A Project

ReportOn
EnhancedOilRecoveryTechniquesandDiscoveries
BachelorofTechnologyinP
etroleumEngineering

PETROLEUM
DEPARTMETENGINEERINGCOLLEGEBARMER,R
AJASTHAN

PROJECTSUPERVISOR:
PANKAJSUTHAR
HEADOFDEPARTMANET
PETROLEUMENGINEERING SUBMITTEDBY:
OmPrakash(20EBRPE009)

Banka Ram Choudhary

(20EBRPE002) BhanwarLal(20EBRPE003)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Wefeelimmensepleasureandprivilegetoexpressourdeepsenseofgratitude,indebtedness
and thankfulness towards Mr. Pankaj Suthar who generously helped uscolour the
mosaic of this training with their knowledge, expertise and memories. Weshall remain
ever grateful to all the persons of Engineering College Barmer, who havehelped, inspired
and encouraged us and above all made us an ever more experiencedperson.

For their invaluable guidance, kind cooperation, inspiration and encouragement

duringall the stages of our training, we would like to thank to all have been of immense
helpduring our Project Report, whose name we could not mention just for the lack of
space.Last but not least, we would like to convey our hearty and blossom thanks to my
friendsand fellow mates who have directly or indirectly helped me in the compilation of
thisreport.

AfterthecompletionoftheProjectReport,wefoundittobeofimmensehelp,notonlyinsupplem
entingthetheoreticalknowledge,butalsobygaininghighlypracticalknowledge regarding
the actual work carried out in our College Department. At the end,we again express our
gratitude to all those who helped us in any way to complete ourprojectwork successfully.
 INDEX

S.NO TOPICS PAGENO.

1. Abstract 1

2. Introduction 2

3. ChemicalFlooding 4

4. ChemicalEOR 5
Methods
5. ThermalRecovery 11

6. TypesofThermal 12
recoveryMethods
7. GasInjection 20

8. TypesofGas 21
Injections
9. Conclusion 25

10. Reference 26
 ABSTRACT

The reservoir pressure which is the main key role in producing hydrocarbons fromthe reservoir
to surface, will eventually declines after so many years of production .so herecomes Enhanced
oil recovery into picture which is nothing but several methods (such as achemical, thermal and
microbial methods) to supplement the reservoir energy. So that we canincrease production in a
best possible way. the demand of crude oil continues to grow, makingthe efficient recovery of
oil reserves. Enhanced oil recovery techniques have emerged as acrucial set of methods aimed
at improving the extraction of oil from Reservoirs beyond what
isattainablethroughconventionalmeans.ThisreportprovidesanoverviewoftheEOR,itssignificancea
nd thevarioustechniques andstrategiesemployedtomaximizeoil recovery.

A comprehensive discussion of EOR techniques is presented, covering three primary

methods:thermal,chemical,andmisciblegasinjection.Eachmethodisexaminedindetail,withafocus
ontheprinciples,mechanisms,andsuitabilityfordifferentreservoirtypes.Additionally,emergingEOR
technologies,suchasnanotechnologyandmicrobialEOR,areexplored,emphasizingtheirpotentialto
revolutionizetheindustry.

The report concludes by discussing the importance of continued research and development
inthefieldofEOR,aswellastheneedforcollaborationbetweenindustry,academia,andgovernment to
drive innovation and enhance oil recovery. Enhanced Oil Recovery is a criticalcomponent of
sustainable energy production and will play a significant role in meeting futureenergydemands
whilereducingenvironmentalimpacts.

Keywords: Enhanced Oil Recovery, EOR techniques, thermal EOR, chemical EOR, miscible
gasinjection,reservoircharacterization,sustainability,environmentalimpacts,energyindustry,Ther
malEOR,IN-SITU Combustion,SAGD,SteamFlood

1
 INTRODUCTION
Inaworldwherethedemandforenergycontinuestosurge,andenvironmentalconcernsmount
,theefficientextractionofhydrocarbonresourcesfrommatureoilreservoirs has become an
imperative challenge for the energy industry. Conventional oilrecovery methods, which
typically yield only a fraction of the available hydrocarbons, nolonger suffice to meet the
increasing global energy demands. As a result, Enhanced
OilRecovery(EOR)techniqueshaveemergedasapivotalanddynamicfieldofstudy,offeringin
novativesolutionstoaddressthesecriticalenergyandenvironmentalconcerns.

The significance of EOR cannot be overstated. It represents a groundbreaking

approachthat extends the productive life of reservoirs, unlocks previously untapped oil
reserves,andcontributestosustainableenergyproduction.Thisreportaimstoprovideacomp
rehensiveexplorationofEOR,focusingonitsunderlyingprinciples,advancedtechniques,
and the multitude of strategies that collectively reshape the landscape
ofhydrocarbonrecovery.

This report is structured to provide an in-depth understanding of EOR, its

techniques,strategies, and real-world applications. It will commence by highlighting the
urgency ofmaximizing hydrocarbon recovery to meet the ever-increasing global energy
demand,acknowledgingthelimitationsofconventionalmethods,andunderscoringtheimpo
rtanceofsustainableenergyproduction.Itwilldelveintotheeconomicandenvironmental
benefits of EOR, illustrating how it offers an eco-friendly path
towardsachievingenergysecurity.ThesubsequentsectionswilldissectEORtechniques,explo
ring the core approaches: thermal EOR, chemical EOR, and miscible gas injection,all of
which aim to optimize oil recovery by addressing reservoir-specific
challenges.Moreover, the report will spotlight emerging EOR technologies, signaling the
industry'scontinuousevolutionandadaptabilityinthepursuitofimprovedhydrocarbonextra
ction.

Oilproductionfollowsprimaryrecovery,secondaryrecovery,andtertiaryrecoveryprocesses
After primary and secondary recovery almost two-thirds of the original oil
inplace(OOIP)isleftinthereservoirs.Primaryrecoveryfollowsreservoirnaturalenergy

2
to displace oil in the porous media withanaverage production of 20% OOIP.
Afterprimary recovery reservoir losses its own energy. By giving some extra energy to
thereservoirbygasor waterinjection(secondaryrecovery)
torecoveranaverageproductionof40%OOIPrecovery.Afterprimaryandsecondaryrecovery,
theoilremains trapped in the porous media due to forces like capillary forces, viscous
forces,IFT (interfacial tension) activities, rock wettability, and reservoir heterogeneities
whichwill lead to poor displacement efficiency. The challenge is to recover the remaining
60%OOIPleftinthereservoirusingtertiaryrecoverytechniquescalledEORmethods.Primary
recovery depends on the reservoir's natural resources for productionand is often
supplemented by secondary recovery methods such as water flooding orimmiscible gas
injection to generate an artificial drive and complement reservoir
energy.Tertiaryrecoverystrategiesshouldbeusedtomobilizeresidualoilsaturationandincre
aseoilrecoveriesfromthesereservoirsusingvariouschemicalfloodingandchemicalagentsyst
ems.Polymerflooding,surfactantflooding,alkaliflooding,andcombinations of these
flooding methods are different types of Chemical flooding
EORtechnology.SurfactantfloodingproceduresarereliableEORmethods forfieldutilization
because they minimize interfacial tensions and modify reservoir rock
wettingcharacteristics,reducedcapillaryforces andthuspromoteoilrecovery.

Furthermore, environmental concerns have compelled the oil industry to seek

cleanerandmoreefficientmethodsofoilrecovery.EORnotonlyoffersthepotentialforincrease
doilproductionbutalsopromotesreducedgreenhousegasemissionsandenhanced reservoir
management, contributing to more sustainable and responsible
oilexplorationandproductionpractice

3
 CHEMICALFLOODING

Chemical EOR methods are one of the most efficient methods for oil displacement.
Inthis method the recovery of oil is dependent on interfacial tension (IFT) reduction
usingsurfactantsandalkali,and
MobilityControlofinjectedwaterisdonebyaddingapolymertoincreasethe
volumetricsweepefficiency.

Inthelastfourdecades,variousresearchersfoundthatchemicalEORisthemostefficientEORt
echniquetorecovermoreoilthatremainsinthereservoir.Inthismethod,variouschemicalsuse
dforchemicalfloodingarepolymer,surfactant,surfactantandPolymerMixture,andalkaline,
surfactant,andpolymercombination

The basic mechanism of chemical EOR is to improve the displacement characteristic

ofthe reservoir and to improve oil displacement by reducing residual oil saturation.
Thetwo major approaches of chemical EOR are to increase the viscosity of the
injectedsolution for mobility Control and add chemicals like surfactants and alkali to
lower theinterfacial tension between oil and water to allow the trapped oil to flow
through thetightporousmedia(Slattery,1974)

As we know the term capillary no. is defined as the ratio of viscous force to
interfacialtension . also it is inversely proportional to residual oil saturation, which
means we haveto maintain the capillary no. high so that the residual oil saturation will
be low in thereservoir and ultimately leads to high recovery. Therefore, the objective of
the chemicalusageistoreducetheinterfacialtensionsothatoilrecoverywillbeenhanced.

Sometimes it is not possible to maintain a high capillary number because of

viscosityreduction of polymers at high salinity and high temperature and surfactant and
alkaliadsorption on rock surfaces during theirflow in porous media. To overcome
thisproblem,asignificant
modeofchemicalfloodingisdevisedbyabinarymixofchemicalslike,surfactant/polymer,alka
li/surfactant,alkali/polymer,andalkaline/surfactant/polymer.

4
 CHEMICALEORMETHODS
CEORisclassifiedinto twotypes:

(1)Asinglechemicalinjectionlikepolymerflooding,surfactantflooding,alkalineflooding,(2)c
hemicalcombinationfloodinglikealkali/surfactant(AS)flooding,alkali/polymer,(AP)floodi
ng,surfactant/polymer(SP)flooding,andalkaline/surfactant/polymer(ASP) flooding.

1. POLYMERFLOODING-
ThemainobjectiveofPolymerfloodingismobilitycontrolandalsoatthesametime,itdecreases the
relative permeability of water, increasing vertical and area sweep efficiency
andmakingtheprocess economicallyfeasibleinoilrecovery.
Basically the Polymer is used to increase the viscosity of injected fluid which is mainly water
sothat it does not bypass oil and pushed the oil towards an production well and improve
itsvolumetricefficiency inabestpossibleway.

Fig1.(POLYMERFLOODING)

Therearetwotypesofpolymers mostlyused inoilindustrieslikesynthetic polymersand

biopolymers .However, synthetic polymers have some limitations inhigh
salinity and temperaturereservoirs duetolowersolubilityand
polymerdegradation.Naturallyderivedpolymers(biopolymers)alsohavesomelimitationswith
microbialdegradation.In petroleumindustries
mostcommonlyusedsyntheticpolymersarePAM(polyacrylamide),HPAM(partiallyhydrolysedpoly
acrylamide),andnon-ionicbiopolymersarexanthangum (polysaccharide).

Polymer flooding can be used in Heterogeneous reservoir. So, the temperatures at >120 °C
arenotagoodchoiceforpolymerselection.Currently,themainissueinpolymerfloodingispolymerdegr
adationinhigh salinityandhightemperaturereservoir conditions.

5
2. SURFACTANTFLOODING-
Surfactanthaveplayed a major role inEOR applicationona large
scale.Basically,Surfactants are chemical substances that adsorb on a surface or interface
of fluid.
Thefunctionofsurfactantsistolowerorreducetheinterfacialtensionbetweentwoimmisciblef
luidsbetween oil andwater.
After primary or secondary recovery major portion of oil is trapped inside the
porousmedia called residual oil saturation, which can be reduced by increase the
capillary no.bydecreasing theinterfacial tensionleadingtoimproverecovery.
The loss of surfactant is a critical issue for industries in surfactant flooding
technique.Loss of surfactant is mainly dependent on precipitation and adsorption.
PrecipitationmayhappenwhensurfactantsreactwithdivalentcationslikeCa 2+
andMg2+,producing calciumcarbonate, calciumhydroxide
precipitation,andadsorptionofsurfactantonrocksurfacewillresultinlossofsurfactantthatle
adstopoorIFTreduction between oil and water. Therefore, adding sacrificial
agents toinhibitsurfactant adsorptionisveryimportant.
Critical micelle
concentration(CMC)isanotherimportantparameterinsurfactantinjection,andmicellizatio
nisaprocessofmicelleformationofself-aggregationofsurfactant molecules. By increasing
the concentration of the solution, there will be anincrease in self-aggregation of
surfactant molecules that leads to the formation of a
largeamountofmicelleconcentration(largerCMC)thatdoesn'tusetoreduceIFTanymore.

Fig2:(SurfactantFlooding)

6
3. SURFACTANTPOLYMERFLOODING-
Surfactant-polymer flooding is a process of a chemical slug with the composition
ofwater, surfactants, polymers, and co-surfactants. When the field reaches a high
watercut, there is less recovery than with normal flooding of polymer. The better choice
is touse polymer-surfactant or surfactant-polymer for better recovery. Polymer-
surfactanthas suitable viscosity, ultralow interfacial tension, wettability alteration,
solubilization,andemulsification.
According to the lab-scale and field-scale, the oil recovery with polymer-surfactant
isabove15% afterconventional polymerandwater flooding.
In this process, the surfactant is added to a polymer solution that has the affinity to
bothwaterand oilby increasingthe viscosity and reducingthe
interfacialtensionbetweenthe oil and water, i.e., the micellar slug is injected that will
reduce the low IFT andpolymersolutionthatwillcontrolthe
mobilityratiotogainthebetterviscosity.
The maindisadvantages
ofthischemicalarecomplexandexpensivethings,highadsorptionofchemicalsontherocksurf
ace,anddegradationofchemicalsathightemperature.

Fig.3:(SurfactantPolymerFlooding)

7
4. ALKALIINJECTION-
Alkali flooding is an old tertiary oil recovery technique developed in the 1920's.
Uponinjecting alkali into the formation, the interaction between alkali/oil leads
toemulsification, IFT changes, and wettability alteration. Sodium hydroxide is the
mostcommonlyused chemical (basic alkaline).

Duringwaterflooding,injectionofalkalinewillformin-situsurfactants.

When alkali reacts with the oil and water interface, a hydrolysis reaction will occur.
Thefraction of organic acids in oil reacts with alkali becoming ionized, and the rest
remainsneutral with a hydrogen bond. Thus, hydrogen interacts with ionized and
neutral acidsto form acid soaps. Therefore, acid soaps' formation will help reduce the
interfacialtension between two immiscible fluids, wettability alteration between rock
surface andoil(oil-wet towater-wet), emulsification,and entrainment.

The selection of alkali depends upon the reservoir rock mineralogy, crude oil
type,salinity of water, and temperature. Based on these characteristics, the type of alkali
isselected. Even though sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is mainly used, it is not a good
choicefor alkaline injection. Chemicals like sodium metaborate (NaBO2), sodium
carbonate(Na2CO3), and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) have their advantages and
disadvantagesdepending on their criterion for alkaline flooding. NaOH is less preferred
at elevatedtemperature because it interacts with sandstone surfaces and causes damage.
Na2CO3 isthe most preferred alkali in alkaline flooding because of less cost and better
transportproperties in porous media. NaBO2 has better tolerance for divalent ions.
NaHCO3isgoodenoughfor thereservoirscontaining clay.

8
5. ALKALISUFACTANTFLOODING
Alkali-
surfactantinjectionisoneofthemostefficientchemicalEORmethodstoovercometheabsorpti
onproblem and cost management. Alkali generates in-situ sodium naphthenate
soap, when it reacts with crude oil, it will help reduce IFT,change rock wettability, and
emulsify favorable for oil recovery. So, adding alkali intosurfactant is to generate soaps
because alkali provides electrolytes, which helps
reducetheamountofsurfactantinjectionandadsorptionofsurfactant.Therefore,thecombina
tion of alkali and surfactant gives a synergetic effect on wettability alterationand IFT
reduction, and alkali is much cheaper than surfactant. So, using the mix
willhelpreducethecost ofchemical EOR

6. ALKALIPOLYMERFLOODING
The limitation in only alkali flooding is the lack of required mobility control to push
oilinto the reservoir due to lower mobility of the displacing fluids phase to the
displacedfluid So, by injection of polymer solution simultaneously along with alkali will
improvethedisplacement efficiencyofalkaliflooding.

Alkali-polymerinjectionisoneofthemostefficientchemicalEORtechniquesforadditional oil
recovery. Because individual alkali injection leads to alkali consumption,poor mobility
control problems will happen. Keepingall these in mind,
researchersdevelopedthecombinationofalkaliandpolymerasamixedchemicalcomponent.
When polymer and alkali interact with each other after mixing, there are some effects
onpolymerviscosityduepresenceofsaltsinalkali.therefore,alkaliacceleratesthehydrolysisof
polymersolution,whichwillhelptoincreasethepolymer solutionviscosity.

SoAlkali-
polymerfloodingcandisplacemoreresidualcrudewhencomparedwithindividualpolymeror
alkalineflooding

9
7. Alkali-surfactant-polymer(ASP)flooding-
ASP flooding becomes the most efficient method in EOR applications. So, the
combinedchemical increases the pore scale and volumetric sweep efficiency. Surfactant
and alkali(bygeneratingin-situ
surfactantswhenalkalinereactwithorganicacidspresentincrude oil) will reduce the IFT to
lower values, where polymer will subsequently improvethemobilityratio .

The first slug injected with alkali and surfactant showed challenges like corrosion near-
wellboreleadingtoformationdamage andsurfactantadsorptionon rocksurface.

In ASP slug preparation, two surfactants like SDS or CTAB, one polymer such as
HPAM,and sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide as alkali are generally used. NaOH
reactswith crude oil to create in-situ surfactants for IFT reduction, and polymer solution
helpsincreasetheviscosityofthesolutionformobilitycontrolof thefloodfront.

10
 THERMALRECOVERY

There is one more method which is used in Enhance Oil Recovery. This Thermal
methodinvolves the use of Heat. This helps in Reducing the viscosity of oil Which later
givesOil mobility to movefrom one zoneto another zone (i.e., FromInjectionnicely
toProductionWell).

The Heat can be generated at the surface and injected into the Reservoir. The Heat
onthesurfaceisgeneratedandcanbeinjected withSteam intothereservoir.

Or it can be generated into the reservoir by injecting a fluid such

asAirwhichcanbecombustedwhenitisinjectedintothereservoirandwhenit is neartheoil.

The choice to use this method depends upon oil and the economics of generating
energyorwhether it iscommerciallyprofitableornot.

However, the major goal of Thermal Recovery is to reduce the viscosity of oil in
place,andthiscan beaccomplishedbyHeating theOil.

You cannot Heat all type of oil it is specified to use this technique on Heavy oil
(WhichhaveAPI between 10.0°and22.3°).

ThemajordrawbackofthistechniqueisthatyoucannotusethistechniqueinaPopulated area
and to use this technique we must check whether nearby
environmentsthatThermalEOR(EnhancedOilRecovery)issuitableforthatenvironmentorn
ot.

41%EORoilofallEORprocessareproducedbythermalprocess.

The Success rate of this Technique is far superior to any other Method or
Techniquethathasbeenimplementedtill today.

11
The Development and History of Thermal recovery is that it widely used over nearly
acentury. There are so many types of thermal recovery which fall under the category
ofthermal recovery namely (In-Situ combustion, CSS (Cyclic Steam Stimulation),
Steamflooding,SAGD(Steamassistedgravitydrainage).ThedevelopmentofThermalRecove
rybeginsinthe1960sAmongthesetypesSteamFloodingtechnologyhasachieved great
success. Recovery Output is very great in this but during now days SAGDandIn-
Situtechniquesareusednowadayswhichcanfurtherincreasetherecoveryefficiency by 20%–
30% on the basis of the steam puff-huff cycle with the help of thistechniquewecan
recover heavy aswellasextraheavy oil.

TypesofThermalRecoverymethod
1. In-SituCombustion
2. CSS(CyclicSteamStimulation)
3. SteamFlood
4. SAGD(SteamAssistedGravityDrainage)

IN-SITUCOMBUSTION
Two Types of In-Situ combustion process exists-

1.HTO

2.LTO

• HTOstandsforHighTemperatureOxidation.

• LTOstandsforLowTemperatureOxidation.

• HTO(500–600’C)isforheavyoil.

• LTO(150–300’C)isusedforLightoil.

• In-situcombustionrecoversthereservoiroilthroughtheMediumofheat.

• Heattransferredtothesubsurfacewiththehelpofconductionorconvection.

12
 FORWARDDRYCOMBUSTION
Process Ignition of Crude Oil
downhole.InjectionofSteamofOxygenenri
chedair.
PropagationofFlamethefrontthroughtheReservoirHeatingoil.HeatLos
s

WETCOMBUSTIONPROCESS
BeginsasaDryProcess.
Oncetheflamefrontisestablished,theoxygenstreamisreplacedbywater.Watermeets
hotzoneleftbyCombustionFront.
TurnsintoSteamandhelpsindisplacementofOil.Can
beusedOtherwisewastedenergy.
Not all crudes are open and responsive to the combustion process there has
Heavycomponents must be present in sufficient amounts in crude oil which later serves
as afuelsourceforthecombustionsolow APIgravityOil isrequired.
As the heavy Componentofoil is combusted, Lighter componentas wellas flue gasesare
formed. These gases are produced with the oil and raise the effective API gravity
oftheproducedoil.

13
 Fig4.In-SITUCombustion

CSS(CYCLICSTEAMSTIMULATION)
AlsocalledHuff-and- Puffmethod

 HUFFphaseiswhensteamisinjected
 PUFFphaseiswhenheatedoilisproducedalongwithcondensate.
 Itisasinglewellprocess.
 Itconsistsofthreestages-

 Injection
 Soaking
 Production

14
 Fig5.CyclicSteamStimulation
OBJECTIVESOFCSS
 Increasemobilityofoil.
 Usesteamtoheatthesand.
 Reduceoilviscosity.
 Pressureupthereservoir.
 Fractureintothenewsandwitheachnewcycle.

MECHANISMOFCSS

 Stage1:Steamisinjectedintoawellatatemperatureof300to340°CelsiusatInjectio
nrateof3000kg/hr.foraperiodof weekstomonths.(21days)
 Stage 2: The well can sit for days to weeks to allow heat to soak
intotheformation.(7days)
 Stage 3: The hot oil is pumped out of the well for weeks or months. (2-
3months)
 Theprocessisrepeatedwhentheproductionbecomesuneconomical.

15
 Fig6.CyclicSteamStimulation

Theamountofoilrecoveredpercycleisafunctionofthefollowing:

 Amountofsteaminjected
 Netsandthicknessoftheproducinginterval
 Surfaceinjectionpressure
 Steamproperties
 Numberofprecedingcycles
 Primarydepletionmechanism

BENEFITSOFCSSAPPLICATION
 Singlewellprocess
 Increasemobilityofheavyoilstherebygivingbetterproduction.
 Lesssurfacefootprintandlowenvironmental impact.
 Economicallyfeasiblereserveswithadvancingtechnology.

STEAMFLOODDING

 Steamisgeneratedatthesurface andisinjectedintothereservoir.
 Steamisdistributedthroughinjectedwells.
 Whensteamentersthereservoir

16
ItHeatsuptheCrudeoil.
AndlowertheViscosity.
 Steamitselfgetscondensedduetothechangeintemperature.
 Thecondensedsteamgetstransformedinto hotwater.
 Thensteamandhotwateritselfgenerateanartificialdrivethatsweepsoiltowardproduci
ngwells.
 SteamfloodingisalsoknownasContinuoussteaminjectionorSteamdrive.

Fig7.SteamFlooding

17
 STEAMASSISTEDGRAVITYDRAINAGE(SAGD):

 SteamAssitedgravitydrainagecontainstwowellsseparatedat5-10M.
 Steam is Injected continuously from the first well (Upper Well), Because of
thisoilbecomemobilizedduetoheating.
 ThisProcesshelpsmobileoiltodrainintosecondwell(LowerWell).

Fig8.SteamAssistedgravityDrainage

18
 GASINJECTION
Miscible Gas Injection:Gas injection is one of the oldest methods of
oilproduction and is known as an important method in EOR industry. As a technique
thatyields the highest rate of oil recovery,steam injection has also a special place in
oilrecovery industry, yet it comes second after the most important technique of
oilrecovery, i.e., gas injection. EOR using carbon dioxide not only reduces the
productioncost of oil and its price fluctuations, but it is the only technique that has
developedsteadily during recent years . After steam injection, injecting hydrocarbon has
renderedthe highest rate of oil recovery, and since there have been many efforts to
reduce gascombustion, gas injection is considered as one of the most important
techniques in oilrecovery industry, both now and for the future. After many years of
enhanced oilrecovering from different reservoirs, gas recovery techniques are well
understood now,and the recovery parameters are discussed with more certainty .
Comprehensive andextensive studies have been conducted on carbon dioxide (CO2)
and nitrogen (N2). Butthe range of gravity, pressure, and depth differs for each of these
methods.
Therefore,thesetechniquesarepreferablefordeepreservoirs,andthefinaldecisionoftendep
endson local circumstances as well as the existence, amount, price, and availability of
thegivengas.

Gasinjection: Gas injectioncanbe done through a

rotatingairinjectionshaftconnected to a number ofoutlet nozzlesthrough which the gas
escapes into the
melt.Thecellsizeofthefoamissaidtobecontrolledbythegasflowrateandotherparameters.Be
side the gas injection shaft shown in Fig. 2(a), use of a rotating shaftequipped with
various blades has been suggested that creates a strong vortex
throughwhichgasisdraggedintotheliquidtoformadditionalbubblesthere.Dispersingbubbl
esbymeansofvibratingorrotatingimpellersisinitiallybelievedtobeaprerequisite for good
foam. Improved designs are suggested such as using porous frits
todispersegasmoreuniformly,tousemechanicalchoppersorstirrerstoassistindetachingthe

19
gasbubblesfromtheinjectorortocreatediverginggasjets.Later

20
research carried out at the Light-Metals Competence Centre Austria (LKR) show
thatsome of the ideas behind the impeller concepts are misleading. In order to obtain
auniform foam, it is more favourable to carefully create and maintain individual
equallysized bubbles instead of producing a statistical mixture by the techniques
mentionedabove. It is proposed to use specially designed stationary injectors made of a
ceramicmaterial that have a defined conical geometry. The new nozzle designprovides
stablebubble separation criteria and allows one to make foam with bubbles of
approximatelythe same volume. The key point is that the detachment of a bubble from a
nozzle after ithas been filled with gas often takes place at different filling stages for each
bubble if thedetachment conditions are irreproducible. The improved nozzle design
leads to a
clearlyimprovedporeuniformitycomparedtofoamsmadeby“traditional”gasinjectiontechni
ques. Fig. 4(a) and (b)shows such optimized foams. The foam not only looks
moreregularthanpreviousonesbutalsohasa narrowermeasuredbubblesizedistribution.

Fig9.Gasinjection

21
Nitrogen Flooding: For decades, major oil and gas operators in the industry
haveexplored the viability of using Nitrogen gas injection for oil recovery due to
itshighly compressible nature, inert chemical properties, and reasonable cost
ofgeneration(therawmaterialis atmosphericair).
N2 is used for EOR by ‘miscible displacement’ or ‘miscible flooding’ – the process
ofimproving hydrocarbon mobility by reducing the interfacial tension between oil
andwater.

HowNitrogenDisplacementWorks
InNitrogengasinjection,N2ofasuitableMinimumMisciblePressure(MMP)isinjectedintoar
eservoirtofreeuphydrocarbonstrapped intheformation.
At very high pressures (~15,000 psi), N2 forms a miscible slug that sweeps oil and
gasfrom hard-to-reach sections of the reservoir and pools them together, after which
theywillbe pumpedup the productionwellforcollection. Thisprocess can recover
upto60%of OIIP.

Advantages of Nitrogen Injection:Nitrogen gas injection is one of the

morefavoured EOR techniques because it is cost-effective and sustainable. A single rail
car(N2storageandtransportunit)canholdasmuch1.2millionstandardcubicfeet(SCF)of
liquidN2.
Another advantage of using Nitrogen gas injection for enhanced oil recovery is its
inertchemical characteristics. N2 can prevent down-hole combustion of flammable gases
andhas no corrosive effect
onpipelines

22
 Fig.10Nitrogeninjection

CO2INEOR:Gas injection has been used since the early twentieth century to maintain
fluid pressure in subsurface oil reservoirs, predating the use of
waterflooding.Ultimately, waterflooding became widespread because it was a more
effective flushingagent than gas. This is a consequence of the low viscosity of gas, which
is 10–15 timesless than that of water. This property makes gas highly mobile at reservoir
conditions,causing it to quickly break through into production wells via highly
permeable reservoirlayers. This reduces oil flow and recovery rates and limits the
drainage of the
reservoirsbyfluiddisplacement.Todate,manyenhancedoilrecovery(EOR)methodshavebee
23
n

24
developed and improved. These include gasinjection methods applied to certain typesof
reservoirs.
Under sustainable resource development scenarios, total EOR production is forecast,
bysome, to increase by 2040 to about 4 million barrels per day. However, this figure
ishighly sensitive to the oil demand and prices that materialize over the next two
decades.Additionalpoliticalsupportforcarboncaptureuseandstorage(CCUS)effortshassub
stantiallyincreasedinterestinCO2-EORinrecentyears.Mitigatingcarbonemissions and
their negative climate impacts has become a key driver in the selection ofEOR
technologies. Under suitable geological conditions, CO2-EOR offers an attractivemethod
toreducetheemissionintensityofoilsuppliedtothemarketandtherebyreducesitsenvironme
ntal footprint. For many reservoirs, itcanoffer improvementsbothinoil production
ratesand inexpectedultimateoilrecovery(EUR).

ManytechnologiesthatrequirethecaptureandstorageofCO2remaininthedevelopmentalsta
ge.Moreover,there are twodistinctapproachestocapturingandstoring carbon to prevent
its accumulation in the atmosphere: natural and industrial.The natural approaches
include reforestation, afforestation, and initiating a number
ofotherenvironmentallyfriendlylandusechanges(e.g.,rewildingfarmlandandexpansionof
wetlandsandpeatbogs).Theindustrialapproachesrequiretheconstruction of installations
to capture CO2 directly from air and/or from industrialplants (pre- and post fuel
combustion) and disposal of the captured CO2 in subsurfacereservoirs,either
aquifersordepletedoiland gasfields.
In order to stop large amounts of CO2 from being released into the atmosphere from
theconsumption of various resources, such as fossil fuels used in power generation and
inmany other industrial and manufacturing processes (e.g., petrochemicals, refining,
steel,glass, and cement plants), it needs to be captured, reused, and ultimately stored
away(sequestered). One of the most promising ways to do this, at an effective scale, is
tocapture, transport, and ultimately pump CO2into underground geological features.
Thisoffers the potential to provide long-term (i.e., thousands of years) safe storage of
CO2isolated from the atmosphere, with geological barriers preventing its long-term
seepageback into the atmosphere. This subsurface geo-engineering sequestration
approach canalsobecoupledwiththedirectremoval ofCO2 from ambientair.

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 Fig10.CO2inEOR

Fig11.SustainableOilResourceEnhancedRecovery

26
 CONCLUSION

Much of the interest in enhanced oil recovery centers not only on the amount of oil it
ispotentially applicable to, but also on how much it can recover. Assuming that EOR
canprovide the means to recover some 50% of the target oil. At the current level of world
oilconsumption, whichissome 59 million barrels/day, these reservescorrespond to
over73 years of production at the current rate. EOR by chemical flooding is based on
twobasic mechanisms viz. increase of macroscopic efficiency and increase of
microscopicdisplacement efficiency. Wettability is of major importance to oil recovery,
especially forfractured oil-wet carbonate reservoirs where water flows through the
fractures but doesnot imbibe into the matrix because of negative capillary pressure. The
chief concern is todevelop cost-effective chemical formulations that change the
carbonate wettability fromoil-wet to water-wet. The properties of the rock and the fluids
and these propertiesinclude thermal conductivities, heat capacities, thermal expansion,
viscosity and thethermodynamicpropertiesofsteam.

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 References
 Mogensen, Kristian, and Shehadeh Masalmeh. "A review of EOR techniques
forcarbonatereservoirsinchallenginggeologicalsettings."
JournalofPetroleumScienceand Engineering 195(2020):107889

 Mogensen K, Masalmeh S. A review of EORtechniques for carbonate reservoirsin

challenging geological settings. Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering.2020Dec1;195:107889.

 Manrique,Eduardo,etal."EOR:currentstatusandopportunities."
SPEImprovedOilRecovery Conference?. SPE,2010.

 Manrique, E., Thomas, C., Ravikiran, R., Izadi, M., Lantz, M., Romero, J.
andAlvarado,V.,2010,April.EOR:currentstatusandopportunities.In
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 Sheng JJ. Status of surfactant EOR technology. Petroleum. 2015 Jun 1;1(2):97-
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