can
save this fuel. Remember, YOU CAN SAVE LIVES.

Particles in filter separator sump drainings means one thing -- trouble. The elements could be loose, burst or
damaged and immediate investigation is necessary. If you are lucky, the cause may be found to be that the filter
separator was not properly cleaned at the last element change. Dirty water is not what we are talking about. A small
amount of "dirty" looking water can be normal. Visible dirt in the fuel is big trouble.

In conclusion, look for changes. You are responsible for one important aspect of flight safety. You can have a
problem. We hear of cases regularly. It happens to almost everyone, eventually. Don't gamble – be careful. Do you
expect everyone to call the newspapers when they have a problem? Of course not! They simply clean it up before it
gets to be a real problem (hopefully). Every fuel system and every quality control person in the world is part of an
invisible network. Our industry is very good at quality control. It is something to be proud of. Keep up the good work.
Help train your new people, test regularly and look for changes.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 43 IT IS EASY TO BLAME THE FILTER MAY 1995
REVISED FEB. 2004

It would be an understatement to say that we are not very happy with the tendency for some people to
automatically put the blame on the filter or filter separator for downstream contamination. Frankly, in most
cases we have seen, the cause of the problem is the piping design engineer. Recently we have seen
some horrible examples that need to be aired. We hope someone is listening; possibly these mistakes will
not be repeated.

EXAMPLE NO. 1
Supplying a hydrant system, there is a bank of filter separators and pumps in the fuel farm. The
complaint was that the coalescer elements in all of the filter separators had failed. The pleated
coalescing media had been bent inward and some pleats were broken. How could this happen
when flow is supposed to be from the inside toward the outside? The separator elements were
found to have dirt on the inside, but separators flow from the outside toward the inside. How could
flow be in reverse?

After a study of the system and the operating practices at this airport, we found that one of the 3
pumps was always on standby. The other 2 pumps came on stream alternately, depending upon
demand. See Sketch No. 1. The problem was that the system designer had failed to install check
valves in each filter line. When one or two pumps were operating, some flow was recirculating
backward through the other pump and filter separator. This reverse flow caused the coalescer
elements to fail.

The filter separator failed but the fault was obviously that of the system designer. For little more
than $100.00 per branch we solved the problem by adding a check feature to each slug valve. Any
brand of slug valve can also be a check valve simply by adding the correct check pilot valves.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
EXAMPLE NO. 2
A major oil company installed a "state of the art" filter system for jet fuel being delivered to a
pipeline that serves a local airport. The system consisted of a prefilter, clay treater and a filter
separator in series.

A work platform was erected so that workmen could change elements without a need to climb
ladders.

The system was put in service and the filter membrane colors definitely improved as fuel went
through the system but particles began to appear in the effluent. On opening the filter separator,
there was a large collection of large particles in the sump but this is the downstream side from the
coalescers. Yet, no failure of the coalescers could be found.

It took a while to find the answer. Look at the drain system in Sketch No. 2. Note that each vessel
has its own drain valve but the designer added another shut off valve as a safety closure at the
drain system outlet. We found each vessel drain valve open but the safety shutoff was closed.
Here was the answer. Some of the flow that entered the prefilter went through the drain system
carrying large particles into the filter separator. The reason the drain valves were left open was
because the workmen found it awkward to crawl under the work platform to operate them. It was
much easier to leave them all open and use the safety shut off valve when they performed their
daily sump drains.

EXAMPLE NO. 3
In their zeal to maintain "closed" fuel systems, piping design engineers are tying systems together
in very dangerous ways. In Example No. 2, the drains were tied together. In this third example, the
pressure relief valves and the air eliminator discharges for diesel, gasoline, jet and avgas were all
tied together. The air eliminators had no outlet check valves. When the avgas system was out of
service for a couple of days, diesel fuel that was leaking from a failed pressure relief valve found an
easy path into the avgas system, backwards through the avgas air eliminator. The newspapers
called it a "filter failure". The press rarely reports things accurately.

We have long urged the use of air eliminator check valves to prevent air from flowing backward into
a filter vessel. In this example, a check valve on the air eliminator would have prevented this
contamination problem.

EXAMPLE NO. 4
Here is another example of how designers of pipe systems create mammoth problems. In this
example, the result was a loss of hundreds of thousands of gallons of jet fuel over a very long
period of time at a major international airport. No one could find the reason for the fuel loss.

The installation consisted of over 200 air eliminators, pressure relief valves, low point drains, etc.
All were connected to a common waste system with no flow indicators. Of all of these components,
there was only one leak and it was from a failed pressure relief valve on a filter separator.

The design error was that there was no way to know when any item was leaking because there
were no flow indicators installed. If it had not been for an observant person who heard fuel
splashing into the underground collection pipe, the fuel loss might have been much greater.

In conclusion, pipe system designers simply must analyze their work more carefully. If you absolutely
have to tie drains and other pipes together to satisfy anti-pollution and environmental protection
requirements, use flow indicators so that operators can tell if flow is taking place when it should not, and
add check valves to prevent back flow.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 44 FILTER SEPARATOR PRESSURE DROP CONTROL DEC. 1995
REVISED MAR. 2014

When I was a boy, I heard a story of an event that happened in a nearby town. A large truck (lorry) got
stuck under a low bridge. There was great confusion and no one could figure out how to remove the truck.
A young boy kept trying to get a police officer's attention and the policeman kept telling him to go away.
The child was persistent and finally the policeman allowed him to speak his mind. He suggested letting
some of the air out of the truck tires and, of course, it worked.

I tell this story because sometimes I feel a bit like that little boy. The message of this GamGram is that
there is an inexpensive yet elegant solution to the problem of burst or collapsed elements in filter
separator, in regard to water absorbing “monitor” filter, see GamGram 56 and 65.

The solution which most people think of first is installation of a differential pressure switch. This works
fine, but you also need a control system, test/reset button and indicator light. Including installation, this
can get expensive. To help keep the cost and complexity down, we offer a prefabricated system and even
retro fit kits to allow you to easily install a test switch on our existing Gammon Gauge to automatically stop
flow if excessive differential builds up. But when you have a control or slug valve already present, there is
a better solution.

There are "slug valves" on the outlet of most filter separators, and pressure control valves on refueler
vehicles. These valves stop flow if water collects in the vessel sump. These are controlled by small pilot
valves designed to interface with a float control valve on the filter separator vessel. Frequently, pressure
or rate of flow pilots are also included on these valves.

The manufacturers of these slug valves make a little known pilot valve (which can be added) called a
Differential Control Pilot Valve.

The Differential Control Pilot Valve can sense pressure drop across the filter vessel and stops flow if
pressure drop exceeds a set point (for example – 15 psid). This is one solution, but there is an even better
and less expensive solution.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE LIMITING PILOT

Our idea is that you add a "rate of flow" type pilot to your slug control valve. You do this even if you already
have a rate of flow control pilot. The new control pilot will not be connected the same way and should be
called a Differential Limiting Pilot Valve. Its sense lines are not connected to the orifice plate on the slug
valve inlet (as the rate of flow pilot is) but are connected across the vessel itself. (See Figure 1.)

FIGURE 1

What happens is that when pressure drop is less than your set point (let's say 15 psid) the pilot does
nothing. But when pressure drop reaches 15 psid, this pilot starts to close the main valve just enough to
maintain 15 psid. The more dirt (or water, in a vessel with water absorbing elements), the lower the flow
rate, but you never exceed 15 psid. You lose flow rate, but don't burst the elements. Put simply, you are
making the slug valve absorb the pressure drop, not the elements. (Note, on water absorbing elements
on a hydrant cart in a high pressure hydrant system, it is better to use a pressure switch for faster reaction
time, see GramGram 56 and 65.

The beauty of this system is that it allows you to safely continue operation at a reduced flow rate,
extending element life and giving you time to get a new set of elements. No other system can do this, and
amazingly, it is also the least expensive solution.

Not only can this system be applied to stationary filter separators, but it will also work on a refueler truck,
as long as an in-line control valve is present. This is especially handy for use on vessels with water
absorbing elements or modern fuse monitor elements. It will work with diaphragm or piston type valves.

Well now, GamGrams have always been written in a way to provide information, not to make a sales pitch
for our products. This GamGram is definitely aimed at selling, but it's not our product. We are trying to sell
you on requesting this feature on all new vessels. It will insure safer operation of your facility. We have
spoken to the valve manufacturers and they will have retro-fit kits available. We would be happy to never
hear about burst coalescers and/or collapsed elements again. In addition, you could safely set the pilot up
to 20 or 25 psid or more! This really makes better sense than 15 psid on water absorbing vessels,
especially on hydrant trucks. Velcon, for one, is now recommending a 25 psi change out on fuse type
elements. (Check your company policies before changing!)
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 45 FLOATING SUCTION PROBLEMS APR. 1996

Floating suction assemblies are simple items at first glance. What can go wrong with a floating suction? Well, the float could
leak or the swivel could stick, but what else? Years ago when we first started manufacturing them, we thought that was about it
too. But over the years we have learned that there are many other things that can go wrong.

In one case, a large 16" diameter floating suction assembly that we supplied was sticking up out to the fuel so far that the inlet
was in the air and the arm was empty. The operator could not get any flow. It was perplexing, to say the least.

Many of you are smiling right now, because you think you know why this happened, and most of you are wrong. The swivel did
not stick, the retrieving cable was not tangled, and the arm was not jammed against a support column.

I will keep you in suspense no longer. The cause turned out to be that the operator had accidentally backfilled the arm with air.
How? When they emptied another tank they had also emptied the suction line common to both tanks. When they then opened
the valve on the tank that held our floating suction, the air in the pipe rushed into the floating suction arm, and the fuel in the arm
rushed into the pipe. Before fuel in the tank could flow into the arm, the arm had already gained enough buoyancy to cause it to
pop up, raising the inlet above the surface of the fuel. This is called a "floater". OK, so some of you knew the cause, but not
many!

The above problem can only happen on a tank with the outlet connection placed low on the side of the tank, but there are a
number of things that can go wrong with any floating suction and we have decided to write this GamGram to list things that
should be kept in mind when specifying or installing one.

1. As described above, floating suctions in vertical tanks (or horizontal tanks with end connections) should have one of the
following:
A. A small pipe with a manual valve can be run from the side of the tank to the suction pipe outside of the tank. This
valve can be opened to fill the floating suction should it become a "floater" as described above.
B. A small hole can be drilled into the side of the arm about a third of the way from the swivel to the float. This will allow
the arm to refill should it become filled with air. This hole will allow the arm to draw a small amount of "less clean"
fuel from a level in the tank well below the surface, but any negative effect will be small.
C. A special valve can be added to the swivel. This valve is supposed to open and fill the arm should the arm fill with
air. This sounds like a good idea, but valves of this type must be made very exactly, or they will either not work or
will open under normal flow conditions and will be no better than the bleed hole described above.

2. Another problem experienced in floating suctions is similar, but can happen in any style tank. It also results in having a
"floater", but the cause is different. When filling an empty tank, the fuel level rises until it reaches the floating suction inlet.
But because the inlet is turned downward, and the air inside the arm is trapped, as the fuel level rises, the arm floats up out
of the fuel.

This is the reason that many floating suction manufacturers (including GTP) drill small holes in the top of the inlet end of the
floating suction elbow. As the tank fills, the fuel can enter the arm because the air can get out by way of these small holes.
We us a 1/8" hole for arms up to 4", and larger "bleed" holes for larger arms. Make sure your new floating suction has a
bleeder hole before you close up the tank.

3. In horizontal tanks with top connections we have experienced many, many air problems – suction leaks. As described in
GamGram 41, these problems are usually called pump priming problems, but are often caused by the floating suction
installer. The problem is one of three things;
A. The flanges are not parallel when the flange bolts are tightened.
B. The gasket used is not compatible.
C. The pipe connection in the roof of the tank leaks.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 One reason for such leaks is that the contractor tests the piping without the floating suction installed. They never consider
that the pipe INSIDE the tank could leak because they are concerned only with leaks that release fuel onto the ground.

The main problem is that the installer is usually standing on a ladder inside the tank, in poor lighting, and working
overhead. It is very hard to get the pipe properly tightened into the tank roof in this position, and it is hard to bolt the flanges
together in parallel. It is also critical that the flange gasket be compatible with the fuel. Believe it or not, the installers often
are not that knowledgeable about gasket material.

These things may sound obvious, but we estimate that at least 25% of all horizontal tank fuel systems have problems as a
result of suction leaks. These problems are usually falsely called "pump priming problems". See GamGram 41 for more on
this.

4. Another problem is simply in choosing the incorrect size. If the floating suction is too small, you will have problems
achieving the required flow rate. The reason is that the pump has to pull too hard, and the fuel breaks into vapor (OK,
engineers, so it is a little more complicated than that, but we haven't the room here for a full technical explanation)

First figure out the condition under which you will have the highest flow rate. This is usually during recirculation. We do not
like to see velocities below 4 feet per second (FPS) or above 7 FPS. We have successfully achieved suction line velocities
as high as 9 FPS, but only on jet fuels, and only on systems with above ground vertical tanks located close to the pump.

You can perform the following calculation:

Flow Rate
X 0.4 = Velocity (FPS)
(Pipe Size)2

This is "Gammon's Formula" which we worked out after too many trips to the book of tables. It is very accurate and
convenient. For example, let's calculate the correct pipe size for a floating suction and suction pipe for 200 gpm. A 3" pipe
size would result in an excessive velocity of 8.9 FPS (feet per second). A 4" pipe gives a much better 5 FPS. (OK
engineers, I know you know how to calculate net positive suction head and compare it to the pump curve, but not everyone
does!)

Pressure pipes, downstream of the pump, are smaller than suction pipe, because a little pressure drop does no harm here.
(On the suction side too much pressure drop results in the fuel breaking into vapor and you lose flow rate). Pressure pipe
and refueling hose for 200 gpm is usually 2", which is a fast 20 FPS.

5. Another problem usually blamed on the pump is a suction high point. The suction pipe used with a centrifugal pump should
either be horizontal, or sloped slightly up to the pump inlet, with no "high points" to trap air. If there is a high point in the
suction pipe, centrifugal pumps will experience problems similar to those of item 4 above. Positive displacement pumps
are much more tolerant of high points.

For example, if you plan to use an aboveground tank with a centrifugal pump, you had better not have the suction pipe
leaving the tank at the top or you will have a serious high point. It is our understanding that all 50 states in the USA require
"top connections", so it looks like you will need a positive displacement pump.

6. If you allow a floating suction arm to rise far enough, it will go perfectly vertical. If it does so, it will stay that way. For that
reason, we design our smaller floating suctions to rise no more than 45 degrees, and never allow any floating suction to
rise more than 55 degrees. How? By either having an arm long enough so that the float touches the tank roof before it
reaches a high angle, or by attaching a cable from the tank bottom to the arm that restricts the angle that the arm can reach.
We call this a "restraining cable."

In a tank 35' in diameter and 40' high, the arm may be restricted to rise only 27' off the bottom when the tank is full, while the
fuel level will be perhaps 38'. This may worry some of you, but the quality of the fuel at this level in the tank is not much
worse than at the surface, and is much better than at the tank bottom. The only alternative is to put in an "articulated"
floating suction arm, which has two swivels and arms. This is much more expensive and requires guide cables. We do
make such designs, but recommend against them in most cases.

It is interesting that so much is important in the use of such an apparently simple device. For more information on fuel system
design see GamGrams 38 and 39. See GamGram 41 for pump priming problems.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 46 RECEIVING FUEL JAN. 1997

It is often said that the refueling operation is the "last line of defense", insuring that the fuel going to aircraft
is the correct fuel, contaminant free. If this is true, and surely it is, then receiving fuel is a very critical
element in the supply system. Unfortunately, it is not always treated that way.

In one recent case, the driver of a delivery transport truck (Bridger) arrived at an airport saying he had a
load of Avgas. The man on duty thought it was odd because he had not been told of a fuel delivery He
shrugged his shoulders and told the truck driver to pull into the fuel farm (Mistake #1). He then connected
up the delivery hose without a white bucket test; a bucket was less than 10 feet away (Mistake #2). He
then finally looked at the driver's paperwork. He did notice that his company's name was not on the
papers, the delivery was meant for another FBO at the same airport. He did not notice the term "Jet Fuel"
on the ticket (Mistake #3). He called his boss on the radio, who specifically asked if he had done a white
bucket test. Feeling it was a small lie, he said "yes" (Mistake #4). His boss told him to continue unloading
the rest of the truck's compartment (the truck had several compartments) and then send the truck to the
competitor's fuel farm to unload the rest of the fuel. This was done.

Fortunately, his boss had pride and professionalism, traits in all too short supply these days. He got up
from his desk and drove over to his competitor's facility to double-check. After checking the paperwork
and smelling the empty truck tank at the hatch (cover), he shut down the airport to Avgas aircraft and
ordered one aircraft that was already in the air to make an emergency landing. It was found that the
aircraft's auxiliary tanks were half Avgas and half Jet Fuel.

We have heard of many, many stories like this one, with contaminants from diesel to deicing fluid to liquid
fertilizer to milk (yes milk!). The lesson here is obvious, but we hear similar examples like this every year.
This is why we have written this GamGram.

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM FUEL RECEIPT PROCEDURE

Make sure your oil company and/or airline customer approves of every procedure before you adopt it! An
excellent guide line is ATA - 103, the airline standard. This can be obtained by calling 202-626-400.

1. Inspect the paperwork. Make sure all data are correct, especially the fuel type and trailer/bridger
number.

2. Inspect the unloading connection and clean off any debris/contamination. Connect the ground
wire.

3. If you are going to use the truck's hose, make sure it is clean and that the gaskets are in place and
in good condition.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 4. If you are going to use the truck's own pump to transfer the fuel, make sure it is properly drained of
any previous product.

NOTE: Although truckers often will tell you that you don't have to check the fuel, do it anyhow!
Errors occur and you cannot rely on someone else's quality control.

5. It is best to wait 10 minutes for the tank to settle. Make sure to do a white bucket test. Do Not flush
before a test. The fuel should appear "Clear and Bright". A mayonnaise jar can also be used for
inspection of the fuel in the bucket. If the first sample is no good, do another and perhaps even
another. See ASTM publication number MNL-5 for the procedure, or the ATA-103.

6. If the fuel passes the white bucket test, proceed to a hydrometer test, if possible. (See ASTM MNL-
5 for a procedure, or our GamGram 19). Unfortunately, many airports do not perform this test.

7. If the fuel passes the hydrometer test, proceed to the water test. The Shell or Exxon/Velcon
Hydrokit tests are both good, and the Metrocator is also used, but is somewhat less common. (Of
course our Aqua-Glo is a more precise lab quality test for water content).

8. Only after all of the tests are completed should you connect and prepare to unload.

NOTE: A closed circuit sampler can be used to more conveniently perform tests 5-9. See our
Bulletin # 138.

9. You are not done yet! Make sure your tank has enough capacity for the new delivery and then
perform a pre-check of your over-fill protection system, if so equipped.

10. Unload.

Before you use the fuel we recommend you set up to recirculate and run a filter membrane test to insure
that you have no excessive particulate (see ASTM MNL-5, D-2276/IP-216). If you have had problems,
you may wish to perform this test during unloading. To speed up the test, partially close a downstream
valve to build up 20-30 psi so as to speed up the flow through the filter membrane.

Remember – If you or your people ever say, "It can't happen here", it will! Training, equipment and
checklists are useless without pride and professionalism. Double-check everything, assume nothing and
trust no one, but when you find the job well done, say so.

If you never receive a bad or incorrect load of fuel, and never receive credit for saving lives, at least you
can hold your head high and have pride because you know you would have caught a problem, had it
come your way.

Most of the time pride is the only reward for professionalism, but it is enough, don't you agree?
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 47 HOW DOES WATER GET INTO AN AIRCRAFT? APR. 1997
REVISED NOV. 1997
PART 1

If any of you figure out a way to make water burn, please call us. We'd be happy to help you make use of this
knowledge. Until then, I think we can all agree that it is not a good idea to put it into aircraft fuel tanks. This is the first
part in a two part series.

Many people just do not understand how water can get into an aircraft and therefore do not understand what they
can do to prevent such contamination. Some do not realize how often it happens, and that it can happen to them.
We are not talking about a drop or two, we are talking about gallons or even hundreds of gallons.

In our industry we have procedures for checking certain things, but many people do not know why they are
performing these checks or what can happen if they do not. Unfortunately, a lack of understanding often leads to
complacency, and this can lead to disaster.

In case you are not getting the point, EVERY YEAR LIVES ARE PUT AT RISK BECAUSE REFUELING
COMPANIES LIKE YOURS DON'T THINK IT CAN HAPPEN TO THEM! In every case, after the event the operator
is shocked and disbelieving. The common comment is, "I thought it couldn't happen here; we have a good QC
program, do all the tests and use a good fuel supplier." The same thing CAN happen to you, no matter how good
you think your quality control is. The following are examples of how water has gotten to aircraft. Surely there are
other additional ways for this to happen; this is not a complete list of every possible cause.

1. On top of virtually all truck tanks, there is what we call "roll-over protection". This amounts to a dike or dam
around the vents and manways. The idea is to prevent damage to these items if the truck rolls over upside
down. To drain rain water (or melting snow) from this area, hoses are run down from the corners of the
enclosure. Unfortunately, inspection of these drain hoses is often ignored as "no big deal", and they plug
with debris (or even ice).

Well it is a very big deal. This has caused many incidents where gross amounts of water (up to 250 gallons)
were put into aircraft. I personally spoke to a man who drained 150 gallons of water from an airliner. How did
it get into the tank? If the water can't drain off, it "pools" up to 8" (or even more) deep. If the manway or vent
seals fail, it goes directly into the storage tank. Even if the seals do not leak, when you engage the PTO to
pump, the vent (which is submerged in water) opens allowing the water to enter the tank.

Check the drain hoses and manway gaskets and the filter separator water controls. Sump tanks and vessel
sumps.

2. The snow had accumulated at an airport, and due to warm days and cool nights, the snow melted during the
days and refroze at night. This allowed several inches of water to cover the area where the underground
tank was buried. The gauging hatch or the test cable port gasket for the floating suction leaked. Water went
directly into the storage tank. The filter separator water controls at the fuel farm and refueler truck both
failed. An aircraft crashed.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 This has also happened in warm climates during strong rains or floods. In one case, all of the fuel floated out
of the tank and the tank completely filled with water.

Check your tank top connections for a tight fit and proper gaskets; sump your tanks and vessels. Make sure
the sample is fuel and not pure water. Check water controls, tank sumps and vessel sumps daily.

3. The ground-water level was high and a structural problem caused a leak in the underground storage tank.
Fuel did not leak out, water leaked in. The pilot or engineer of an aircraft being fueled later happened to
notice that a fuel tank level indicator suddenly went from almost empty to full in the blink of an eye. If he had
not noticed this, caused by an electronic gauge not calibrated for the high conductivity and mass of water, a
catastrophe would certainly have occurred Still, over 300 gallons of water was drained from the aircraft.

Test your water controls and take extra samples from the truck and aircraft sump if the slightest hint of
unusual water risk is present.

Tank tightness testing is not just for environmental reasons. If you notice your storage tank levels increasing
or not decreasing as expected, double check your tank sump. In this case the water float on the truck had a
severed wire and the fuel farm had a failed water float.

4. A new man was assigned to fill the aircraft lavatory water tank. He was not familiar with the particular aircraft
and put the water into the overwing fueling connection. It was only caught because his supervisor knew a
Beechcraft King Air will not hold 150 gallons of potable water.

The fueling operation is not the only way to get water into the aircraft.

5. The aircraft was being refueled when the refueler cargo tank went empty. The lineman left both of the fuel
tank caps off and drove back to the fuel farm for more fuel. He could not refuel because they were unloading
a transport trailer (bridger). His shift ended and he went home, forgetting to finish. It rained the next two
days and only due to the pilot's preflight check was the error discovered.

When you open a cap, do so only to insert a nozzle. Close it before you depart for any reason, even to do a
small task such as picking up a dropped item. ALSO - If you notice that the cap does not fit tightly, indicating
a possibly failed gasket, notify the pilot. Rain water frequently enters aircraft fuel tanks through leaky tank
caps.

6. Upon completing a new arm of the hydrant system, a "hydrotest" was performed. To do so, the system was
filled with water and pressurized. When no leaks were detected, the system was drained and purged at high
flow rates with fuel prior to being commissioned for fuel use. Due to an imperfect purge, and a broken wire
on a water probe over 50 gallons of water was placed onto a jetliner. Even though the wing tanks were
sumped prior to flight as a special precaution, the water was not discovered until the engines performed
unevenly in flight and a precautionary landing was made. It turned out the sump sample was pure, clear
water, but looked like clean, dry fuel and the jar smelled like fuel from previous sampling.

Carry coffee, tea, "food coloring" or other water based or soluble material with you and drop some into fuel
samples. If it sinks to the bottom as a drop, you have fuel. If it dissolves, you have a problem. Do not accept
a clear and bright test alone as proof that the sample is good, clean fuel. It can be bad, clean water.

Test your water controls and take extra truck and aircraft sump samples if the slightest hint of unusual water
risk is present.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 48 HOW DOES WATER GET INTO AN AIRCRAFT? APR. 1998
PART 2
This is the second in a series of two GamGrams on the subject of water in aircraft fuel tanks.

7. The operator decided to steam clean the tank on a refueler truck. He used great care to remove all of the
water from the tank after the cleaning operation. However, he neglected to drain the refueler pump and
piping. When he put the truck back in service, the operator had a problem getting flow until he ran the engine
speed up higher and increased the pump pressure. When he suddenly got flow, he congratulated himself,
assuming a valve had been stuck. A later operator noticed low flow and checked the strainer. He found the
remains of the burst water absorbing elements from his filter. After careful inspection, it was determined that
the pump bypass valve was set at over 100 psi, but miraculously no water entered the aircraft because the
filter element largely remained intact and the nozzle strainer caught all debris. This was a 22 gpm avgas
truck.

There are many lessons in this one, and all are pretty obvious. Most importantly, recirculate a truck and
check sumps, pressures and filter condition carefully after steam cleaning.

8. On an ocean going research vessel, the helicopter was fueled from drums. The aircraft lost power but was
fortunately not lost. It was found that rain water, pooling on top of the drums, had been the cause. Due to the
need for air to enter the drums as the fuel was pumped out, the vent plug on top of the drum had been
loosened and not retightened after the last refueling. As luck would have it, it rained that night. Due to
temperature changes, the drum "breathed" vapor out and water in. Either lay drums over horizontally, or
cover them. Use water absorbing filters in such situations for safety.

NOTE: THIS ALSO APPLIES TO "PRIST" OR ANTI-ICING ADDITIVE DRUMS! We know of a case where
the bladders in an aircraft had to be replaced for this reason. The "Prist," having just 3-5% water in it, would
not dissolve into the fuel and dropped out, destroying the bladders.

In the words of a skilled helicopter pilot who had this "water/drum" contamination happen to him in a similar
case set in the mountains of a North American forest, "Helicopters glide like a streamlined brick. A safe
landing is only possible if the engine failure occurs at a reasonable altitude, a suitable landing spot is
available ahead and below and the pilot can perform a (very tricky) "auto-rotation" landing. The proper
procedure is to first kiss the ground and then grab the refueler by the throat".

9. This one is really rare, but worth mentioning A major airport had a "Salt Dryer" in its incoming fuel system.
This device is a huge bed of salt which the fuel flows through at a very slow rate. (See Gamgram 27 re: Salt
Dryers). The idea is that salt bed removes not only free water, as does a filter separator, but also significant
amounts of dissolved water (Similar to humidity in air). This is a primitive sounding but highly effective
device. Unfortunate in this case the flow became too high and water (salt water now) was carried through to
the airport fuel system. All of the water controls on this major international airport failed and all quality
control checks missed it until after an aircraft had been fueled and had departed. The aircraft lost one
engine on approach to its destination, and two more while taxing on the ground. The salt water damage to
the fuel system was devastating.
GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.
2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 10. This example is not for fuel system education, but for human nature education. A lineman was about to
refuel a King Air. He noticed a "shadow" in the tank and called over his supervisor. Together they drained
about 15 gallons of dirty water from the sumps of the aircraft. Upon the pilots return, the proud station
manager presented this hero lineman to the pilot along with the buckets of water. Not only did the pilot not
appreciate the service, he got mad at the FBO for touching his aircraft. He stated that the drain valves are
expensive to replace and if any developed a leak as a result of the draining, the FBO was going to get the
bill. He also threatened to call management and report this incident. The station manager calmly told him
"Please do that.” We really do not know how the water got into the aircraft, but the two lessons here are to
never underestimate the stupidity of anyone regardless of credentials, and don't touch an airplane unless
the pilot says to.
COMMENTS AND DETAILS

Many of you will be thinking "The water controls should have stopped the water", or "The pilots were also at fault".
You are right, but it does not matter. It is your job to deliver clean, dry fuel to the aircraft.

▪ Tanks and filter vessels must be sumped.

▪ The water controls must be checked properly Opinions vary on how to properly do this. Some say that
purposely injecting water into the sump of a filter separator is the only truly reliable way, as manual testers
and "squeeze bulbs" indirectly test the system, and have been known to falsely indicate that the system is in
working order when it is not. The only proper way to test a water control is to have enough water in the
system to cause it to work.

The best way to do this is to fill the sump with water, and then try to start fuel flow. (This usually means that you
squeeze the deadman handle.) If you get fuel flow, stop immediately, your water control has failed. If you get no fuel
flow, the water control worked properly.

Either way, put in a measured amount of water, and make sure you get it all out.

NOTE: Do not use city water/drinking water piping to do this, as the refueling pressure may be higher than the water
pressure, causing fuel to flow into the water system, not water into the fuel system. We know of two such
occurrences . In one case fuel backed up into a building where a fireman was taking a shower. The fireman was not
happy with his jet fuel shower.

Others feel pouring water into the vessel sump when changing elements is the best, or removing the float and
making sure it floats in water but not fuel. Others actually claim old style manual testers do the job alright
(WRONG).

We know of flaws in all of these methods, but the big risk is relying on the manual testers on old style float controls or
squirt type testers on water probe. The old testers raise the float and test the shutdown system, but do not detect
excess friction in the mechanism due to old age or contamination, and certainly cannot detect a failed float. Probes
can also be contaminated on the outside with a non-conductive layer of gum, varnish or other contaminant. The
squirt tester tests the INSIDE of the probe, where such contamination does not reach.

Use modern counterweight floats and clean the outside of your water probes when changing elements. It is still a
good idea, in our opinion, to test with real water, but be sure to remove it all. NEVER test with water when refueling
an aircraft. DEFINITELY get approval from your oil company or airline before running such a test. Measure the
water quantity before and after.

If you do find that you have water in an aircraft fuel tank, experience has proven that simply draining the tank sumps
will not remove all water. Whether your aircraft is large or small, there is a strong possibility you will have trouble
with remaining water. In one case, on a single engine propeller driven avgas aircraft, even rocking the aircraft and
draining the sumps repeatedly did not prevent an emergency landing on the next flight. In the days of a large
corporate / small jetliner type aircraft, repeated sumpings at two separate airports did not prevent a crash landing.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 49 IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT DEC. 1998
AIRCRAFT REFUELING HOSE

In GamGram 35, we covered many aspects of aircraft refueling hose. In this GamGram, we cover more.
Hose is taken for granted. It is very reliable, and surprisingly strong and durable. But you, the operator,
have a responsibility to handle it properly.

For example, would you allow a doctor to operate on you using instruments that had never been cleaned?
Using accessories that had never been tested? Failing to inspect his equipment prior to use?

Much of what is in this GamGram is CRITICAL to your operation. This GamGram is NOT background
information. YOU are supposed to soak and flush hose before use. YOU are supposed to retest hose
periodically. This GamGram is meant to illuminate these and other facts. Your oil company and/or airline
customer's guidelines should be followed. They may require different or more frequent inspections or
more strenuous testing.

NEW HOSE INSTALLATION

Upon installing a new piece of hose, do not just flow fuel into the aircraft! Hose is made on a metal form,
called a mandrel. It forms the inside diameter of the hose. This mandrel is covered with a mold release
compound (a wax-like substance) to keep the raw rubber of the liner or tube from sticking to the mandrel.
Raw rubber is putty-like and sticky. After the yarn or fabric is added to the hose as reinforcement, and the
cover is applied, the hose is baked in an oven to cure the rubber.

When the mandrel is removed, some of the wax-like substance remains inside the hose. The water used
in pressure testing the hose does not remove all of this material. But more than that, the rubber itself
needs to be soaked in fuel and flushed prior to use. This is because the rubber will release some material
(plasticizers) into the fuel when first used. No manufacturer can avoid this, it has to do with the chemistry
of rubber.

MINIMUM
The API standard requires flushing, but has no set procedure. It recommends the following as an
example. Flush 500 gallons of fuel through the hose, let it sit unused with fuel inside for 8 hours, and
repeat the flush. (API-1529 - 1998). In the field, the standard practice we have seen is to recirculate this
fuel back to storage.

INSPECTION

Many people consider inspection of the hose to be a periodic operation. Some people inspect hose
visually once every 3 months. The API-1529 requires visual inspection DAILY! Do you do this? Hose
failure is arguably the worst possible equipment failure you could experience. Think of it, fuel under
pressure, a hot aircraft engine...

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
MINIMUM INSPECTION
DAILY Visual inspection of hose
MONTHLY Pull hose out fully and carefully inspect for any irregularities including soft
spots. Pressurize the hose and inspect again. This is literally a "hands-on"
inspection, not a simple visual look-over
EVERY 6 MONTHS Pressure test the hose to the maximum working pressure and conduct the
same examination as done monthly. (Not your normal operating pressure,
the hose's rated working pressure)

RECOUPLING WITH REATTACHABLE FITTINGS

Many of you are now thinking, "We can't recouple or use reattachable couplings at our airport; we are not
allowed." If your oil company or if other rules prohibit reattachable fittings or the reuse of them, it is
probable that they are unaware that the majority of aircraft refueling hoses that are in service outside of
the USA, have reattachable couplings. It is not prohibited by API-1529, BS-EN 1361 (which replaces the
old BS-3158), or the NFPA-407.

In the past, the NFPA did not allow the use of reattachable couplings, but now it does. The API has a
recoupling procedure. To meet the API standard, the fittings must pass a strenuous test of the hose/fitting
combination before a reattachable fitting can be used at all. To certify a coupling brand/model and a hose
brand/model together, the API requires a 15,000 cycle pressure test to maximum working pressure. The
fitting must not slip. There are at least three brands of hose presently made in the USA that meet this
standard using special German-made fittings. DO NOT USE ANY BRAND OF REATTACHABLE
FITTING UNLESS IT IS SPECIFICALLY APPROVED BY THE SPECIFIC HOSE MANUFACTURER TO
API-1529 (or BS-EN-1361 and, if so, approved by your oil company). Internationally, the oil company
approval requirement supersedes all other approvals.

Some of you may be asking, "Why recouple?" The method in some parts of the world is to buy hose a little
longer than absolutely necessary. You may or may not reverse the hose after the nozzle end starts to
show wear, but when one end shows too much wear, you cut off a few feet, and recouple.

MINIMUM TEST
If you do recouple hose with reattachable fittings, you must:

1. Have a formal written procedure and training manual.

2. The fitting must be approved for use on that specific brand and size of hose.
3. Permanently mark the fitting to show the date and who performed the recoupling.
4. The hose must be tested to the PROOF (not working) pressure prior to returning to service.
5. If the hose is recoupled with the exact same fitting that was removed from that piece of hose, a test
only to maximum working pressure is allowed by the API, but we recommended a test to proof
pressure.
6. Complete records must be kept for the life of the hose.

There is a lot to the care of refueling hose, and you should not take it for granted. It is made by humans,
and can have flaws. It can be damaged in use. A hose failure can be catastrophic.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 50 THE IGNORED AUTOMATIC CONTROL VALVE APR. 1999

If a valve does its "thing" without any evidence that you can see, people will ignore it and never really learn
anything about it. In fact, many operators of aircraft fuel system do not know whether they do or do not
have a valve called a rate of flow controller.

So let's begin this article by defining what we are talking about. It is usually called the "rate of flow control"
but it is also called by other names that describe its additional functions. For example, a hydrant servicer
or refueler truck has a deadman valve but that valve often has multiple functions such as pressure control
or flow rate control. In a stationery installation, you may have a slug valve but it may also have other
functions such as flow control, pressure control or it may also have a check valve feature. It all depends on
whether or not a "rate of flow" pilot valve has been added to the basic valve. We vigorously disagree with
the valve manufacturers because the name "rate of flow control" is very misleading. The valve does not
"control". It is a "flow rate limiter". It does absolutely nothing until the flow rate tries to exceed the flow rate
setting. Then and only then does it do anything. It simply closes just enough to prevent excessive flow.

Did you know that a filter separator cannot be expected to remove water from the fuel without this valve to
insure that the flow rate will never be greater than its design limit? Did you know that the person who
specified your valve probably did not specify the flow rate setting? Did you know that the valve
manufacturer usually does not ask the customer for the desired flow rate setting? So the chances are that
your valve has never been adjusted to limit the flow rate at the correct setting for your filter separator
Therefore, it is not only possible that you could operate at a higher flow rate than you do now, but it is also
possible that you are operating at a flow rate in excess of your filter separator's maximum rating, with the
possibility of water going into the aircraft.

The obvious question is, "How do you test and readjust a rate of flow control pilot valve?" It is really quite
simple if there is a meter in the system. There is an adjusting screw (usually under a cap) on the top of the
rate of flow pilot valve. (See GamGrams 10, 11 and 12). To increase flow rate, turn the screw clockwise. To
decrease flow rate, turn it counterclockwise. Use a stop watch or the second hand of a wristwatch to
check the rate of flow on the meter.

If there is no meter in the system, this can be a challenging task, as described below.

HYDRANT SYSTEM - Select a time of day when traffic is very light. Stop flow through all but one filter
separator. Coordinate by hand-held radio so that when flow is started, the combined flow rate will be at
least as high as the maximum rating of the single filter separator. This may require more than one hydrant
cart to be flowing. If the combined rate of flow of the operating gates is different from the rating of the filter
separator, make an adjustment and then test again until you have it right. You then must repeat this
process for all of the other filter separators.

TANK FILLING - This is a more time consuming and difficult procedure because the only way you can
measure the flow rate is by checking the tank level rise rate. As a rule-of-thumb, check the tank level over
a period of about 15 minutes or a change in level of 6 inches (150mm), which ever is a greater flow rate. If
you do not have an accurate level gauge, we can offer no advice except to hire someone having a
portable ultrasonic flow rate indicator.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Very few operators of fuel systems that have 2 or more filters operating in parallel, as in a hydrant system,
recognize the fact that each differential pressure gauge will read almost exactly the same if rate of flow
control valves are not operating. As an example, consider just two vessels side by side, each with its own
differential pressure gauge, as in Sketch A. Regardless of what you do, both gauges will read the same
except for differences caused by very small variations in the piping. In fact, the elements could have failed
in one vessel or were never installed in the first place, and both gauges would read nearly the same. This
is why it is so important to have a rate of flow limiting valve independently adjusted for each vessel as in
Sketch B.

Now that we have covered the necessity of limiting the flow rate, we must remind you that a differential
pressure reading means very little unless you know the flow rate. This was covered in GamGram No. 26.

On one of our inspection trips, we had an argument with an engineer who insisted that he did not need
flow rate controllers because his system had a separate pump for each filter separator that discharged
into a common header. However, when I inspected the installation I found that cross feeding valves were
installed so that if a pump or a filter was shut down for maintenance, those valves could be opened. See
Sketch C. All of his gauges read the same and this was because all of those valves were left open.

His differential pressure gauges could read accurately only if he kept those cross feed valves closed.
Alternatively, if he installed rate of flow control valves at each location marked X, he would also have
gauges that read correctly.

In summary:

1. To insure that a filter separator will remove water, never operate it at a flow rate above its design
limit. A "rate of flow control valve" is a necessary piece of equipment.
2. A rate of flow control valve must be adjusted to prevent an excessive flow rate.
3. If a system has 2 or more filter separators in parallel, you will never get correct differential pressure
data unless 2 rate of flow control valves are installed.

The valve that is called a "rate of flow controller" is actually a maximum flow limiting valve.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 51 SETTING UNDERWING NOZZLE PRESSURE APR. 2000

In 51 GamGrams spread over 25 years, we have never addressed this subject directly. It is complex, and often misunderstood.
One reason is that there are so many different designs of trucks and hydrant carts. It has taken 2 years to get this GamGram
"right"; we hope you agree. We'd like to specially thank ES (you know who you are) for his help on this, really cutting through the
complexity.

Please read GamGrams 32 and 33 before reading this one. They contain the background you need to fully understand this
GamGram.

THE BASICS

1. Refueling with incorrect nozzle pressures is always a problem. Too much pressure can damage the aircraft. Too little
pressure -- refueling takes too much time.
2. The gauge on your vehicle marked "Nozzle Pressure" does not read actual nozzle pressure. It reads simulated nozzle
pressure -- see GamGram #32.
3. Actual nozzle pressure depends on several factors: the setting and design of your equipment, aircraft type, the
number of aircraft tanks open, and much more.
4. It is a standard world-wide practice (and specified by the ATA) to have two methods of controlling nozzle pressure, one
is primary and the other is the backup, or secondary. Except when dual hose end regulators are used, the secondary
pressure is 5 - 10 psi higher than the primary, or surging will occur as the two controls "fight" each other.

DESIGN TYPES - We list here the most common basic designs.

1. Low pressure systems, typically low flow rate cabinets and small refueling trucks. These systems are simply incapable
of excessive pressure, but only if a low pressure pump is used.

2. Double Hose End Regulator (HER) Systems. These systems have a deadman control on the main delivery system,
but no pressure control. The only pressure control is two hose end regulators on the nozzle. This is inexpensive and
reliable, but the nozzle is large and heavy. There is no simple way to tell if the HERs are working correctly.

3. Single HER systems have a single pressure control on the delivery equipment, and an HER on the nozzle. Most
commonly the HER is the primary control. In some cases, such as on hydrant carts, there may be a pit pressure control
valve and inline valve on the cart and an HER on the nozzle. There is no simple way to tell if the HER is working
correctly. On a system with a long hose, a HER may simply serve as a surge protection.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 4. Bypass and Inline Valve refueler trucks have the two controls on the truck. This type of system can deliver the highest
flow rate to the aircraft, when properly adjusted. In some cases, a HER may be added as an emergency backup, but is
not necessary if the truck is properly adjusted.

The Super Simple method of setting nozzle pressure (For illustration only, follow your complete procedure to test all your
safety systems -- follow your company policy!)

1. Connect the refueler or hydrant cart nozzle to a recirculation connection or test stand (NOT an aircraft)
2. Disable the primary pressure control
A. On HER systems, use a block-out device.
B. On "air set" systems, record and then increase the primary air reference pressure to 90 psi, or if so equipped,
disconnect the venturi sense line QD from the primary pressure control servo.
C. On spring set systems, unscrew the primary pressure control adjuster until loose or if so equipped, disconnect the
venturi sense line QD from the primary pressure control servo.
3. Close a valve downstream of the nozzle slowly. The actual nozzle pressure at any flow rate should not exceed your
standard, typically 45 psi. If it is incorrect, adjust the secondary control or repair the secondary HER if equipped with
dual HERs.
4. On systems with venturi compensators, close the valve slowly again and check to make sure the "Nozzle Pressure"
gauge on the refueling equipment matches the actual nozzle pressure. If not, adjust the venturi needle valve to make
these pressures match. Repeat step 3 and 4 to confirm proper settings.
5. Enable the primary pressure control. Close the valve downstream of the nozzle slowly. The actual nozzle pressure at
any flow rate should not exceed your standard, typically 40 psi. If it is incorrect, adjust the primary control or repair the
primary HER if equipped with dual HERs.
6. On systems with venturi compensators, recheck as in step 4 to confirm that the venturi is adjusted to cause the
"Nozzle Pressure" gauge to match the actual nozzle pressure.
7. Done!

NOTES:

1. Surging may be caused by air trapped in the pressure sense lines. It can also be caused by trying to set the primary
and secondary pressures too closely together.
2. Test the deadman and emergency stop systems at various flow rates to confirm proper operation.
3. In "Air Set" systems, the air reference pressure is higher than the fueling pressure. For example, a valve with a 16 psi
"bias" pressure will regulate at 40 psi when the air reference is 56 psi, 16 psi above the desired fuel pressure. The bias
may also be 25 psi.
4. Under no condition should the actual nozzle pressure exceed the "Nozzle Pressure" gauge on your equipment. At no
time should the nozzle pressure exceed your established maximum, and certainly never exceed 55 psi.
5. Also make sure you do not exceed the maximum flow rate of the filter and meter at any time. This may be controlled by
a rate of flow control pilot on the in-line valve.
6. In some cases, the venturi may not be able to provide enough compensation, even if the needle valve is screwed in all
the way. In such a situation the actual nozzle pressure at high flow rates will be lower than shown on the "nozzle
pressure" gauge on the vehicle. See note 4, do not adjust the pressure too high, change to a venturi correctly selected
to use on your system.
7. If you must change a hose length or diameter, you MUST reset your venturi.

CONCLUSION

If you properly set up your fueling equipment, you will fuel aircraft quickly and safely.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 52 JET FUEL ADDITIVES PART 1: FEB 2001
ANTI-ICING ADDITIVE

If you read the ingredients on virtually any package of a food or beverage, you almost always see additives listed. It
is almost frightening the chemicals that are routinely in the food we eat. You may notice that some candy includes
“Propylene Glycol”. Did you know that this is the same chemical we use in northern climates to de-ice aircraft?
Additives are a huge business around the world and sure improve most of the products we handle. Aviation fuel is
no exception, but there can be problems handling these additives.

We received a call from a customer. He asked, “How do you blend anti-icing additive into jet fuel”? We answered
with our usual answer describing the use of an additive injector that is designed to slowly add the additive
proportionally to the fuel as if flows through the system. He asked “So you shouldn't just pour the additive into the
top of the storage tank before you fill the tank? In shock, we answered “Absolutely not! That would never result in
proper mixing. The additive does not readily dissolve into the fuel and is also much heavier. It will sink to the
bottom.” He then asked, “Would that hurt a fiberglass tank? Our answer “Absolutely, positively. If you have done
this, we'd recommend you stop operation immediately until you can clean out the tank, access the damage to the
tank and re-certify the fuel.” Then he explained that he had a complete failure of his brand new tank farm. His tank
was damaged, his filters were damaged, and the epoxy lining of the filter separator was peeling. His aluminum
meter had damage inside. He had followed the uneducated advice of an additive salesman, and it cost him a great
deal of money.

In another case, a pilot called us to ask why his fuel quantity indicators did not work when he took fuel from one
particular fuel farm. We suggested a test for static dissipater additive (SDA), and it turned out that an error at the
fuel terminal had resulted in over 20 times the correct amount of the additive being injected into the fuel. The fuel
was so conductive that his level sensors were rendered useless.

In gasoline, additives are a necessity. There are detergent additives to keep fuel injectors clean, additives to help in
the refining process, color dyes and chemical “tags” for product identification and many more. There is a lead-
based additive in most Avgas. The chemical industry has made great progress in designing additives for many
purposes..

Commercial jet fuel has few, if any, additives. Internationally, static dissipater additive is used very widely, and it is
becoming more common in the USA every year. Another common additive is corrosion inhibitor, which is actually
used not to control corrosion, but to improve the “lubricity” (the ability of the fuel to act as a lubricant) of the fuel to
help fuel pumps and controls last longer. In military fuels, a package of anti-icing, static dissipater and corrosion
inhibitor additive is common.

But today we are in a transition on additives. The old anti-icing additive has been changed to a different chemical
with different handling concerns and a new additive (+100) is coming into use in some locations, primarily military
locations, but also commercial experiments are underway with this promising new additive. Many people believe
this will come into wide usage soon.

In this GamGram we will address only the new anti-icing additive known as DiEGME (commonly pronounced dye-
egg-me).

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 ANTI-ICING ADDITIVE

The most common jet fuel additive used in the USA is anti-icing additive, used only in non-airline ( military and
general aviation) jet fuels by several oil companies. Perhaps 1/3 of general aviation jet fuel is “pre-treated” from the
terminal with this additive. In many other cases, the fueling truck can add the additive if the pilot requests it.

At high altitudes or cold climates, fuel in an aircraft fuel tank will become cooler. As it cools, a haze will condense
from water dissolved in the fuel, just like clouds or fog forming in the moist air, as air cools. Filters in your fuel system
cannot remove the dissolved water when the fuel is warmer, so the aircraft must be designed to be able to deal with
these ice crystals as the fuel cools or else these ice crystals will plug the engine fuel control system filters. Larger
commercial aircraft typically have fuel “pre-heaters” to raise the temperature of the fuel entering the engine above
32 degrees F or 0 degrees C. Other aircraft require anti-icing additive. This additive works by being attracted to the
water as it comes out of solution to form ice crystals. The additive prevents that water from freezing, and the
resulting tiny droplet passes through the filter and into the engine. In small quantities, this water/additive drop does
no damage to the engine. The additive may be injected on the refueler or come pre-blended from the oil companies
terminal.

The new additive, DiEthylene Glycol Monomethyl Ether, was chosen because it was less hazardous to people than
the old additive. It is attracted to water even more strongly than the old additive. This may sound like a good thing for
the aircraft, and it is, but it also adds to our concerns. It makes the daily draining of sumps even more important in
pretreated jet fuels. This is because if water is left in the bottom of a tank or filter sump, the additive will gravitate to it
quite quickly. The resulting mixture can actually become more additive than water! This can cause problems such
as:
▪ The mixture may attack the epoxy tank or filter vessel linings (or directly attack a fiberglass storage tank).
▪ The mixture may not react properly with standard water finding paste (Special paste must be used).
▪ The mixture may not "indicate" on electronic water level or water detector devices used in tanks and filter
separators.
▪ The mixture may not be removed fully by filter separators or even water absorbing filter elements. (But
the water absorbing elements are safer).
▪ The fuel is left with less additive than it is supposed to have, which may affect proper performance of the
additive in the aircraft.

This additive serves a critical purpose for many aircraft. Indeed it also reduces the growth of microorganisms in the
fuel farm and aircraft fuel system. But special care must be exercised to keep the sumps throughout your system
drained of water. On the other side of the issue is the fact that untreated fuels can freeze in tank drains, support
microorganism growth and of course without additive present at all, many small aircraft and military aircraft cannot
safely fly into cold weather or at high altitudes. Even at the equator, air temperature declines rapidly as the aircraft
climbs to altitude.

The use of an additive injector on the refueler truck is a viable alternative to pre-treated fuel, but adds its own set of
concerns. An empty additive tank, poorly maintained injector or an operator forgetting to turn the injector on (or off)
are all problems that have taken place. Some injectors must be calibrated regularly to maintain accuracy.

Of primary concern is the proper concentration of dissolved additive in the aircraft fuel tanks. This requires proper
mixing and regular tests are needed to confirm that your system is providing correctly treated fuel to the aircraft.

Another concern is that the additive is properly stored. If water is allowed into the additive tank before it is injected
into the fuel, it will not blend at all. As little as 3% water in additive can result in additive not dissolving into the fuel.
Do NOT store drums outdoors. Make sure to use a dessicant dryer on the tank/drum vent to keep atmospheric
humidity from contaminating the pure additive. The desiccant should be blue. If it is pink, replace the desiccant.

Also be sure to observe the MSDS safety handling instruction to protect personnel.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 53 JET FUEL ADDITIVES PART 2 FEB. 2002

Several years ago a new employee asked me if we kept any jet fuel around for testing purposes. I said
“yes, of course”. He asked if he could have some, just a few ounces. I said “sure, but asked what for?” His
answer was "I thought if I just put an ounce or so in my motorcycle it would really make it go fast."

If you aren't smiling right now, you're fairly new to the industry.

My answer was, "It would be a lot like putting diesel fuel in your motorcycle." It took a long time to convince
him that jet fuel was not a wonder product, it is really quite like kerosene. He was thinking of nitro-
methane.

But a lot of people do not know what kind of fuel "jet fuel" actually is. Many people in the industry don't
know the difference between different jet fuels, so we wrote this GamGram.

Jet fuel was not always a kerosene-like product. The first truly functional jet aircraft was the German ME-
262. It was based on an English engineer's (Frank Whittle) turbine engine design. It ran on gasoline. The
British development team of the same era was also working with gasoline.

The decision to change to a more kerosene-like product was made for three reasons: safety, space and
cost. Gasoline is more flammable, it has fewer BTUs of energy per gallon and was more in demand for
use in cars, so kerosene was a better choice as a fuel for jet engines.

Over the years, the industry has developed several different jet fuels in this world, made under these
specifications; ASTM-D1655, Mil DTL-83133E, DEF STAN 91-91 (UK military), CG5B-322 (Canadian jet
B), GOST 10227 (Russian) and a Chinese specification. There are also U.S. Military fuel standards such
as the "JP-" fuels, which (for our purposes here) range from JP-4 (little used now), to JP-8. In addition
there are specialty military fuels like JP-10 for cruise missiles. ASTM-D1655 allows for three basic Jet
Fuels. The following are the basic specifications.

JET FUELS

SPECIFICATION JET A JET A-1 JP-8 JP-4 JP-5 JET B

ASTM D1655 ASTM D1655

FLASH POINT 100.4°F 100.4°F 100.4°F 140°F N/A N/A

MINIMUM 38°C 38ºC 38ºC 60ºC

FREEZE POINT -40°F -52.6°F -52.6°F -50.8°F -72.4°F -58°F

MAXIMUM -40°C -47°C -47°C -46°C -58°C -50°C

DENSITY AT 775 to 840 775 to 840 775 to 840 788 to 845 751 to 802 751 to 802
15°C kg/m³

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
As you can see, Jet A and Jet A-1 are the same except for freeze point. A point here; freeze point is not the
temperature when fuel freezes, as the fuel is warmed from a lower temperature, it is the point where the
last apparently frozen fuel melts. (Actually the point when the last crystals of paraffin disappear. Jet B and
JP-4 are now used most often only in very cold climates where Jet A type fuels will not vaporize well. It is
difficult to start an engine if the fuel will not vaporize easily.

JP-8 is Jet A-1 with three additives: conductivity improver/static dissipater, corrosion inhibitor and anti-
icing additive.

JP-5 is much like Jet A fuels, but with a higher flash point (temperature when it vaporizes readily) of 140 ° F
(60 ° C). This makes it a safer fuel for use aboard ships. This is not limited to aircraft carriers, there are
many smaller ships capable of launching helicopters and Harrier VTOL fighters. In addition, helicopters
are fueled in flight (HIFR) from a variety of ships, including destroyers.

Additives are allowed in jet fuels, the most commonly used world-wide is Stadis 450, a conductivity
improver (made by Innospec) to help make ground equipment safer by dissipating static electricity in the
fuel faster (see GamGram No 7).

Other additives are:

1. Corrosion inhibitor (actually used to improve the "lubricity" of the fuel to reduce wear on fuel
system components, such as pumps and valves.

2. Anti-icing additive (to prevent condensed water from forming as ice crystals and clogging fuel
systems in small aircraft not equipped with heat protection),see GamGram 52.

3. Biocides such as Biobor (to kill microorganisms).

A new additive type is being explored which is designed to allow improvement in the engines. To
understand this, you must first understand that fuel breaks down at high temperatures and can clog the
injection nozzles. A major requirement in jet engine design is to keep that temperature down, not an easy
task since the fuel burns at a very high temperature just as it leaves the injector nozzle. The US military
has had great success with an additive (made by Betz Dearborn) most commonly called "+100". This
additive permits the fuel to pass the thermal stability test (JFTOT) at a temperature 100° F higher than
commercial jet fuel. This margin permits increased engine performance without hazardous deposit
accumulation. It is a required additive in the new high performance fighters. Work is proceeding on the
benefits of this additive in commercial aircraft, and large scale tests are underway by Betz and Shell Oil
Company.

Additives are not used to improve jet fuel performance, but to address the needs of the industry, certain
aircraft and certain conditions. They widen the range of use for this simple fuel. It is critical that we don't
forget to keep these additives clean and free of contamination before they are added to fuel, and that we
add them at the correct levels.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 54 OVERFILL AND SPILL PREVENTION APR. 2003

Does the title sound like a duplication? It is not!! Overfilling an airport refueller surely creates a SPILL, but
monumental spills can occur for other reasons. The point we want to make here is that bottom loading
control systems, such as the Scully truck loading level control system, are reliable and well-proven to
prevent overfills; but they are designed to stop fuel flow going to the truck, not to prevent a spill during
other operations of the refueller. That is why NFPA-407, paragraph 5.20.3.4 requires a monthly check to
insure complete closure of the bottom loading (internal) valve for each compartment. The Scully system
does not do this, because it does not interface with this valve!

Here is an example of an uncontrollable spill, 10,000 gallons on the ramp. A refueller truck is involved in a
minor accident that breaks the pipe leading from the bottom loading adapter to the internal valve
connection. There is absolutely no way to prevent the entire tank, assuming a single compartment, from
draining on the ground if the internal valve has not closed properly. There is no way to stop the flow until
the compartment has drained.

Your first point will rightfully be that the internal valve (also known as emergency valve or bottom loading
valve) should have been in a closed position, and it is true that if the internal valve had been closed, the
spill could not have occurred. But it is a simple fact that internal valves do jam in the open position due to
debris, and this is not a rare problem.

Before we look further into the possible and potential problems, let's review how a typical bottom loading
system works.

1. The bottom loading coupler is connected at A. Valve B is opened. (refer to diagram on next page)
Flow passes through the tubing C connected to the Jet Level Sensor D and applies a force on the
pilot E that controls the Internal Valve F. The Internal Valve F now opens to establish full flow into
the tank G.

2. If the fuel level rises to cover the Jet Level Sensor D, the force on pilot E will disappear and Internal
Valve F will close, thereby preventing an overfill.

3. The operator is instructed to perform a Precheck Test to see whether the Internal Valve F will close
if the force on pilot E is eliminated. A small can H with a small drain hole J surrounds the Jet Level
Sensor D. To perform the precheck, he briefly opens valve K to divert some fuel to fill the cup H,
thereby simulating a full tank. The jet is supposed to pass through a gap to create the force on pilot
E but with fuel in the cup and in the gap, the jet is destroyed so no force is applied to the pilot.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 4. The Internal Valve then closes, stopping flow, proving to the operator that the system is functioning
correctly and that the Internal Valve has closed. He then closes the Precheck Valve K, the cup H
drains, the jet is re-established to provide a force on the pilot E, permitting the Internal Valve to
open so that the tank filling operation can be safely completed.

5. A second overfill protection system is controlled from the fill stand L. The Scully (or equal)
apparatus employs an electronic sensor M that is positioned in the truck tank. An electric cable
connection N is made between the fill stand control L and a receptacle P on the truck. When the
fuel level reaches the sensor M, an electronic signal results in the fill stand control L signaling a
valve to close or a supply pump to stop. This is a near foolproof way to prevent overfill.

Clearly, if the precheck test is not performed, the operator will never know that the Internal Valve will not
close. This is why operators must be instructed that the precheck test is essential to test the proper
functioning of the Internal Valve, not to simply check for overfill protection. Some of you may think that
operating the energy stop is testing the Internal Valve, but it is not a proper test. This is because on
modern trucks the emergency stop also operates the deadman (in line) valve which closes faster, so you
will never know if the Internal Valve also closes.

In conclusion, what could be better than having dual overfill protection? Never forget to include the
precheck test to gain the knowledge that the Internal Valve will really close.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 55 METER PROBLEM MAR. 2005

This GamGram issue is a bit different from others we have published, because we are telling you a “real
life” story. A story about an unhappy situation that has cost someone a lot of money and down time.
Please don't ask where.

Once upon a time, a decision was made to purchase a new kind of hydrant servicer. It had some
innovative design features and the equipment chosen was well-proven and of the highest quality.

Shortly after it went into service, ever increasing amounts of metal shavings, appearing to be aluminum,
were found in the nozzle strainer. The servicer had been built with no meter strainer, because it had been
determined that the filter monitor located near the meter inlet was far better protection. It was assumed
that the source of the debris had to be some piece of equipment downstream of the filter, so the meter was
inspected for damage.

Inspection of the meter showed severe damage, and since there was good filtration at its inlet, the
problem had to be something to do with the meter, right? Using that reasoning, blame was first placed on
the meter manufacturer for poor quality. Then it was discovered the meter was being subjected to flow
rates well above the maximum allowed by the manufacturer. Now the design of the servicer was drawn
into question.

But evaluation of the debris also showed stainless steel to be present, and the meter manufacturer
insisted his meter could not have been the source. So the search was centered on both where the
stainless steel had come from and why the filter had not removed it.

It was found that the stainless steel debris was weld “splatter” from pipe welding, not uncommon in small
quantities. The filtration was inspected and no problems were found. It seemed the welding splatter was
only from the pipe after the filter, which was a small amount of pipe.

Now we come to the interesting part of the story. A study of the meter installation on the new hydrant
servicer revealed that weld splatter and aluminum shavings were still in the meter, and had not been
concentrated in, and removed when the nozzle strainer was inspected. But how could this happen? We
are accustomed to assuming that when we check a strainer, we get all the debris that has been stopped
by the strainer. How could debris still be in the meter?

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 THE ANSWER

It seems that the debris was caught by the nozzle strainer as fuel flowed from the meter to the nozzle. But
once flow stopped, some particles simply fell by gravity back through the hose and pipe and back into the
meter. Then it was realized that these particles caused more damage in the meter every time the system
started over and over again; this cycle could go on forever. This was why so much damage had been
caused to the meter.

Cleaning the strainer does not solve the problem unless the flow has taken place when the hose and
nozzle are in a horizontal position so that the particles stay in the strainer. In our opinion, this means that
strainer inspections should be performed at a test stand that is designed appropriately. In addition, a very
experienced mechanic named Bill W. once told us that if he finds anything in a strainer, he drains the
entire hose into a white bucket and often finds more debris.

We must rely on the nozzle strainer to warn us of problems that may occur upstream. It is the final factor of
safety. We hope no one thinks a strainer stops or holds all the dirt.

In conclusion, operators must keep in mind that they must never hold a pressure fueling nozzle with the
outlet end upward prior to performing an inspection of the strainer. The ideal time to check the strainer is
on the test stand after flow has taken place with the nozzle in a horizontal position.

The nozzle strainer warns of problems with the hose, meter, filter separator and all of the other equipment
upstream. You must try to figure out where strainer particles come from.

What might you find in a nozzle strainer?

1 Teflon tape from recent pipe work.

2 Black particles - most likely indicate an internal failure of the hose.
3 Metal particles - most likely indicate a meter failure.
4 Fibers - filter failure.
5 Gel - filter monitor failure.

NOTE: Anything found in a 100 mesh (130 micron) nozzle strainer should not be there. No particle visible
to the human eye can pass the API qualified filters (rated less than 1 micron) in your system.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 56 MONITORING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE MON. YEAR
REVISED MON. YR
DURING REFUELING

If you had a “bullet-proof” vest on, such as some police and soldiers wear, would you allow someone to shoot you?
Most people wouldn't, simply because it isn't smart to take chances, even with the best safety equipment. You just
never know for sure.

From the time jet fuel is refined, it is usually filtered every time it is moved to provide the maximum level of safety. At
the airport, we take sump samples from storage and transport trailer tanks to remove water. We take sump samples
from filter vessels. We perform membrane tests, water tests and take white bucket samples. We check for dirt,
water and mixed fuels.

Why do we take so much care? Because people do make mistakes and equipment can fail. In performing all these
tests, we are trying to catch any human error or equipment failure before contaminated fuel reaches the aircraft.
Yet, water reaches refueler vehicles and aircraft from time to time.

The filter manufacturers in our industry make their elements as safe as possible using exhaustive tests, science
and engineering. The API/IP tests that these filters are subject too are difficult to pass, just ask the filter
manufacturers. But do they provide 100% protection? Unfortunately, you just can't be sure. That's why we must
carefully monitor them.

This GamGram is primarily on the subject of the water absorbing type of final filters, located on many refueler
vehicles that deliver to aircraft. Recently, it has been learned that these water absorbing filter elements we have
relied on for many years are not perfect. It doesn't matter what manufacturer makes them, you can't be 100%
confident in them. In several instances operators have kept on pumping fuel even though the differential pressure
was high; water has reached aircraft! Yes, really!

How can these elements fail? At the time this GamGram is being written, we still are not sure. It is believed that a
trace chemical in the fuel is the cause. But is this the only problem to be concerned about? No. Elements can be
damaged or structurally destroyed as a result of excessive differential pressure and from system pressure surges
when operated at high differential pressure.

So what is excessive differential pressure? Many people believe the elements should be expected to work correctly
right up to their burst strength (typically 75 to 175 psid). This is not correct! The elements are not tested to remove
water at high differentials! You should NEVER operate at differential pressure above 25 psid and the maximum
allowed by your oil company or airline may be from 15 to 25 psid.

So you must be very careful so that you do not exceed the differential pressure maximum allowed. But if your
readings are not accurate, you are not safe. We must check everything carefully, and MOST IMPORTANTLY -- Get
good differential pressure readings.

Sounds easy, right? WRONG! Even if your gauges are perfectly accurate, the readings your people take are most
likely not accurate.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
So why do we say you are likely getting inaccurate readings? It is not due to inaccuracy in your gauge, but in not
taking the readings at the right time.

Differential pressure varies as the flow rate varies. In underwing fueling, flow rate varies on different aircraft, and as
different tanks are fueled. In overwing fueling, you don't hold the nozzle fully open during the entire fueling; this
varies for different aircraft.

When you begin refueling, and you are flowing into empty tanks, the flow rate will be at the highest for that aircraft.

So the secret is to take your differential reading when you are flowing at the highest flow rate your vehicle can
achieve, preferably into empty aircraft tanks. A further complication is that different aircraft allow different flow
rates. For example, a B777 takes fuel easier that a B757. And a B737, with only one hose attached, can't possibly
take fuel as fast as a B777 with two deck hoses connected.

So how do you get good differential readings? Well, first answer this question: “Can you even see the differential
pressure gauge while you are refueling?” From most lift decks it is impossible! Even in daylight, you can't see the
differential gauge when fueling from a side reel, you are too far away.

But what if you suddenly get a “slug” of several gallons of water? It does happen, and more often than most people
think. To catch the sudden increase in differential pressure, you have to monitor the differential pressure gauge.
This is really not possible on most refueling equipment in use today.

One more note, the new ATA-103 requires an automatic differential pressure control to prevent element failure on
refueling trucks and hydrant carts. The IATA, JIG now requires an automatic control on all hydrant carts.

So to get accurate readings, you must either watch the gauge constantly or rely on a device to do this job for you.
Ha! You say about now; Gammon is now going to tell you they have such a device and this was all a commercial
GamGram! So much for GamGrams “never being commercial”!

Sorry to disappoint you, but there are several ways to do this; other manufacturers also make such equipment. So
here are your possible solutions:

1. A Differential Pressure Limiting or Differential Control pilot, such as the Gammon DP Pilot or those made by
Cla-Val, OCV and others. These devices reduce flow rate automatically to prevent differential pressure
from rising enough to cause physical damage. It is not the best solution because you still don't get accurate
data, but it protects you from a high differential situation and advises you that something is wrong by
reducing the flow rate. It is also not a fast reacting solution, a differential switch is safe in a high pressure
system.

2. A recording type, or “Peak-Hold” differential gauge, so that when you do look at the gauge, even if you don't
look at it when it is at the highest flow rate, it will tell you the highest reading that has occurred since you last
reset it. Better than nothing, but while you get good readings, you don't have automatic shutdown.

3. A differential pressure switch and control box (with a test/reset switch, indicator light and latching relay).
This device is wired to shutdown through your deadman if differential pressure gets too high. This is a good
method, but you must test it regularly to make sure it works.

OK, so what is the best solution? Number 3, an automatic shut down system with a 3-way test valve. Which allows
you to test both the gauge and the shut down system. Do we offer this? Of course we do, even as a retrofit onto
existing Gammon Gauges. But you don't have to do it that way. Many companies offer differential switches and you
can build your own control. This isn't rocket science. But we strongly suggest you add this ability to your truck or
hydrant cart because otherwise you will be leaving too much to chance! (The advantage of adding this to your
Gammon Gauge is in the simple testing).
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 57 FILTER ACCESSORIES APR. 2006

I went to visit a customer a few years ago who had just completed a new fuel farm. Although he had
purchased his filters from a competitor of mine, I was happy to take “the guided tour”. When I saw the filter
vessels, I immediately realized why I had not been competitive -- my customer had bought vessels
without any accessories.

I had to explain carefully to this man what each accessory was for and why it was necessary. When he
was done properly “outfitting” his filters, he had spent a lot more than he had expected.

The correct accessories are critically important for proper performance and safe operation of any filter
vessel. The following is a brief overview of common accessories. Also see GamGram #37 on the recovery
of fuel released by air eliminators, pressure relief valves, and automatic water drain valves.

1. AUTOMATIC AIR ELIMINATOR (AAE) - This device releases trace air from the vessel. Without
an AEE, air will be trapped in most filters or filter separators, unless they have the fuel outlet
connection on the top or a similar design that prevents air from accumulating, such as the small
Velcon VF-61 filter vessel. Without an automatic means for releasing air, it can accumulate to such
an extent that the upper portions of elements are continually exposed and never do any filtering
and potentially cause a fire in the vessel (See GamGram #15). The operator has no way of
knowing this.

2. AIR ELIMINATOR CHECK VALVE - A rubber sealed (soft-seated) check with a low “breakaway
pressure” allows air to exit the AAE, but prevents air or contamination in the AAE outlet piping from
going backwards into the vessel. We've seen many drain back problems (where the vessel
empties to the underground storage tank, through an open or leaking line valve). We have also
seen a situation where diesel fuel entered an avgas system this way. See GamGram #43 for outlet
piping information.

3. MANUAL AIR RELEASE VALVE - This is usually an ordinary ball valve, connected in parallel with
the AAE. It allows easy draining of the vessel for element changing by providing a path for air to
enter the vessel.

It also allows air to be released manually after changing elements, but care must be used to
prevent spillage. You may want this valve to be lockable.

4. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE (PRV) - A PRV is a required accessory on any filter vessel. It is solely
meant to protect the vessel pressure build-up caused by the sun's heat. It is also called a thermal
relief valve.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 Without a PRV, thermal build-up can break the vessel housing, cause leaks. Or similarly damage
other adjacent components such as meters or hoses. We have seen thermal buildup create
pressures over 1200 psi in a 75 psi system.

5. MANUAL DRAIN VALVE - All filter vessels must have a manual drain valve, or it is impossible to
properly drain the vessel to change elements or conduct periodic sump inspections. (See
GamGram #2 and #5.)

You may want this valve to be lockable, or to be a spring loaded valve, which closes automatically
when you release the handle. Another good addition is a cam lock connector with a dust cap which
not only keeps the outlet clean, but serves as a secondary spill prevention device and allows a
hose to be easily connected.

6. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE GAUGE - All filter vessels should have a differential pressure gauge
or indicator so that you can determine the condition of the elements and avoid the possibility of
bursting dirty elements. The only possible exception is a vessel that is fed by a pump incapable of
delivering over 25 psi under any circumstances and that is a “judgement call”. A low pressure
pump cannot burst a properly designed and built element.

The preferred indicator is a direct reading, piston-type differential pressure gauge with an inlet
filter. An alternative is a pressure gauge with a proper selector valve. A differential pressure control
system is recommended for all water absorbing element vessels and also unattended filters.

7. SAMPLING CONNECTIONS - All jet fuel filters should have inlet and outlet stainless steel
sampling connections with sampling probes to ensure that representative samples can be
obtained. (See GamGram #6)

By comparing the inlet and outlet results you can ascertain the performance. Avgas systems can
also benefit from such connections, but they are not essential except on jet fuel.

NOTE: The following accessories apply only to filter separators.

8. WATER CONTROL - This is a large subject, worthy of a GamGram of its own. In short, a filter
separator without a proper water control device able to stop the system flow if water collects in the
sump, is just a filter. This is because it may remove water, but once the sump of the filter separator
is full of water, any additional water that enters the vessel goes downstream.

A water control device should positively stop the fuel flow. A water control device may be electric,
hydraulic or pneumatic. It may be float operated or (if electric) of the conductivity probe type.
Electric water controls should be intrinsically safe and/or explosion proof, except for truck
mounted systems allowed to be weather-tight by local regulations, such as in the USA. The water
control may stop flow by turning off the pump or by causing an outlet control valve (slug valve) to
close.

9. SUMP/DRAIN HEATER - In climates where air temperatures go below the freezing point, a heater
is necessary to prevent water form freezing in the drain valve. A heater should be explosion proof,
have a built-in adjustable thermostat, a “watt density” no higher than 22 watts/in², and stainless
steel heating elements. In large vessels or vessels where the water control may become trapped
in ice, a sump heater may also be needed. For full information on this subject, see GamGram #30.

We recommend the above listed equipment as a minimum. Be sure to meet the requirements of your oil
company and/or airline. Also make sure to use the appropriate material. We recommend against the use
of cast iron.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 58 WE ALL MUST AGREE: FEB. 2007
A WATER DEFENSE SYSTEM IS ESSENTIAL

We continue to receive purchase orders for filter separators without a water defense system included.
This is somewhat like having an automobile with no window to see where you are going.

Customers always want a differential pressure gauge to tell them if the elements are plugged up with dirt
but if they have no water defense system, water can collect in the sump without anyone knowing about it.

Oh sure, maybe you have told the operator to check the water sump by looking at a sight glass. Our
response: How may of your sight glasses are clean enough to see a water/fuel interface?

Or maybe you have told the operator to check the sump for water by opening the drain valve so he can
collect some of the sump contents in a container for inspection. That is a good procedure but how many
operators do you have who really do that check especially, if nobody is really supervising to make sure
they do it or in cold or rainy weather or at 3 AM? Keep in mind that a slow buildup of water is only a small
risk. The big risk is a sudden large amount of water – a slug.

Clearly, the only safe way to operate is to have an automatic signal that detects the water in the sump. The
earliest method, which is still used today, is to have a slug valve, meaning a valve that will automatically
close to stop fuel flow if a “slug” of water is collected in the sump of the filter separator. The sensor or
control device that causes a slug valve to close is a float operated sensor in the filter separator sump.
Manufacturers of these float valves balance them so they float on the water/fuel interface. When the level
of the interface rises to a dangerous position, a hydraulic (fuel) pressure signal is sent to the slug valve
which is on the outlet of the filter separator. The valve stays closed and will not allow fuel flow until
someone drains the water from the sump.

These float controls are also manufactured so they can cause an automatic sump drain valve to open if
the water level begins to rise. If the water level continues to rise when the automatic drain valve is open, a
signal goes to the slug valve to close it. Actually, most existing automatic drains were decommissioned
some years ago because there were too many incidents where the drain valve would remain open
because of a malfunction, causing a fuel spill.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
Because an in-line control (slug) valve that is rated for system pressure is very expensive, other means
came into use over the years. Here is a list of some methods:

1. An electrically operated float (weighted to float on the fuel/water interface) can be used to stop the
electric motor driven pump in a fixed facility (such as a terminal or loading rack).

2. On a mobile piece of equipment, an air operated or electrically operated interface float can trigger
a switch or valve in the deadman system. In a vehicle with an electrical switch and an air operated
deadman, there are conductivity probes available that operate at intrinsically safe power levels to
stop electric motors or to deactivate deadman systems.

3. Instead of a float to sense a water/fuel interface, there are conductivity probes available that
operate at intrinsically safe power levels to stop electric motors or to deactivate deadman systems.

The point we are making is that you can have a reliable water defense system without the need for an
expensive in line slug valve.

Regardless of which water defense system is selected, it is important that one be selected that has a
feature allowing you to test it periodically to confirm its operation. Here are some of the techniques:

1. Float operated controls were always available with a testing feature that required the operator to
use a mechanical device to raise the float, but that did not prove that the float would actually float.
Floats can fail due to corrosion or physical damage and the mechanism can have excessive
friction due to debris or wear. So periodically, it was necessary to perform a floatation test on the
float. One test was to remove the float to make sure it floated correctly in a bucket of water, another
was to fill the vessel sump with water to ensure the mechanism and float operated. Eventually, the
manufacturers devised superior ways to test these systems by adding a mechanical linkage to
remove a weight from the float arm using an external lever. These are called “ballast” testers.

2. Electrical conductivity testers have had an entirely different problem. The testing procedure
applied water to the air side (external) of the electrodes but not to the internal or “fuel” side.
Corrosion or deposits could prevent the probe from sensing water even if it passed the test. Two
different techniques have been devised to test these probes by subjecting small amounts of water
to the fuel-side faces.

Purchasers and operators of filter separators are encouraged to revise their operations so they will have
effective, water defense systems that can be tested to confirm their safety. You should not place the
responsibility on humans who may lack the incentive, the knowledge, the training or the intelligence to
perform repetitive checks for water.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 59 HIDDEN CONTAMINATION MAR. 2008

Every rule, directive, regulation, instruction and procedure tells you to periodically inspect the underwing nozzle
strainer and remove any collected contamination. Some directives tell you to inspect the contamination to see
whether it indicates equipment failure. Rubber particles (black debris) indicate problems in the hose. Metallic
particles indicate equipment failure. Sand, bits of wiping rags and other debris tell you that someone has been
careless.

So it is obvious that nozzle strainer inspections are important, but how you do it is the point we want to make in this
GamGram.

Recently a large quantity of contamination was found in a hose immediately after the aircraft had been fueled. Due
to the fact that the nozzle was in a vertical position and the dirt was heavy, gravity allowed it to fall “down” when the
flow stopped. Flow had carried the particles into the strainer, but when flow stopped, the particles fell back into the
hose. This process can happen over and over again. This is what the title of the GamGram means -- Hidden
Contamination.

To avoid this problem, the nozzle strainer should be inspected only after flow has taken place with the nozzle in a
horizontal position. However, even though you may follow this instruction, you can still see no dirt in the strainer if
you hold the nozzle up above the horizontal while you open it. You should keep the nose end pointed downward
after you disconnect from the adapter.

First make sure the truck cannot possibly pump or dispense fuel while you are checking the strainer and that an
inadvertent fuel spill can be caught. Relieve any trapped pressure. Make sure the truck's internal valve, if present,
is closed, or if the vehicle is a hydrant servicer, disconnect the hydrant coupler. Make sure that you follow any
safety, fire and environmental rules for your company, country or airport location.

IF you can flow the nozzle in a horizontal position and then put it into a bucket or to a test tub without tilting it up, you
are fortunate because particles will not fall out of the strainer. Use this simple procedure. Otherwise, look down 5
paragraphs.

Locate a bucket or other container in a convenient place for the test. Many people simply mount an old 3 lug adapter
onto a slop tank, a drum or a tub of some kind. Ready made units are also available (yes, we also have one).

Make sure the bucket (or tub) cannot tip over. One way to do this is to clamp the bucket to something stable.
Alternatively, a second person can hold it stable as you do the following procedure.

Either attach nozzle onto a 3 lug adapter, or “trick” open the nozzle interlock if you have learned how to do it with
your fingers. Open the poppet so the nozzle will drain “downhill” into the bucket/tub.

If you are also fortunate enough to have a dry break quick disconnect on the hose, with a built-in valve, the process
is simpler and you need to drain less than a gallon of fuel from the nozzle before you detach the quick disconnect to
inspect the strainer. You don't have to worry about the hose draining on the ground if you have a dry break quick
disconnect.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
BUT in many cases, it is impossible to flow the nozzle in a horizontal position and then keep the nozzle in that
position until you check the strainer. If you cannot do this, you usually do not get all the debris into the strainer when
you check it. You will only get the debris stuck in the mesh, but experience shows there will be dirt that falls back into
the hose.

For this reason, some experienced QC people and mechanics have developed a method for getting ALL the dirt
into the strainer.

As above, locate a bucket or other container in a convenient place for the test. Many people simply mount an old 3
lug adapter onto a slop tank, a drum or a tub of some kind. Ready made units are aslo available.

Make sure the bucket (or tub) cannot tip over. If need be, one way to do this is to clamp the bucket to something
stable. If you use a bucket, a second person can hold it stable as you do the following procedure:

Either clamp the nozzle onto a 3 lug adapter, or “trick” open the nozzle interlock. Open the poppet so the nozzle will
drain “downhill” into the bucket/tub.

Now walk to the hose reel and lift the hose up high, over your shoulder. Walk toward the nozzle, allowing the hose to
slide over your shoulder. This is called “walking the hose”. This allows fuel in the hose to empty into the bucket/tub
through the strainer, flushing the debris back into the strainer.

You can now remove the strainer and you will see that virtually all the loose debris in the hose is now trapped in the
strainer. But you must be very careful with the hose while you are doing this. It MUST be placed with the quick
disconnect higher than the hose reel and other fuel equipment, or the fuel will drain out on the ground once you
remove the hose from your shoulder.

If you are fortunate enough to have a dry break quick disconnect on the hose, with a built-in valve, the process is
simpler. You don't have to worry about the hose draining on the ground, and so the inspection is much simpler.

“To avoid this problem, the nozzle strainer must be inspected only after flow has taken place with the nozzle in a
horizontal position.”

If your facility has a test stand, you can probably find a fueling adapter that is horizontal or maybe tilted downward,
which is even better. If you do not have a test stand, the refueling truck may have an adapter to which you can
connect for recirculation. If you do not have the capacity, the particles that were in the strainer have disappeared,
back into the hose somewhere.

What are you going to do? The only thing we can suggest is that you estimate how far back in the hose the particles
may be found. For example, if your last refueling was to an aircraft having the fueling adapter 10 feet above ground
level, particles may be 15 or 20 feet from the nozzle. Whatever that distance happens to be is where Person No. 2
should lift the hose to “walk” it to the nozzle end. You have to rely upon fuel flowing out of the nozzle to wash the dirt
out of the hose and into the strainer at the same time.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 60 CALCULATING FUEL WEIGHT MAR. 2009

Fuel weight is an important thing to a pilot planning a long flight or a full aircraft. Too much weight and the
aircraft cannot safely fly -- too little fuel and there may not be enough fuel for a factor of safety if there are
unexpected problems.

So we are often asked the actual weight of the fuel we dispense, but it is not simple. Whether the fuel is
measured in liters or gallons, the problems are:

1. Fuel that you receive at the airport mixes in with the fuel already in the storage tank. The two fuels
will often have a somewhat different density.
2. When that mixture goes into a refueler truck or hydrant system, it mixes with fuel already there with
a different density.
3. Fuel expands or contracts as fuel temperature increases or decreases. A bucket of fuel will weigh
the same at different temperatures, but the volume of the fuel in the bucket changes. You are
(almost always) metering the fuel you dispense to the aircraft in volume (gallons or liters).

If the pilot really needs an accurate weight, in the USA, use a “pounds per gallon” hydrometer; outside of
the USA, use a metric hydrometer (Kg/liter). When you measure the fuel weight, the fuel should be at the
same temperature as the fuel that is flowing into the aircraft. The best way to obtain such a sample of fuel
is to use a “Visi-Jar” or “Closed Circuit Sampler”.

With such a device mounted on your refueler or hydrant cart, you can take a sample of the fuel during
fueling, and advise the pilot of the exact weight of the fuel, in pounds per gallon or kilograms per liter, at the
true fuel temperature as it goes through the flow meter. This gives the most accurate reading possible.
For an example, see: http://www.gammontech.com/mainframe/catalog/b138.htm

Often on the flight line, such equipment is not available, and the pilot may not require the great accuracy
this provides, so there is an alternative using a thermometer and your fuel farm QC records.

If the fuel in the tank that you are using is mostly from a recent delivery (or you have measured the
density/gravity of the fuel (after mixing) in that storage tank), we can determine the approximate weight
fairly accurately. It requires only one additional bit information, the temperature of the fuel going into the
aircraft.

You measure the temperature of the fuel in the truck tank using a dip thermometer, or the temperature of
the fuel FLOWING through the system using a threaded metal thermometer. (Note: There MUST be flow
past a “screw in” thermometer to get an accurate average temperature.

You can then either use the ASTM Charts (more difficult and expensive) or your “wiz wheel”, the GTP-
3041-1A (API) or GTP-2727EF (metric) calculator.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
API Gravity
Let's assume the fuel temperature going to the aircraft is 73°F and your corrected fuel gravity (from your
fuel farm test records) is 43.6° API.
Here is how it works:
1. Align your corrected API gravity 43.6 with the 60°F mark. (From your records from the fuel receipt.
If you want to be more accurate, do an API hydrometer check on the fuel actually in the tank.)
2. Without moving the wheel, find the temperature for the fuel going to the aircraft, 73°F in this case.
3. Now look at the reading on the API scale that aligns with the 73°F mark, it is about 44.7°API (see
arrow).
4. Now rotate the calculator in your hands so you are looking at the Conversion Calculations (bottom
half).
5. Dial in approximately 44.7° API (note the API is in 2° degree increments on this scale).
6. Look down to the Lbs./US Gallons scale and you will read just less than 6.69 pounds per gallon.

Round this up 6.7 lb per gallon and give this approximate fuel weight to the pilot.

Metric Density
Metric Density is easier because it measures density
by weight, but you still must correct the volume for the
temperature change. Assume the fuel temperature
going to the aircraft is 22° C and the corrected density ø
of the fuel is 807.0 kg/m3 (corrected to 15° C).

1. Align the corrected Metric Density (807.0) with

the 15° C mark. (You know the corrected
Density from your receipt records or by
checking the fuel actually in the storage tank).
2. Without moving the wheel, find your indicated
temperature for the fuel going to the aircraft,
22°C in this case.
3. Now look at the reading on the scale that aligns
with 22° mark, it is 802.0 kg/m3 (see arrow).

NOTE 1: If the number comes out between two readings, report the higher weight of the two. Do not try to
work out a reading between marks on the scale.

NOTE 2: For more information on both fuel density and gravity, please see Bulletin 19.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 61 FUELING VEHICLE ELECTRICAL CONCERNS APR. 2010

A few years ago, we took 3 trips to an airport with problems. An additive injector system of ours simply
didn't always work correctly. We tried to determine the cause of the problem, but we could not duplicate
the problem when we were there.

Fortunately, a wise old mechanic figured it out. He simply turned on the light and strobe (for night fueling)
while the injector was running. The injector died. He explained it simply by saying:

“When you ran your tests, you turned on the lights first. You turned on the lights before you fueled, so the
load on the electrical system was already there when you turned on the injector. If the injector was running
and you turn the lights on, then the sudden load dropped the voltage for a moment, giving a voltage below
the minimum voltage the injector requires. But it isn't the power cable that is at fault, the real problem was
that the installer used a bracket for a ground and as the negative instead of running a copper wire to a good
ground, and the framework he connected his ground to is stainless steel.”

It was a “word from the wise”. The installation was simply not designed to protect the injector from sudden
under voltage. The wise old mechanic simply ran a copper ground wire back to the battery and the
problem was solved.

In the old days, electrical issues on refuelers were pretty simple. There was a power wire and a ground. If
both were connected correctly – no problem.

This has changed in today's refueler vehicles for two reasons; materials of construction and more
electrical load including advanced electronics.

Today, electronic apparatus requires a good negative, a good positive, and many also require a reliable
ground. Both positive and negative wires should be copper, run to the source - often a “power distribution”
point built for the purpose by the chassis manufacturer. All electronics, need dedicated wires for both
positive and negative connections. That means that positive and negative wires should not be shared
with any other equipment.

STAINLESS STEEL

in the old days, all frame work was steel. A ground connection was simple; connect to the vehicle
anywhere, and that made up half your circuit. All you needed to run with copper wire was the power.

This changed a bit with aluminum framework and brackets, because sometimes the aluminum
connection was subject to corrosion where it contacted steel. The difference in the metals caused
corrosion, and a poor connection developed over time.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
The big change came with an increase in the use of stainless steel in cabinets and similar framework and
brackets. The problem is that stainless steel is simply not as conductive as steel. The added resistance
lowers the voltage level. It is logical to be concerned with the power wire being fully conductive, but most
people never consider that the negative (or positive, on positive ground equipment, much more common
outside the USA) is just as important. Simply said – Don't make an electrical connection through stainless
steel, it lowers the actual voltage. This may only cause bulbs and lamps to be dim (lose brightness), but
will cause a lot of serious problems with electronics.

ELECTRONICS

In the old days, electrical equipment was limited to lamps, lights and hose reel motors. The power draw
(load) was low, except for hose reel motors, and they were designed to handle low voltage if it took place.
Today, we have much more electrical equipment on refueler vehicles, and that equipment is much more
sensitive to low voltage.

We have seen power levels on refueler vehicles as low as 8.5 VDC on 12 VDC vehicles. Electronics
cannot be expected to run properly at these low voltages. There have been problems with electronic
meters, additive injectors, control PLCs, digital pressure controls, GPS, hand-held electronics and even
radios.

In some cases, the problems are due to undersized power distribution systems or undersized chassis
battery (or batteries). That is to say that the chassis manufacturer simply didn't design the vehicle for all
the electrical loads we are placing on them with a modern refueler design. In this case, an additional
battery may not be enough to solve the problem, the main wires may have to be upgraded.

In other cases, the problems occur due to the installer. In one case, the mechanic installed an injector
using the correct sized copper wire, but he “tapped into” our power wire to operate other equipment. This
is like putting in a pipe big enough for the flow you need, then tapping off some flow for other purposes as
well. The wire simply was not big enough to carry power to our system as well as other equipment
properly, resulting in voltage drop, similar to pressure drop in liquid systems.

In other cases, the problem is due to the negative wire not being heavy enough (or the positive wire on a
positive ground truck). The installer can also share the negative wire with other equipment, and the result
is the same. The negative wire and positive wire must be the same size; they carry the same load (”flow” if
you think of electricity as a “liquid”).

When building a new refueler, and even more importantly when modifying a vehicle in the field, we
strongly suggest all new copper wire be used both for the positive wires and the negative wires.

When modifying existing trucks, don't “borrow” power from other equipment; don't share this new power
with other equipment.

If you have an electrical problem, Don't forget it is just as likely to be on the negative wire as the positive
wire. MOST importantly, keep high load equipment, like hose reel motors, off the same circuit as digital
meter controls, injectors and other electronics.

One last bit of advice - When analyzing voltage, use a volt meter with a needle, not a digital display.
Needle type (analog) meters give a more stable reading and are much more useful in systems where
voltage may vary. Digital meters tend to give confusing readings.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 62 REFUELER VEHICLE MOUNTED MAR. 2014
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

A typical truck air system starts with a compressor. Most air compressors large enough to handle all the
loads of a large refueler truck or powered hydrant cart (including brakes and fuel air systems) are water
cooled via the engine coolant and use the engine oil and the engine's own air filter. Clean coolant, clean
oil and clean air are essential to the life of the air compressor. It is critically important to keep the air and oil
filters clean to maintain proper life of all components, and the air compressor is no exception.

Compressed air usually drives two systems on an aircraft refueler vehicle: the air brake system and the
air systems related to the refueling operation. These two systems should be separate from one another.

Compressed air leaving the air compressor is normally run to a remote, separate air reservoir tank to
operate the refueling system, to provide air to pressure controls, deadman controls, interlocks,
pneumatic valves, air powered reels, internal valves, vents and so forth.

It is best to run all refueling equipment air through a filter/lubricator. Particles (dirt) is removed and
lubricant (and air dry chemical) can be added to protect moving parts in the air system from excessive
wear as well as water and ice at low temperatures.

Pneumatic systems on trucks have been criticized for being susceptible to water problems for as long as
trucks have had air systems. The problems include corrosion/micro-organism problems, and freezing.

There are two reasons for air problems in truck systems, temperature change and the fact that when you
compress a gas, it cannot hold as much water - water condenses out at pressure. For example air at 150
psi will hold much less water in solution as air before compression.

We cannot change either of these facts, but there are solutions:

1. Air Dryers - These devices are added to the system to remove water. They are expensive, but
many people have seen great improvement in their pneumatic systems with air dryers installed.
They are usually a combination of a heater and a desiccant, the long term cost of replacement
cartridges can be high. They have an automatic drain to release accumulated water.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 2. High/Low Air Tanks - This is as described. Use two air tanks, the first one mounted lower than the
second one. By feeding compressed air into the lower tank, much of the water is condensed into
the lower tank, and does not reach the outlet at the top of the upper tank.

3. Air-Dry - A chemical often called “alcohol” (or Air-Dry) but it is not “just alcohol” . Isopropyl alcohol
will attack rubber seals, Air-Dry is a methyl alcohol, with special lubricants added -- it prevents
water from freezing and also lubricates seals and moving components for long life.

4. Automatic Water Drain Valves - These “Spitter” valves automatically vent the drains on the
bottom of the air tanks periodically to eliminated accumulated water.

5. Manual Drain Valves - These are usually cable operated valves for periodically draining water
from air tank bottoms manually.

So what is the best solution? This depends on your climate and your people. In cold weather, when
humidity can increase and decrease as the temperature changes, you will have more serious freezing
problems. In a dry desert climate, you may have micro-organisms and lubrication problems, causing
premature wear in air operated items.

The fact is that if all you do is to manually drain the tanks every day, you will have few freeze-up problems
in cold weather, and few other problems in warm weather. Adding Air-Dry is a very good additional step to
help protect the pneumatic equipment and provide long life. An “alcohol inducer” is usually used.

Reality – if we can agree that people tend to forget to do maintenance, and we can further agree that a few
dollars wisely spent can save many more dollars later, lets suggest a reliable solution:

DO ALL OF THE ABOVE.

 THE GAMGRAM
No. 63 DETECTING WATER IN AVIATION FUEL SYSTEMS APR. 2012

Most of our GamGrams mention water contamination from one perspective or another. But somehow, we never
wrote on the detection of water in aviation fuel systems.

Obviously, no one wants water in their fuel supply system or aircraft; it doesn't burn and over time it can cause
serious problems including micro-organism growth and corrosion - and it can plug filters and jam controls when it
freezes. Even in a tropical environment, the air temperature at altitude is often below the freezing point of water, so
water can freeze in flight anywhere.

Aircraft can deal with a little bit of water, and they must do so because as fuel cools, water that was dissolved into it
condenses out. Our job as fuel QC people is to minimize undissolved water in the fuel.

HOW WATER GETS INTO YOUR SYSTEM - The most common way water gets into a fuel system is through
condensation. All air contains water (humidity) and air is constantly breathed into storage, transport and aircraft fuel
tanks. When you pump a gallon or liter of fuel out of a tank, you draw in a gallon or liter of air to replace it. During a
rain storm or in a humid environment, the problem can be much worse. Temperature changes in the tank from day
to night then cause the water to condense from the air, inside the fuel tanks.

Adding to this, the fuel contains water dissolved into it at very low levels, and as temperatures change, this water
also condenses out as liquid. The amount of water that can dissolve into fuel varies with temperature, and can be as
much as 90 ppm or more. As the fuel temperature drops, its dissolved water condenses out. In an aircraft, this can
repeat every time the aircraft takes on more fuel or flies from warm air (near the ground) to cold air at altitude, and
repeated cycles can generate quite a bit of water in the aircraft over time. The same thing happens in your fuel
supply system, but at a slower rate.

When the fuel temperature goes up, a little water will dissolve back into the fuel, but most of the water remains in
tank bottoms, filter sumps or lies in the bottom of the pipe, until there is so much that it gets downstream.

We can also get water in our fuel systems from mishandling and equipment failure. A common example is rain
water leaking into a refueler truck tank through leaking manway gaskets, or vent fittings in the roof. On the roof of a
tank truck, there is roll-over protection that can trap water on the top. The “downspouts” that drain this water off the
top of the tank MUST be kept clear and tested from time to time. In one case, over 150 gallons of water got into a
airliner in this way and this problem has happened many times over the years.

The roof of an underground storage tank can be a serious problem as well, due to connections such as the tank
gauge stick, fill and other connections being just below the surface of a paved area, in a small manhole. Rain water
and melting snow have contaminated underground tanks in this way many, many times. All you need is a loose
connection or a bad gasket.

DEALING WITH WATER - Fortunately, water is heavier than jet fuel, so it settles to the tank or filter bottom/sump
making it easy to remove. Our #1 priority job is to constantly take sump samples from tank and filter vessel bottoms
to look for water and remove it -- if present.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
This practice of “sumping” also allows us an additional benefit to finding water – it also helps us to detect any other
changes in the fuel. Anything and everything that is different in a sump sample can indicate a serious problem, an
early warning of other fuel quality issues.

“Sumping”, the taking of sump samples, is a critically important part of our jobs – and always will be. It makes no
difference how much fuel you pump, water is a serious issue in any fuel system.

Automatic draining and processing equipment (expensive and rare) are a help in “wet” systems, but they remove
the advantage of having a human being evaluate changes or trends.

What do you look for? Did the fuel or water change color, odor or was there debris in the sump? We aren't just
looking for water, we're concerned about anything that shouldn't be in our fuel. Damaged filters, failed hose linings,
broken valves, worn meters, damaged pumps and mixed fuels are just a few of the problems that can be
discovered from sump samples.

DETECTING WATER IN FUEL - It is your job to try to keep water out and also to detect how and why water has
entered your fuel system. You cannot and should not assume that any automatic water detection device can be
relied upon to take this responsibility. Quality Control is looking for any change and is meant to find little problems
before they become big ones.

There are really three reasons that we look for water in fuel; to detect if water is present in general, to determining if
the filter is capable of properly removing that water and to measure the actual water concentration level. The three
are all connected, but somewhat different.

Unfortunately, there is no sensor that we can screw into a pipe that tells us the water content in the way that a
thermometer tells us the temperature. This is because we need to measure water content at very low levels. A filter
separator or monitor filter is not working properly if it allows 15 ppm (parts per million) to pass through. That is only
1.5 thousands of 1 percent, 0.0015%.

We have test equipment that can accurately measure the water content in the fuel, but only in samples taken from
the system. (For example, our Aqua Glo instrument). To determine if the fuel is safe, one sample can be taken. To
determine if a filter is working, two samples must be taken, one before and one after the filter -- but this only tells us if
the filter is removing water properly when water is present in the incoming fuel. An Aqua Glo test does not provide a
constant monitoring ability.

We have inexpensive water detectors, such as the Velcon Hydrokit and Shell Water Detector Both show if
excessive water is present, but only in the specific sample that you test; once again, there is no constant monitoring
ability.

Recent work on sensors that constantly measure water content has not yet been completed, but they are
expensive and “the jury is still out” on how accurate they will prove to be. At the very least, they should provide a
good indication of a problem. One reason is that these sensors cannot always differentiate between air bubbles,
dirt and water. But providing an indication that something is wrong, when something is wrong -- is a good thing. The
big question will be whether anyone can afford them.

When using monitor filters (water absorbing filters), it is critical to have an automatic control that stops flow if the
differential pressure exceeds the set limit, usually 15 to 25 psid. Of course, we at GTP have devices that can do this
job, with or without electrical power being available.

So at present, our job remains pretty much the same as it was in the days of the Wright brothers, to keep the risk of
water down by diligently taking sump samples from tank bottoms and filter sumps -- and use the knowledge of what
we regularly see in those samples to detect any changes in the fuel or the fuel system that may signal a water issue
-- as well as any other problems in the fuel.

So even with all our technology, our best protection against water reaching the aircraft remains to be your brains,
your diligence, a white bucket and a glass jar.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 64 HOW MUCH AVIATION FUEL QUALITY MAR. 2013
CONTROL EXPERIENCE IS ENOUGH?

The first thing we need to do here is to agree on what “Aviation Fuel Quality Control” includes. Yes, it involves
keeping fuel free from water and dirt, uncontaminated with other fuels and up to specification. But it includes every
aspect of getting the fuel from receipt at the airport all the way to the aircraft wing without contamination, damaging
the aircraft, or causing a spill or a fire. Quality control also includes fueling at safe pressure insuring that
bonding/grounding equipment is serviceable, having the correct filter elements and making sure that gauges as
well as emergency and deadman controls function correctly.

For reference, a bit of the history of our industry is in order. The world entered the “jet age” in the 1950's. All of the
experience in our industry up until then was on the aviation gasoline used in piston engines. Both jet fuel and jet
engines are quite different from aviation gasoline and the engines that use it.

Early on, militaries, oil companies and airlines put engineers into positions of importance on the handling of Jet
Fuel. There were no real standards. For example, we had to learn not to use galvanized pipe, as the zinc coating
reduced engine life! We learned about “ thermal stability” in this way.

The industry matured in the 1960's and 1970's. ASTM test standards were developed. Oil companies came up with
equipment approval lists. Filters, hoses, nozzles and procedures improved; slowly industry-wide standards came
into practice.

It was a learning experience. For example, it was common at major airports to have 2 to 3 sets of hydrant pits at
every gate, one for each oil company, complete with separate tanks, pumps, hydrant system and hydrant carts.

At smaller airports, the oil companies actually designed, supervised and paid for the installation of fuel systems to
make sure they were right. Both the oil companies and the airlines had large departments dedicated to fuel quality
and safety.

But time passed and things changed. By the time we entered the 1990's, many of these experts were reaching
retirement age and today we have a shortage of experienced people in the industry. There are no college courses
on Jet Fuel handling and little in the way of industry education (except ASTM and other seminar type programs). In
addition, oil companies and airlines tend to shift people from job to job more than before.

Both the number of experienced people and the amount of experience that they have has declined. Errors take
place and because all too often the experience level in the people present is less than it might be.

This is where we are today. We have had issues in the past few years that have resulted in a great deal of concern.
These problems are very often due to someone simply not being observant and/or not knowing what to look for.

Quality Control is not founded on paperwork or equipment; it must be based upon observant and dedicated human
beings. The human mind must be involved, and to do so, it must be educated.

This is the reason we have been writing the GamGrams for the past 37 years, to publish some knowledge and pass
on experience we felt was not available from any other source. But the best form of education is experience.
GamGrams only help to fill in the gaps, to help the new QC person to understand what is supposed to happen and
what can go wrong.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
We've been in this industry for 53 years now, and have always participated in training seminars and standards
writing. We've learned from the best in the industry and also from long experience -- and make no mistake,
experience is the best teacher. Learning from an expert is harder now, we have fewer experts!

Books and manuals don't tell you what fuel is supposed to look like or smell like. They don't tell you what a
membrane test pad (”Millipore”) usually looks like or how quickly the differential pressure should increase on a filter
vessel. They don't tell you what to do if there is a question, other than to report to “the person in authority”. What if
you are the person in authority?

So, if you are a new QC person, or if you supervise fueling people and you don't have a lot experience. What is our
advice to you?

First, seek all the information you can find through your fuel provider, they have fuel experts on staff.

Second, look for anything out of the ordinary. If in doubt, ask someone. There are no stupid questions except “will
jet fuel make my motorcycle go faster?” (The answer is no, by the way, it would be like putting diesel into your tank.)

If you are new to Aviation Fuel QC and have no one at your facility to learn from, you need to find out as much as you
can about what your information resources are. Get names and phone numbers, emails and web sites. Read
everything you can get your hands on and seek advice. Start with your fuel supplier but also utilize airline experts
and equipment suppliers.

What do you do if, for example, you suddenly find a gallon of dark water in a sump draining sample, where you
never had it before? First, look for anything else out of the ordinary and then you call an expert. Always first ask an
expert in your own company, if that fails, you MUST reach out. NEVER be afraid to ask.

We in the aviation fuel QC field don't care if you are a different brand than we are, even a competitor. Information
passes freely between airlines, oil companies, refueler truck manufacturers and oil companies. Safety and
knowledge is always more important than corporate identity. We all sit on the same committees that write the
standards and we all help each other - -as it should be. Did you know there are no US federal laws on jet fuel
quality? Internationally, we are a self-regulating industry, with an excellent record.

Be observant. For example, a significant element of safe fuel handling is simply looking for changes in the
operation of equipment and in your test results. See GamGram 42. The secret is to catch a small problem before it
gets serious.

Also, It doesn't matter how good a system you have, how good your supplier is, or how good your filters or QC
procedures are, complacency is enemy #1. Problems and errors WILL happen, eventually. Never stop looking for
the tip of the iceberg. They may be spills, misfueling, mixing fuels together, or over-filling a tank, a failed deadman
switch, overpressurizing an underwing aircraft or simply hitting a wingtip with a refueler, but you will have problems.

INFORMATION IS KING

The best source of information is the oil company; fuel quality and safe operation is part of their responsibility, in
most cases. Often oil company QC experts can provide much more information than the oil company sales
representative. Fuel distributors such as Epic, World and AvFuel have experts on staff. Landmark and Signature
have experts. Also you can attend our free Open House/seminars, every June.

Your filter supplier (Velcon, Facet or Faudi), your control valve, nozzle and truck manufacturers all have experts on
staff. Make use of them!

If you can't find what you need, don't be afraid to call GTP or another equipment manufacturer, we'll get you to the
right people if we can't answer your question ourselves.

We are all partners in this industry and we all help one another. I speak for every fuel expert in the field, from every
oil company, fueling company and manufacturer when I say we will help you get the knowledge and experience that
you need. The answer is -- you will never have enough experience!
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 65 PISTON DIFFERENTIAL GAUGES: MAR. 2014
FACTS AND MISUNDERSTANDINGS

To know how much contamination is in a filter, you watch the pressure drop, otherwise known of as
“differential pressure” or DP. If the inlet pressure is only a little more than the outlet (for example 50 psi on
the inlet and 47 psi on the outlet, or 3 psid, the d is differential), the filter elements have not yet removed
very much dirt (if it is a filter separator) or dirt and water (if it is a monitor/water absorbing filter).

We want to avoid subjecting the elements to high differential pressure, because if they burst or collapse,
you will be releasing contamination and bits of filter element downstream. This sort of failure can cause
even a major airline plane to “not reach its destination” - and nearly did just that only a few years ago. In
that event, the throttles on both engines froze, but the pilots managed to land safely.

For this reason, both the US ATA-103 and the International IATA JIG require monitor filters on hydrant
carts to have an automatic differential pressure shutdown control. The ATA-103 also requires this on
refueler trucks. At GTP we are proud to have pioneered the incorporating of a differential switch into a
piston type direct reading differential pressure gauge.

There has been some concern recently with simple piston-in-glass-tube type differential pressure
gauges, simply because it is “old technology” - but sometimes simple is a good thing.

To clear up some misconceptions on these gauges (we are not the only manufacturer) please consider
these simple facts:

1. There are only 2 moving parts, a piston and a spring. There are only two things that can go
wrong, the piston can stick or the spring can weaken. Many years ago, Shell Oil developed
a simple test for both of these potential possibilities, adding a 3-way valve on the outlet. See
the following link at the end of this paragraph. This test is accepted by all airlines, oil
companies and militaries. This test causes the piston to move through full travel, which
tests the gauge for freedom of movement and helps keep the glass clean. Note that this test
only works in gauges with the piston on top of the spring.
See also: http://www.gammontech.com/mainframe/manuals/pdf/GGTC2.pdf

2. You may feel that we left out a third thing that can go wrong with a piston gauge, the third
important part of the gauge, the filter. There is a filter in any good piston gauge - to protect
the piston from debris that may jam it up. But these filters never plug up on aircraft refueling
equipment for two simple reasons; the filter is 10 micron and the system filters are 1-2
micron - and there is no real flow through this filter. Even if the filter did get dirty, it only slows
the reaction time of the gauge, which would be obvious when you do the test in item 1
above. Some of our customers have policies to replace this filter every time the filters in the
main filter vessel are changed, but privately we feel changing the element once every 10
years on into-plane fueling filters is fine.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 3. You may ask how it is possible to check the accuracy of the gauge with this simple test. The
answer is simple - a spring won't change without changing its length. If the spring can push
the piston up to the zero, against gravity, the spring has not changed length and the
accuracy has not changed.

4. There is one weakness in a piston gauge, someone could lose a scale and replace it with the
wrong one. For example, a 0-30 psid scale on a 0-15 gauge. We guard against this by using
lock tite on the screws and color-coding the springs, but even if this did happen, the greatest
error is only 15 psid and the worse possible case would be a shutdown at 28 psid, well
within the safety factor of the elements.

A subject under a lot of discussion these days is something called “corrected differential pressure”. This is
perhaps one of the most misunderstood subjects in our industry. Basically, if you have a vessel in a
system that normally can produce 600 gpm/2200 lpm but it is only flowing at half that rate when you
happen to look at the gauge, the reading you get is pretty well useless, unless you correct it for the
difference. The pressure drop at full flow rate will be more than twice that at half flow rate. To know what
the differential would be at full flow rate, a “correction” can be done:

A. Manually with the filter manufacturer's chart.

B. Using a spreadsheet program from that manufacturer.

C. You can have this done automatically by adding a computer control system to your filter
system. This control automatically compares the actual flow to the differential pressure at
the time and corrects it.

But the question is - does correcting differential provide any additional safety benefit?

Remember - our goal in monitoring differential pressure is to not burst the elements and release
contamination. We propose that a simple piston DP gauge with a switch accomplishes this inexpensively
and is easy to test and check the calibration. So, what would corrected differential pressure do for us?
Well, in our opinion, manually correcting the differential is fine, but the automatic controls only provide
really useful data on the dirtier parts (fuel receipt) of an airport fuel system. Checking corrected DP in
these filters may warn you of contaminated fuel or simply advise you earlier of an upcoming need to
change elements. Software that notices not the level of contamination, but how quickly it is building up
would be a useful Q.C. tool. On into-plane filtration it may advise you earlier than a DP gauge switch, but
this does not make you any safer. We say this even though we do make a digital output version of our
gauge.

Even though we make a digital output for our gauge, which can be used for this purpose on into plane
filters, we believe these controls are most useful at the pipeline, ship, barge or airport entry stages,
because this is where you would expect to see greater contamination and where you can learn the most.
Such controls should include intelligently designed warnings.

The greatest advantage to the old, simple piston gauge is the simplicity. You can easily see that it is
working correctly. You can easily test it and check the calibration. Adding a switch is simple. In addition, it
won't “drift” on its reading as a pressure transducer may do, over time, and it is also easy to test the set
point on the switch. But best of all, even if all the electronics fail, a trusted old piston gauge will still work
reliably. In an emergency, someone can watch the gauge to be sure. Sometimes simple is good.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 66 REFUELER TRUCK DESIGN APR. 2015

This GamGram is written mostly to help people new to refueler trucks, some points that even those with experience may learn
from. This GamGram is not a complete education. Please read the manuals and other operational documentation available
from the refueler truck manufacturer, airline, oil company and other applicable standards. Do the quality control and the
preventive maintenance. Inspect the truck regularly for leaks, damage and the operation of all systems, even brake lights and
turn signals.

The #1 safety device in refueling is you. Never assume a refueler truck is safe to use, be sure. Be observant, do inspections,
check pressures, test equipment, calibrate gauges and never operate a refueler truck unless you have been completely
checked out on safety, spill and environmental concerns. See GamGram 23.

The key to safety and quality control is to be on the lookout for changes. Changes mean something may be wrong and if in
doubt, don't pump fuel. Life is too important to take chances.

A refueler truck is a vehicle with a storage tank and the needed equipment to dispense fuel safely to aircraft. We will address
hydrant carts, without storage tanks, in a future GamGram.

DESIGNED FOR SAFETY

To protect everyone, a refueler has safety systems. A primary safety system is the brake interlock, designed so that the truck
cannot be driven when it is engaged in refueling an aircraft or when the cargo tank is being loaded at the loading rack. Most
trucks have an “emergency brake override” in the cab to allow the truck to be moved in an emergency. Never bypass safety
systems.

THE FUEL STORAGE/CARGO TANK

The tank on a refueler truck is an expensive part. The weight of the fuel affects the cost of the chassis, so a large capacity adds
cost, but a small cargo tank means less refueling ability.

THE PUMP
The fuel pump is driven either from the transmission (PTO), from a “split shaft” in the middle of the drive shaft or from a
hydraulic drive. It is important to not exceed the maximum rated rpm for the pump, and to keep it lubricated properly, follow the
manual.

THE FILTER
A refueler truck may have a water absorbing (monitor type) filter or a filter separator. A water absorbing filter collects water in
the element media itself, like a baby diaper. A filter separator removes the water and this water must be drained from the vessel
sump and a sump water sensor should be present to stop flow if excessive water accumulates. See GamGrams 47, 48, 53 and
63. All filters must be rated for aviation fuel, properly maintained and contain the correct, latest Edition approved elements for
the flow rate and vessel. See GamGram 8 and 57.

All filters are also equipped with a differential pressure (DP) gauge. An increase in the difference between inlet pressure and
outlet pressure (DP) means you have contaminated fuel. See GamGram 26. Pressure drop is caused by dirt and/or water in a
water absorbing type filter and dirt in a filter separator. The gauge should have a shutdown system to stop flow if DP is too high,
this must be tested. See the manufacturer's recommendations and GamGram 65.

Other accessories on a filter are a means to: eliminate air, relieve excessive pressure and take fuel samples from the flowing
system (standard on jet fuel and optional on avgas trucks) as well as a low point drain.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
SUMPS AND STRAINERS
Checking the tank and filter sump as well as all strainers is important to look for water, dirt or anything else that should not be in
the system. (A true story, someone once found a small fish in a nozzle strainer after installing a new hose that had not been
properly stored in a shed by a creek.)

FUELING NOZZLES
Refueling overwing is similar to fueling a car and usually the flow goes into the aircraft above the wing or high on the fuel tank.
Automatic nozzles with “hold open” designs are not allowed, because there is too much spill danger from variations in the
aircraft fill connection. It is best to maintain contact between the spout and fill connection at all times.

Underwing, or single point refueling is done with a nozzle that locks onto the aircraft, usually from under the wing.

All nozzles should have a strainer as a last defense against debris getting into the aircraft and to detect deterioration of the
inside of the hose.

PRESSURE AND FLOW CONTROLS

If all you do is to fuel overwing, you only need an emergency fuel shutdown system to stop the pump and all valves, but if you
refuel underwing, you need pressure controls, a deadman control and likely a rate of flow control. These may be hydraulic,
pneumatic or electric, or a combination. See the manufacturer's instructions. Hydraulic pressure controls are defined in
GamGrams 32 and 33.

A deadman control is either a handle on an electric cord, a handle on small deadman hose(s) or the trigger on an overwing
nozzle (or similar design). It must be operated to obtain flow. NEVER bypass the deadman control. The deadman control may
have a timer control that requires you to quickly release and re-squeeze the deadman control to maintain flow. A timer-type
deadman makes “jamming the deadman” virtually impossible.

FLOW RATE
The maximum flow rate of a truck is determined by the rating of the meter and the filter, with the lowest rating being important.
The flow rate printed on the filter vessel is not important, what is important is the current rating of the vessel with the specific
elements in it. See your filter supplier for this rating.

HOSE REELS
Hose is stored on hose reels and must be wound in a neat way to prevent damage and allow the maximum capacity of hose.
Rewinding is most commonly by electrical motor, hydraulic power or air. The swivel should be properly lubricated and have a
grease vent to prevent grease getting into the fuel. Petroleum jelly (”Vaseline”) is a common lubricant to use.

REFUELING HOSE
All aircraft fueling hose must meet stringent standards. It must NEVER have a wire in it for conductivity (except lift-deck hose).
It must meet the EI-1529 standard. Inspection of the hose regularly is very important. Pull the entire hose from the reel regularly
and inspect it fully for any sign of cracking, splitting, flat spots and fabric showing through or bubbles. Turning a hose end-for-
end can extend the life of the hose. See GamGrams 35 & 49.

STATIC BONDING
To prevent sparks between the aircraft and the truck, a static cable must be provided, usually on a reel for storage. It is
important to not only keep this cable and clamp intact and conductive but use it in every refueling. Conductivity is checked
between the clamp and the frame of the truck.

BOTTOM LOADING
To fill a refueler storage tank, you need to make sure the tank is not overloaded. All trucks should have a working high level
shutoff with a test feature. This is separate from the fuel farm high level control, if present. Operate this truck mounted
“precheck” test feature regularly not only to ensure the high level control works, but to ensure the internal valve in the bottom of
the tank works.

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Most refuelers have compressed air systems that need to be maintained. See GamGram 62.

OVERALL
Do the daily, weekly and all other periodic tests required by the standard that you operate under. This may be ATA-103, IATA
JIG or other standards. Keeping the truck maintained includes pressure controls, water controls, filters, hoses, tires, air and oil
filters, chassis lube and oil changes - and much more.
Text
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 67 “DIRT” IN AVIATION FUELS JUN. 2016

In several previous GamGrams, we have addressed several aspects of fuel contamination. This GamGram
specifically addresses dirt (particulate or solid) contamination.

In all things, dirt can be a problem. In food it may cause illness, and in working parts it can cause wear. In water,
it can cause problems, but in a jet engine, there are many bad things that can happen.

Dirt can clog filters, it can damage pumps, valves and fuel controls or clog/damage anything in the fuel system.
If it builds up in injection nozzles, it can also affect the burning of the fuel. It can also build up in low-flow areas,
such as sumps and damage drain valves.

Dirt can enter anywhere. It comes in as dust through vents, with mixed fuels and dirty equipment. Rust is
generated by steel pipe, tanks and components in the system. Dirt can be created by micro-organisms. It may
be solid or gummy, large or small particles, flakes or fibers. We even found a small fish in a nozzle strainer
once. What we call “dirt” (particulate or solid contamination) can be almost anything.

Certainly we all acknowledge that we need to keep any fuel as pure as possible, but in an aircraft engine, this is
critically important.

We monitor every aspect of fuel quality and look for any contamination also as a warning that something else
has gone wrong in the handling of the fuel. Not only do we worry about the nature of the specific contamination
we discover, but we must also be concerned that other characteristics of the fuel may be affected. Particulate
contamination may be the tip of the iceberg.

A good example is when diesel fuel becomes mixed with jet fuel. The gravity/density of the fuel may not
change a lot, the visual appearance may not change a lot but it burns differently. When we find darker
membranes (or particles on the membrane), we need to make sure other chemical characteristics of the fuel
have not changed.

Most commonly, particulate contamination is either rust, dust or inherent contamination found in the crude oil
itself (for example, sulfur compounds). We usually detect particles visually, either by seeing large particles
with the human eye, or by straining very small particles from the fuel with filter membranes to ASTM D2276
and D5452. We can also detect it as an increase in pressure drop across filters. See also GamGrams 2, 3, 13,
25, 42, 46, and others on differential pressure.

But what is particulate contamination, and where does it come from?

First, we need to understand how small this “dirt” can be. A red blood cell is about 8 microns wide. The human
eye cannot see a dark particle smaller than about 40 microns against a white background. A hair is about 100
microns thick.

The refueling filters used on avgas are typically rated about 5-10 microns, and on jet fuel the filters are rated
about 1-2 microns. If a particle is visible to the naked eye, it did not pass through your filter.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
An interesting fact is that we have had aircraft engine filters rated at 10-50 microns become plugged with “dirt”.
How can that happen when the refueling filters are much finer?

One way is for the dirt to enter the aircraft not through the fuel system, but through the aircraft fuel tank vents.
This dirt is usually silica dust. Do you think the strainers on the aircraft vents protect you? A 100 mesh strainer
is only going to remove particles over 130 microns, so dust can be a problem. Another way we can plug engine
filters is with tiny particles of rust that gather together into larger “clumps” on tiny condensed water drops. If
below freezing, these can be little, dirty snowballs .

It is also possible for tiny particles (or fibers) of water absorbing filter media to grow larger (swell) and
contribute to filter plugging, but changes in filter manufacturing and testing have greatly reduced this sort of
contamination.

Underwing Nozzle Strainers – Larger particles will tend to fall from the strainer back into the hose when flow
stops. If you see unusual debris in the strainer, place the nozzle in a container on the ground with the poppet
open. You may need to have someone hold it stable. Go to the other end of the hose and lift the hose over your
shoulder and walk to the nozzle, sliding the hose over your shoulder. This directs debris in the hose to the
nozzle. Then remove the strainer. The fuel in the hose will have washed debris from the hose into the strainer.

When you find that membrane color or weight has suddenly and significantly increased, or differential
pressure has increased suddenly and significantly on a filter or filter separator:

1. It is CRITICAL that you stop dispensing that fuel and prevent damage or risk to any aircraft that have
been fueled.

2. Determine when and where this increase (change) took place. For example, if the fuel at the terminal is
clean and the fuel in the transport trailer is dirty, the source is likely to be the trailer.

3. Get someone to take responsibility for the safety of the fuel. In 99% of cases, you (the testing person)
cannot determine if the fuel is safe to use. We suggest you go through the chain of command,
ownership of the fuel, contracts and/or contact the fuel supplier.

Interesting examples:

A. We had a customer with dirty fuel leaving a storage tank, but clean fuel coming in. The cause? The
tank had a floating roof (or “pan”), and on the edge of the tank wall there was a rubber “skirt seal” that
helped seal the edge of the floating roof as it moved up and down with the fuel level. The walls of the
tank were only epoxy coated 3' (1 m) above the tank floor, so this rubber “seal” rubbed fine rust off the
tank walls as the fuel level changed.

B. We had fine grain sand in the hydrant system filters, but not in the incoming fuel. The cause was a
concrete plant near the airport. Dust from this plant was entering the storage tank vents.

C. We had fine dirt in the dispensing system at a small heliport. The cause was dusty air entering the tank
of the storage trailer when it delivered a previous load of jet fuel near a construction site.

D. We were plugging filters at the airport, but the membranes were not discolored. The cause was cross
contamination with low-sulfur diesel fuel with calcium salt contamination. The calcium reacted with
water and corrosion inhibitor in the fuel and created a white, gel-like contaminant called calcium
carboxylate. (This can also happen on barge shipments due to calcium in salt spray.)

The point of this GamGram is not to cover all of the possible forms of dirt or ways the dirt can get in. It is meant
to open your eyes to the fact THAT it can get in. Be diligent. As Shell Oil has said for 60 years, if you only find a
problem the 10,000th time you check, you can save lives.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 68 ELECTRONICS IN REFUELING MAR. 2017

With any new technology, even those of us who consider ourselves “experts” have to learn new skills to work with and
troubleshoot new equipment. The "tried and true" older technologies do work well, so the advantage of new technology has to
be to add more functions, better safety, greater efficiency, better record keeping or a combination of these elements.

In our opinion, the logical way for future refueling vehicles to work is to have all new technology centralized, not in separate
meter, chassis, fuel quality and additive system (if present) controls. We encourage control manufacturers to directly connect
to our Digital Gammon Gauge and Viper Additive Injector to eliminate the complexity of adding separate controls.

Electronic Flow Controls

1. Engine Management System (EMS) - Patented (in USA) by Rampmaster for use in diesel powered refueler (tank
type) trucks. Basically, an expansion of the computer control on modern diesel engines, adding in refueling control.

The result of the Rampmaster design is a much more fuel efficient refueler with fewer parts than a conventional
refueler. (No control valves, reference regulators and gauges, or venturis). Calibration is simple. Fueling is done with
better fuel economy, less pollution and longer life for the engine and pump parts. It provides the fast refueling rates at
accurate pressures. The engine only runs as fast as is needed to generate the desired flow/pressure. Deadman
function is by a simple air operated butterfly valve, an air operated butterfly bypass valve and a PTO interface. The
result surprises even experienced fueling experts. It can be used with or without hose end regulators but is limited to
pump-type tank vehicles.

Setting up the EMS is simpler and may result in some improvement in fueling time on smaller tanks that accept fuel
more slowly. A pressure transducer (and PLC) does a better job than a venturi when the flow rate is restricted. At this
time, Rampmaster is the only US supplier of this design. We are told that the German manufacturer Kunz
manufactures a similar design.

2. Digital Electronic Pressure and Flow Control – CarterEaton designs are available for both refuelers and hydrant
carts using inline control valves plus bypass valves on tank-type refuelers and pit couplers on hydrant carts. This
design is similar to a conventional system, but controls the valves electrically instead of using compressed
air/hydraulic controls. The system is more accurate in pressure control and flow rate control than a conventional
system and easier to calibrate. A transducer is more accurate at lower flow rates than a venturi so fueling times may be
improved particularly when filling smaller auxiliary aircraft tanks.

Note, different traditional control systems work differently and some brands match or come close to matching the
digital system flow times, even when flow is restricted.

Additive Injection Control and Monitoring

Modern additive injection systems mostly work with electronics, either simple or complex. The simplest designs have a visual
flow indicator that the human operator needs to monitor to be sure the additive is flowing. The more complex injectors use a
microprocessor to monitor additive concentration and should self-adjust, keep records and stop fuel flow if there is a problem.
Of course we manufacture the most common injector, the Viper, and can provide the electronics or these can be provided as
part of the meter or truck control system.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
You may think that additive injection is only for anti-icing additive for small aircraft and helicopters, but that may not be true in
the future. We are impressed with a new additive, Aquarius, which eliminates all water concerns by breaking the water into
submicroscopic (nano) particles (up to the additive's stated capacity) and encaging them so they are consumed together with
the fuel. In 7 years of testing, Aquarius has undergone and passed all tests it has been subjected to, including a flight test.
These particles are tiny, smaller than a mold spore and have no negative effect on the aircraft.

This additive is expected to provide protection from corrosion, micro-organisms, attack on tank linings as well as ice formation
in tanks and in engine controls and issues with tank drain lines freezing. It must be injected proportionally as the aircraft is
fueled to preserve the additive's capacity. 250 ppm of Aquarius can neutralize up to about 240/250 ppm of water. It is reportedly
non-toxic, unlike anti-icing additive.

Electronic Sensing of Fuel Quality

Both Faudi Filters and ParkerVelcon have developed laser devices to help detect contaminants in jet fuel to meet the EI 1598
standard. These devices use light scattering/obstruction technology to determine the difference between water and dirt. They
do not, as of this printing, determine the exact dirt or water content, but do give a graduated response and detect trend changes
and may (should) provide slug sensing.

Constant sensing just downstream of the final filter is a valuable real-time supplement to periodic testing. Consult the
manufacturer and your own QC experts for more details. This technology is not inexpensive.

There are also density sensing devices than can detect different fuel grades or significant mixture of fuels as well as fuel weight
for the pilot's use. Also not inexpensive.

Particle Counting
Particle counting provides a relatively inexpensive (compared to some electronic sensors) periodic test in place of the
traditional 0.8 micron "Millipore"TM or "MiniMonitor"TM membrane test to ASTM D2276. Particle counting cannot detect the
smallest dirt or water particles (under 4-5 microns) or tell the difference between dirt and water without a cosolvent such as
“Resolver”. Because particulate is usually present in both small and large particles, in most cases the 4-5 micron limit should
not allow particulate to go undetected. These devices do not meet ASTM D2276 or D3240 but are good for trend analysis and
are under ballot at ASTM at this writing. This technology has been widely used in many applications, including lubricating oils. It
is presently a periodic test.

Differential Pressure and Filter Condition Monitoring

Monitoring corrected pressure drop across the final filters may become common in the future. Using our Digital Gammon
Gauge removes the need to “condition” the readings from transducers. (spikes and waves cause errors, see GamGram #26).
We feel the real value of DP monitoring is in bulk transfers, to detect gross dirt upon change in custody.

Conclusion
So do you need any of these things today? The old saying is that "If it isn't broken, don't fix it" - but we see technology becoming
important in the future. Constant monitoring is simply better than periodic checks. But cost is always a prime concern as well.
Technology is not cheap.

One day perhaps quality control will involve computer monitoring of the function of every part of our fuel systems. But it is
important that we keep every vigilant, computers cannot think. Looking for any change and understanding the possible
ramafications is the job of the QC expert. As we always say, quality control is there to find little problems before they become
big ones and looking for changes is the key to quality control and safety, no matter how seemingly insignificant.
In our opinion, electronics should help, not replace fuel handling professionals.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 69 FILTER VESSEL CONCERNS MAY 2018

We had a call from a customer: “Your filters aren’t working. I don’t get any improvement on membrane
color and we have a customer complaining.” This is the sort of phone call that makes a filter manufacturer
or salesman cringe. The reason is that he or she knows that 99% of the time, it isn’t the element’s fault, it is
a fuel problem such as mixed fuels. But today, problems with the vessel hardware are often the cause.

In one case, we discovered the side of the element manifold had a hole in it. In another case, the screw
base adapters under the coalescer were rotted out and flow was bypassing the elements. In many of the
stories filter people share with one another, the gaskets simply fail and are never replaced. In most
locations, hardware is not checked. If you have old vessels, you have a responsibility to take care of them.

WARNING: Make sure the vessels are ventilated and properly safe for entry, as well as obtaining all
needed permits for confined space entry and personnel exposure. This is especially important if you are
filtering leaded avgas, but all fuels represent a hazard.

Both plain filters and filter separators are wonderful technology. They remove dirt smaller than blood cells,
smaller than the eye can see. Filter separators allow less than 1/1000 of one percent (10 ppm) of water,
regardless of the inlet concentration.

But these vessels need more than just the periodic replacement of elements, there is maintenance to be
done on accessories and there is serious concern for the hardware that is mounted semi-permanently
inside the vessel.

The subject of this GamGram is that you are not only responsible for using the correct elements but also
for maintaining the hardware! So, what can go wrong? It’s just a big metal container, right? Many vessels
have never been maintained after 5, 10, 20 or even 50 years in service. Gaskets and aluminum castings
and mounts do degrade over time.

INTERNAL HARDWARE
All filter vessels have internal element hardware. These should be removed and inspected periodically.
These mount, seal and space the elements.

Spider plates are used to keep the elements spaced correctly and so that they cannot work loose or hit
one another - or the vessel wall. Replace them if missing, not only do they hold the elements, they prevent
static buildup that causes damage to the elements, interior coatings and help prevent fires inside the
vessel. See GamGram 007 and 015.

Some filter separators have aluminum manifolds with hidden gaskets where they mount. All of this
hardware (except stainless steel) is prone to corrode and ALL rubber gaskets will fail over time. In our
opinion, all hardware should be removed AT LEAST once every 5 years and inspected.

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
ACCESSORIES
There are also accessories on your vessel that must be maintained. These include a pressure relief
valve, an automatic air eliminator, manual drain, differential pressure gauge, sampling connections - and
on filter separators, a water control device. In cold weather, heaters are used on filter separators to
prevent the sump and drain line from freezing.

Pressure relief valve: If it leaks, don't plug the outlet! Either get the valve serviced or replace it. Don’t
change the setting or dismantle unless you can accurately reset the relief point. If it drips, run the outlet to
a recovery tank, back to the storage tank or to a sump separator. This is clean fuel! See GamGram 037.

Automatic air eliminator: If an automatic air eliminator leaks, it may be rebuildable, but most are not.
Once again, if it leaks, don't plug the outlet, service or replace the valve. If it drips, run it to a recovery tank,
the storage tank or a sump separator. This is clean fuel!

Manual drain valves should not be plugged if they leak, but replaced. A common safety solution is to put
a "camlock" connector and cap on manual drain valves. This allows more security against an accidental
opening and contains any leaks. A leak at a ball valve shaft may be fixed by slightly tightening a nut undert
he handle, if present.

Differential Pressure Gauge/indicator: Typically, this is a Gammon Gauge, a piston operated

differential pressure indicator. All you typically need to do is to check calibration regularly using our
procedure. http://www.gammontech.com/mainframe/manuals/pdf/GGTC2.pdf

There is a filter in the upper housing which should be replaced regularly. Your standard is set by your
company, the ATA-103, IATA or JIG. We recommend at least once every 10 years or if the piston moves
slowly under pressurized testing in accord with our test. Don't use a cheap counterfeit filter, ours are
under $20 each (2018 price) and are of much better quality. We have rebuild kits that include cleaning
material. Cleaning of the gauge should be done with only one material, 3M Scotchbrite.
See: http://www.gammontech.com/mainframe/manuals/pdf/gammongaugeinst.pdf

Sampling Connections are pretty simple, if they leak, either replace the seals or replace the quick
disconnect. But it is also important to maintain the dust cap. Our old dust caps (we invented the sample
connection, so we know) were aluminum with a ball chain. These were sometimes lost, so we went to a
polyurethane dust cap. If this fails, replace it. Keeping dirt out makes the QD last longer and gives more
accurate fuel tests.

Water controls are much more complex. They can tell the difference between water and fuel and they
have to stop fuel flow if too much water collects.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions. Also, see GamGrams 010, 012, 024, 036, 044 and 050.
http://www.gammontech.com/gamgrams.htm

Filter separator sump and drain line heaters are fully covered in GamGram 030. We strongly
recommend adjustable thermostats (all that we at GTP ever sell) so you can more easily test the function.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 70 WHEN FUEL CONTAMINATION GETS SERIOUS APR. 2019
REVISED JUN. 2019

In past GamGrams, we have addressed many aspects of the responsibility we in this industry have to
keep fuel clean and dry as well as not causing injury to the aircraft, refueling equipment, the environment
and the human operators. What we have not addressed specifically is contamination and flight safety.

Bear in mind, these contamination events are not always your responsibility, but you need to know more
than just what is obvious or is even technically your responsibility.

1. Water and Dirt - We all know that water doesn't burn and therefore is not good to put it into an
engine, but it causes other problems as well. It promotes microbe growth and it has been
postulated that it causes or provides a place for other contaminants to gather. One example is the
interesting mechanism of condensation. As fuel in an aircraft tank cools at altitude, there are
always very tiny particles of rust present that are too small for the roughly one micron refueling
filters to remove. There are also dust particles entering the tank through the tank vents. These act
as what we call "nucleation points," places for water to condense. The rust particles are typically
smaller than a micron, while the dust that enters the wing tanks through the vents is typically larger.
This "dust" often contains spores for fungi and also silica, abrasive inorganic dirt.

This explains something many people do not understand: how fuel filtered to one micron on the
refueler can plug engine filters rated 30 microns or greater. These particles, with water on them,
provide a place for microbes to grow, but they also attract other contaminants. These trace
contaminants can be detergents or any of a long list of other trace contaminants attracted to water.

Overview: It is a fact that such particles have been known to cause problems for the fuel systems,
the primary one being the plugging up of engine filters, which can lead to malfunction of the engine
controls. Pilots can lose control of the engine and yes, this has happened.

What we can do: Drain any and all water and dirt that we can remove out of our systems, most
especially to drain filter and tank drains and sumps regularly - and by regularly we mean frequently
enough to not ever build up more than a trace of water or dirt in those sump samples. In addition,
change coalescer elements if they show ANY "leopard spots" on the outside cloth cover. If you see
spots after one year, inspect and change elements more frequently. Of course, if there is ANY sign
of microbes in your system, properly and immediately address the problem. How this should be
done is a subject you should decide with the proper authority, your airline, oil company or whoever
is responsible. Approved biocides are available. We must always look for ANY change in the
appearance of low point fuel sump samples, but DO NOT TAKE AIRCRAFT FUEL SAMPLES
YOURSELF, unless authorized by the pilot or aircraft owner (and approved by your management).

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS INC.

2300 HIGHWAY 34 MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736
PHONE: 732-223-4600 FAX:732-223-5778 WEB: WWW.GAMMONTECH.COM
 2. Human Error - You may have heard that on at least three occasions, truck maintenance people
put Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) into the wrong tank, the tank reserved for anti-icing additive. It is
critically important to make sure that additive tanks are CLEARLY labeled for FSII/Anti-
Icing/Prist/DiEGME additive. An effort is being made to make these lockable for added safety. A
lockable camlock cap will add this safety to most stainless steel additive tanks. We have found that
a plain bicycle lock can make it much harder to put DEF into plastic DiEGME/FSII/"Prist" shipping
jugs, but isolation of DEF containers from FSII containers and proper training is critical.

In some or all of these events, the cause seems to be accidentally getting DEF from the supply
room when the operator was looking for DiEGME/FSII. So isolating DEF storage is critical as well
as proper training and supervision.

How bad can it be? In at least 12 cases that we have heard of, the entire fuel system on the aircraft
needed to be replaced or carefully cleaned. At least four engines have had to be replaced.

3. Filter Separator Water Controls - We are presently in a rush to stop using SAP type water
absorbing filters on refueling vehicles (JIG Bulletin 111 and A4A notice) by 2020. An approved and
proven alternative is not yet available. Many people in the industry today may have not been in the
industry long enough to recall when and WHY we adopted these filters in the first place. The simple
reason was that in some cases we got significant volumes of water into airliners through filter
separators. Howard Gammon, who founded this company, once famously said, "A filter separator
without a working water control is just a water collector." His point was that a filter separator
COLLECTS water in the sump and that water must be drained or it will build up and eventually flow
right into the aircraft.

Water controls are CRITICALLY IMPORTANT. They may be float operated or electronic, but they
MUST BE REGULARLY TESTED. There have been events where over 150 gallons of water were
pumped onto aircraft through perfectly functional filter separators, because the water sensor didn't
alert the operator and didn't stop the flow.

4. Poorly Installed Filter Elements - Installing the elements into a filter separator is a bit more
complicated than installing monitor elements. Not only should you never touch the elements with
your hands because it may disarm the elements, but a filter separator will not work unless all the
elements are correctly "seated" and the correct hardware is installed. Even a missing "spider
plate" (the plate used to center the closed end of the elements) MUST be installed. Why? Because
the elements can work loose (especially on a vehicle bumping down the ramp) and if an element
comes loose or the end cap gets loose, dirt and water will get into the aircraft. Spider plates also
ensure proper element spacing. But all hardware inside a filter vessel should be removed and
inspected for damage, corrosion, or failed gaskets at least every five years.

5. Differential Pressure - The new JIG/IATA and A4A standards require an automatic shutoff or
monitor vessels if differential pressure exceeds 15 psid. We certainly have provided thousands of
conversion kits to retrofit Gammon Gauges to provide this safety and we appreciate the business,
but these MUST BE INSTALLED CORRECTLY AND TESTED. Be sure the control actually works.
If it doesn't, it can cause engine controls to stick and be uncontrollable by the pilot. The elements
may have a 175 psi burst strength, but this is a proof pressure, not an operating pressure.

So be careful of little things; they can become BIG problems and may even lead to the loss of the aircraft.
 THE GAMGRAM
No. 72 DEALING WITH WATER SEP. 2020
REVISED FROM No. 71
IN AIRCRAFT JET FUEL
NOTE: To clarify and address comments received after the publication of the original GamGram 71, we have revised this
GamGram and changed the number to avoid confusion.
It is not the purpose of this GamGram to determine the choice you make as an operator, but to illustrate the present situation,
the pluses and the minuses, the reality of the situation.
This GamGram is intended to present the current situation our industry faces in regard to dealing with water in jet fuel as
of the date of publication: September 2020. We suggest that before you read this GamGram, you review GamGram 63,
“Detecting Water in Aviation Fuel Systems.” The two may sound similar, but they are quite different.
Jet fuel can have water in two forms: free and dissolved. Just as with humidity in air, water can be dissolved into the fuel.
As the fuel temperature changes, it can hold more or less water dissolved into it. At higher temperatures, jet fuel can hold
as much as 100 ppm (parts per million) of dissolved water. At low temperatures (high altitude), much or all of this water can
condense out much as water condenses out of air, as haze (fog) or as liquid water.
This dissolved water, coming out of solution in the fuel and becoming free water, can be enough to cause, and has caused,
a variety of problems. One being a recurring problem in drain valves freezing on a number of aircraft in recent years and,
debatably, even the crash on one Boeing 777.
The two sides of the 777 crash debate are:
A. A commonly discussed theory is that the 777 in question had been refueled with a considerable amount of free water
from a poorly maintained filter separator and that this water is what clogged the parts of the fuel system that caused
both engines on the 777 to not perform properly just before landing.
B. The other position is based on the Official AAIB accident report. This report concludes that the water came out of
solution due to the flight being a long one in very cold air. From the Page 176:
“Ice had formed within the fuel system, from water that occurred naturally in the fuel, whilst the aircraft operated with
low fuel flows over a long period and the local fuel temperatures were in an area described as the “sticky range.”
The report goes on to say: “Further, the likelihood of a separate restriction mechanism occurring within seven seconds
of that for the right engine was determined to be very low.”
So the investigators were confident that the water, which became ice and clogged the fuel systems of both engines,
came out of solution in the fuel, and refueling filtration was not the cause of the problem.
The report also showed that fuel removed from the damaged aircraft showed 35-40 ppm of TOTAL (free and dissolved)
water present, which would be within the normally expected range for dissolved water and which was similar to that found
on other aircraft that had flown similar routes. So there was no evidence to indicate that gross water was present as far as
the investigation could find.
IMPORTANT! The problem component on that particular engine model was identified and corrective action on all similar
models was taken to prevent the same issue from recurring.
Jet (or turbine type) engines themselves can handle quite a bit of free (liquid) water, but that aircraft fuel systems are
sensitive to water and ice is a particular concern. We cannot remove the dissolved water because filters cannot do so. Our
job has always been to keep free water levels as low as possible.
The primary means to remove free water, from the refinery to the terminal, all the way to aircraft is the filter separator. These
vessels filter out dirt and separate free water. Water, being heavier than the fuel, falls to the bottom of the vessel. The first
stage filter element type is the “coalescer element.” These elements remove dirt and “coalesce” (gather together) tiny water
drops into larger ones, which then cannot pass through the second stage of the vessel, which has “separator elements.”

GAMMON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS, INC. PHONE 732-223-4600

FAX 732-223-5778
GAMMON P.O.BOX 400 - 2300 HWY 34 WEBSITE www.gammontech.com
MANASQUAN, N.J. 08736 STORE www.gammontechstore.com
This free water collects in a low point of a filter separator vessel, called the “sump” - where a float or probe senses if
excessive water collects - and stops the fuel system flow until that water is drained.
For decades, most refueler trucks (with tanks) have used filter separators while most hydrant carts (or “hydrant servicers”)
have used monitors. Hydrant systems pump fuel underground to the airport gate and the hydrant cart simply dispenses the
fuel directly to the aircraft.
Modern filter separators, properly equipped and operated, have never put significant amounts of water into an aircraft, as
far as we know. They rarely pass more than 3-4 ppm of water. They are resistant to surfactants (surface active agents such
as soaps and detergents).
Even when disarmed, filter separators tend to remove most of the water and this water collects in the sump, with the water
float or probe stopping flow. Later in this GamGram we will explain why we are confident in this opinion. But early filter
separators were not as highly reliable and so a secondary filter was devised, the “monitor” type filter. Early monitors were
also called “Go-NoGo” or “Fuse” type filters.
Then a new material became available, Super Absorbent Polymer, or “SAP”. This material is commonly used in baby
diapers but also removes water from fuel effectively. By adding layers of filter media, these monitor vessels were deemed
good enough to replace filter separators. Due to being reliable, small, light-weight and inexpensive, they were often used in
place of filter separators when flowing into plane, especially on hydrant carts.
So this is how things were done up until recently. A few years ago, some SAP material got into aircraft and caused engine
control problems. As a result, the industry has been working on an alternative to SAP monitors.
It is not practical to replace monitor vessels with filter separators on most hydrant carts. The problems are space and weight.
So two alternatives to retrofitting these carts with filter separators have been pursued:
1. Drop in replacements for SAP monitors
2. Using a dirt-only filter elements in the monitor housing and adding an electronic probe to detect water.
The advantage of a filter that removes water over a dirt-only filter and a sensor (which shuts you down if there is excessive
water) are obvious. With a water removal filter, you get (virtually) no free water into the aircraft. With a sensor, you can pass
free water to the aircraft if the quantity/volume of water is relatively low. These sensors do not sense water accurately under
15-20 ppm. In the real world, water droplet sizes vary and an optical sensor cannot accurately tell the difference.
If a filter separator fails, it will still stop most of the water but if an inline water sensor fails, any and all of the water in the fuel
goes to the aircraft.
The great thing about SAP filters is that, unlike filter separators, they could not be disarmed by surfactants. Like filter
separators, they never put more than 3-4 ppm into an aircraft if properly maintained and operated. So if water is present,
virtually no free water reaches the aircraft.
The bad thing is that it is possible for some SAP can go downstream and potentially cause a problem with fuel flow controls
to the engines. Although this is rare, NO engine or aircraft manufacturer approves the presence of SAP in the fuel, at any
level. It is a contaminant. This is why the industry requires a 15 psid shutoff on monitor vessels.
The MOST important point we want to make in the GamGram is that it is our job to stop as much FREE water as
possible from reaching the aircraft.
If you do use a water sensor in place of a filter separator or monitor, the electronic water probe is designed to warn you if 15
ppm of free water or more is getting to the aircraft and stops fueling at 30 ppm or more.
But recently, the JIG standard has been changed to shut down at 15 ppm and if a check of the fuel seems fine, to restart
fueling. We believe this is because the higher level of water may be a temporary condition. If the sensor goes off again, then
they become concerned. The A4A-ATA103 does not have this exclusion.
When you exceed the set limit, you have to stop fueling and then flush the water from the hydrant system (or truck) before
fueling can continue. This may not be simple.
But remember, all the dissolved water is going to the aircraft, plus as much as 10-25 ppm more than would pass through a
properly working filter separator or monitor. Is this extra free water a risk? We simply have no idea if this potential for extra
free water reaching the aircraft can be a significant problem and that is why some people in the industry are concerned. It
is a good idea for the JIG standard to reduce the investigation level from 30 to 15 ppm, certainly.
Others say that this trace water being a problem is unlikely. They believe that most hydrant systems are dry and systems
that aren’t dry - simply need to be maintained better. People who operate systems that are not dry (we hate to say “wet”)
disagree. They say that other factors cause systems to generate free water, such as system design, humidity and temperature
change. Fuel changes temperature constantly with atmospheric change and ground temperature.

GAMGRAM NO. 72: DEALING WITH WATER IN AIRCRAFT JET FUEL PAGE 2
Historically, to detect if free water was in fuel flowing to the aircraft, Chemical Water detectors were used. These simple,
inexpensive devices detected free water at 20-30 ppm. The accepted limit was 30 ppm. The most common CWDs today
are the Shell Water Detector and the Velcon Hydrokit. Several more manufacturers are listed in JIG and ASTM Manual 5
including the AutoDis and Casri.
It may surprise you that CWD testers, while widely used around the world, have never been widely used in the USA,
commercially or in the military. Simply checking filter sumps and checking differential pressure (DP or pressure drop) was all
we have done here to look for water. We have a very good record, even at airports with “wet” airport fuel systems.
No device, which is only a spot check, can positively detect filter separator deterioration or failure, if water is not present at
the filter vessel inlet. So it is desirable to have a sensor that detects if a filter separator is disarmed, passing over 6-10 ppm
of water. Such a device is not yet available. 6ppm is 6/10,000 of 1%.
No one is certain where the 30 ppm limit for free water came from, but according to an old expert, it was the point where
someone with very good vision could just begin to see haze in a large sample container. But regardless, the 30 ppm limit
did not come from the aircraft manufacturers and was not based upon the normal amount of water that would pass through
the filters and into the aircraft.
What are the present options and what is coming in the future? Presently, there is no simple, ideal solution. We need to
make a point here, every option always carries different costs and different concerns. We do not address costs in the
GamGram, we only address the technical issues. In addition, every location is different. For example, if you do find water
periodically in your system, this is different from if you don’t.
All the options that we have today are:
1. We can continue to use SAP filters as safely as possible for the time being. This is done by making sure a differential
pressure switch stops flow if DP exceeds 10 to 15 psid. This is not in keeping with the EI standards after January
1, 2021. (EI is the Energy Institute, formerly the Institute of Petroleum. It is in London and writes several commonly
used equipment standards for the petroleum industry, which used to be written by the API.)
2. We can install a Faudi EI1598 AvGuard water sensor (to EI-1598) and dirt-only filters. This is the choice Shell oil
company has taken. Some companies feel this is the best solution, because they want to avoid the use of SAP
filters and possible engine control issues. Others are nervous for the reasons stated above, trace water can get the
the aircraft, as well as whether water in a hydrant system can shut down fueling, because if a sensor does “go off”,
flushing could mean downtime for a number of pits.
3. We can use filter separators (to EI-1581) for into plane refueling. This is fine if you already have filter separators on
your vehicles, but in most cases it is difficult or impossible to retrofit a filter separator to a vehicle due to their size
and weight. But it is a good option when buying a new vehicle.
But it isn’t a bad idea to see if your vehicle can accommodate a modern filter separator if you have the room and your
chassis can handle the extra weight. In the long run, this may be more cost effective as well. Not to get into the cost aspect
too much, but this may be a factor.
Coming options:
1. Velcon is beginning field testing of a new approach, the “Barrier” filter. It has already passed all the laboratory testing.
This new filter has the advantage of being a true drop-in filter. By that we mean that is requires no modification to
the vehicle and removes ALL of the water. In testing so far, it has passed all of the requirements, the only issue
has been shorter life on some field tests. BUT, is it better to remove all water and perhaps have a shorter element
life? Could putting in finer (upstream) filters feeding your hydrant system lengthen the life of these elements if you
do have a dirt problem? Note, the Barrier doesn’t “plug-up” with water, it removes the water to be drained off. It can
only plug on dirt.
2. Facet has a “Water Capture” drop-in replacement element under development which works exactly like an SAP
element, but with a different technology. But EI has not yet set a standard for it to be tested to. So we have no idea
when or if this new element will be available. Once a standard is established, it takes time to pass all the tests, as
much as 2 years.
3. We are not aware of every project being worked on, and manufacturers working with EI and other authorities may
have products in development which are not yet publicly known. We suspect that they do.
But are filter separators ideal?
What we have learned at two major airports over the past 40 years is interesting. But first, you need to know that these
airports have supplied over 2 billion gallons or 7.5 billion liters a year, combined. They both receive fuel through multi-
product pipelines, meaning pipelines that carry diesel, gasoline, heating oil and jet fuel. This means they are more likely
to get contamination from other fuels. They are also not modern or “dry” systems. They do tend to find trace water in the
system regularly.

GAMGRAM NO. 72: DEALING WITH WATER IN AIRCRAFT JET FUEL PAGE 3
Both airports have filter separators and monitors on all hydrant carts.
1. Never has an aircraft at either airport been contaminated with water from the fuel. So the filter separators in the fuel
farms, hydrant systems and hydrant carts (plus the monitors) have stopped the water. Periodic checks were run with
the AquaGlo and have confirmed this for over 4 decades.
2. On these hydrant carts with monitor vessels mounted downstream of the filter separators , they have never had to
change elements in a single monitor vessel due to water collecting and creating high differential pressure (15 psi
pressure drop)
From this we conclude that this shows that filter separators stopped all of the water, all of the time. The monitors were not
needed. So we conclude that modern filter separators are very resistant to surfactants.
The important point here is that for decades, aircraft at all airports with filter separators and/or with SAP filters virtually never
saw even 5 parts per million of free water over the course of a refueling, except in very rare cases. There have been events,
when the water controls did not work due to poor maintenance and free water got onto aircraft, but even those cases were
very rare.
In our opinion and that of many people in the industry, using a water sensor and not using a water removing filter of some
kind will result in more free water getting into aircraft when water is present, but we simply do not know how much. At very
dry airports, this is less likely to happen, but at “wet” airports, many people believe that it is to be expected.
This part of the fuel community feels that it stands to reason that in wet systems, or dry systems that experience water for
some unusual reason, water can be present in the flow going to the aircraft and an electronic water sensor which warns
at 15 ppm and alarms at 30 ppm will allow 1-15 ppm of water through to the aircraft, if that water is present. Even if the
electronic water sensor alarm is set for 15 ppm, more free water can reach the aircraft than before.
But what about the continued use of SAP monitors? Is there more risk in this than in getting more water into the aircraft?
This risk is greatly lessened by the use of a 15 psi DP switch as is required today by JIG, A4A, and IATA. We must leave this
question to the aircraft manufacturers and operators. So there is debate, as there should be when no clearly ideal solution
is available.
It is also important to mention that the industry standards apply not only at large hydrant systems at major airports, but to
ALL refueling locations from large ones all the way down to tiny systems for fueling helicopters from small tanks or even
drums. What are they to do?
As of January 2021, the EI “oversight and the approval program” for the EI1583 SAP monitor standard (for SAP filter
monitors) will end. At that time, what to do is up to “the operators.”
Continued use of SAP filters is necessary. Why? It is impossible for every location with SAP filters to replace them with dirt
filters and sensors or with filter separators in the time allowed. Even if you choose to use Barrier elements, which are not
yet approved, getting enough of them made will be impossible in the time allotted. So operators will have to continue to use
SAP filters into the future, at least in most locations.
Especially at the smaller locations, the electronic water sensors are not a viable alternative for everyone. Barrier type
elements, or other alternatives such as converting to filter separators, may be a better choice. Barrier elements did pass
all the EI laboratory tests and passed no water in those tests or in preliminary field testing. So element life in regard to dirt
holding capacity does not appear to be a safety issue. Even if they do not last 12 months in high though-put locations, it
appears that, at least for small locations, the Barrier filter may be a better future solution.
There is some small risk in using SAP filtration, even with a 15 psi DP switch to stop flow. SAP is not approved to be in the
fuel reaching the aircraft. But there is also an unknown risk of using dirt-only filters and water sensors and passing more
water to the aircraft. Others can debate based on the costs of the different approaches, company policies and opinions.
So where is the industry now? On vehicles with filter separators, there seems to be no concern.
Another concern is that these electronic sensors are not capable of being tested or calibrated in the field. This is highly
unusual for our industry. Quality control related equipment is usually capable of field calibration or at least of checking
operation. We have just been advised that Faudi is working on this, but we have no details.
We will update this GamGram as changes take place.
But the important point to be made here is that WE MUST NEVER RELY ON EQUIPMENT. If excessive free water reaches
an aircraft, it is not only a problem with equipment, IT IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PEOPLE OPERATING THE
EQUIPMENT.
It is human nature to rely on equipment, WE MUST NOT DO THIS! All of your periodic checks MUST be done and every
effort made to keep free water out (rain, condensation and ground water).
EQUIPMENT FAILS. We must be forever diligent and NEVER rely on the equipment.

GAMGRAM NO. 72: DEALING WITH WATER IN AIRCRAFT JET FUEL PAGE 4