# Theories of the Origin of the Earth

Various theories for the origin of Earth have developed over the period
of time. Theories for the earth’s origin has been classified into two
categories i.e., early theories and modern theory which are as follows:
*Early Theories: Early Theories explained how the earth was formed.
The early theories were the Gaseous hypothesis of Kant, the Nebular
Hypothesis of Laplace, the Planetesimal hypothesis of Chamberlin, Jean
and Jeffery’s tidal theory/Gravitational Theory, Russel’s binary star
hypothesis, Hoyle’s supernova hypothesis, and Schmidt’s interstellar
hypothesis.
*Modern Theories: Modern theories stated that need to find how the
universe has formed then automatically we will be able to find the
formation of the earth. Early theories focused solely on the evolution of
the earth and planets, whereas recent theories attempt to solve the
questions of the universe’s creation. Big bang theory is an example of
modern theory.
The Gaseous Hypothesis of Kant
• Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, proposed his own theory
regarding the origin of the earth in 1755, which was based on
Newton’s law of gravity.
• Kant believed that the original substance was initially distributed
and was made up of cold, unmoving, solid particles.
• They clashed with each other because of gravity, which produced
heat, which induced angular momentum, and it began to rotate.
• Later, it evolved into a hot nebula that began rotating, causing the
speed to progressively increase.
 • This rotation resulted in a strong centrifugal force, which
produced rings of matter, which cooled to become planets and
satellites.
Criticisms of Kant’s Theory
• Kant claimed that the universe included primordial matter, but he
did not explain where the primordial matter came from.
• Kant did not explain the source of energy that caused the random
motion of the original matter particles, which were first cold and
unmoving.
• It is impossible for the primordial matter’s particles to collide and
produce rotatory motion. It’s an incorrect mechanism statement.
• Kant believes that the rotatory speed of the nebula increased as
its size grew, which contradicts the law of conservation of angular
momentum.
Binary star hypothesis of russell’s
• The binary star hypothesis proposed by Henry Norris Russell is a
significant idea in the field of astronomy. Henry Norris Russell, an
American astronomer, introduced this hypothesis in the early 20th
century. The hypothesis primarily concerns the formation of
binary star systems, where two stars are in orbit around a
common center of mass.
• The basic idea behind the binary star hypothesis is that binary star
systems form from a single rotating mass of gas and dust.
According to Russell, this rotating mass undergoes a process of
fission due to its rotation, leading to the formation of two
separate stars instead of a single one. The two stars in the binary
system would then continue to orbit their common center of
mass.
 • This hypothesis was proposed as an alternative explanation for the
existence of binary star systems, which were already known to
astronomers. Other theories at the time suggested that binary
stars might form independently and later become gravitationally
bound to each other.
• Russell’s binary star hypothesis was a significant contribution to
the understanding of star formation and the dynamics of stellar
systems. It provided a plausible mechanism for the formation of
binary stars and added to the growing body of knowledge in
astrophysics during the early 20th century.
Criticisms of binary star hypothesis
• If the planets were formed from campanion star , then what
happened to the remaining part of the star ? ( Russell couldn’t
answer this)
• If the campanion and approaching star were not under gravity
zone of the sun. How did planets enter gravity zone of the sun ?
• According tk russell the planets got their angular momentum from
the approaching and companion star , then they should have
rotated in common direction by why Venus and Uranus rotate in
different direction.
• Russell did not address the issue of the sun’s companion being
freed from the sun’s gravitation control.
• It was unclear how the companion ejected from the sun’s
companion remained within the sun’s gravitational control.
# Internal Structure of the Earth
The Internal Structure of the Earth is made up of several concentric
layers, the most important of which are the crust, mantle, outer core,
and inner core due to their distinct physical and chemical properties.
The Internal Structure of the Earth can be observed using direct
evidence such as deep ocean drilling projects, volcanic eruptions, rock
samples from mining, and indirect evidence such as seismic waves,
meteorite investigation, gravitation force, magnetic field, and so on.
The Internal Structure of the Earth is mechanically divided into the
lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle (the part of the
Earth’s mantle beneath the lithosphere and asthenosphere), outer core,
and inner core but chemically, the Internal Structure of the Earth model
can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core,
and inner core.
Crust
• The crust is the outermost layer of the earth.
• Density increases with depth and the average density is about 2.7
g/cm3 (the average density of the earth is 5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies between 5 and 30 Kilometers for
the oceanic crust and 50 and 70 Kilometres for the continental
crust.
• In areas with major mountain systems, the continental crust can
be thicker than 70 km. It can be up to 70-100 km thick in the
Himalayas.
• The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching
values typically in the range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the
boundary with the underlying mantle.
• The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every
Kilometre in the upper part of the crust.
• The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and
below that lie crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks which
are acidic.
• The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic rocks.
• The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica +
Aluminium (also called SIAL) like granite, while the oceans have
heavier silicates — silica + magnesium (also called SIMA) like
basalt.
• Sometimes SIAL is used to refer to Lithosphere, which is the region
comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle. The lithosphere
is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates), and the
movement of these tectonic plates causes large-scale changes in
the earth’s geological structure (folding, faulting).
• The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed
the Conrad Discontinuity.
Mantle
• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle. It
forms about 83 percent of the earth’s volume.
• The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as the
Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
• The mantle Is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and
magnesium.
• The upper portion of the mantle is called the asthenosphere. It
lies just below the lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km. It is
highly viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile and its density is
higher than that of the crust. These properties of the
asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic movement and isostatic
adjustments. It is the main source of magma that finds its way to
the surface during volcanic eruptions.
• The mantle is made up of 45% oxygen, 21% silicon, and 23%
magnesium (OSM).
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at
the upper boundary with the crust to approximately 4,000 °C at
the core-mantle boundary.

• Because of the temperature difference, there is a convective

material circulation in the mantle (although solid, the high
temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be
sufficiently ductile).
• Gutenberg Discontinuity lies between the mantle and the outer
core.
Outer Core
• The outer core, which surrounds the inner core, is located
between 2900 and 5100 kilometers below the earth’s surface.
• The outer core Is made up of iron mixed with nickel (nife).
• The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is
liquid even though it has a composition similar to the inner core.
• The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 degrees
Celsius in the outer regions to 6000 degrees Celsius near the inner
core.
• According to dynamo theory, the Earth’s magnetic field is created
by convection in the outer core combined with the Coriolis effect.
Inner Core
• The inner core extends from the center of the earth to 5100 km
below the earth’s surface.
• The Inner core is composed of iron and some nickel.
• The inner core is in a solid state and the outer core is in a liquid
state (or semi-liquid).
 • Earth’s inner core rotates slightly faster relative to the rotation of
the surface.
• The solid inner core is too hot to sustain a magnetic field.
• This iron core is as hot as the Sun’s surface at 6000°C, but gravity’s
crushing pressure prevents it from becoming liquid.
# Geomorphic process
The geomorphic process means bringing about changes in the
configuration of the earth’s surface, due to physical stress and chemical
actions on materials present on the earth. The physical and chemical
actions are due to endogenic and exogenic forces .
Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks
through the actions of various elements of weather and climate. It
involves very little or no motion of materials, so it is an in-situ or on-site
process.
Types of weathering
• Physical weathering is the disintegration of rocks mainly induced
by elements of weather. It is caused by the changes in pressure,
temperature, wind and water . It is further categorised into
thermal weathering, forst weathering, and exfoliation.
a) Thermal weathering:- due to high temperature in arid and semi
arid areas , rocks expand during the day and contract at night due
to the fall of temperature.under extreme temperature condition.
Thermal weathering is of two types – granular disintegration and
block disintegration.
*Granular disintegration – the alternate expansion and
contraction of minerals in the rocks due to temperature variation
makes the rocks breakdown into small pieces. Due to this the
break up of rocks occurs , grains by grain.
 *Block disintegration – Due to great diuranal range of
temperature, the rocks may break up along the joints and crack
into large rectangular shaped blocks . It occurs in rocks like granite
rocks .
b) Frost weathering – frozen water takes up more space. When
water enters the cracks of rocks and freezes , the pressure of the
frozen water becomes sufficient to expand and further deepen the
crack.
c) Exfoliation – due to weather variations rocks generally heat or
cool more on the surface layers. The alternate Changes in
temperature cause the outer layers to peel off from the main mass
of th rock in concentric layers just as the skin of the Onion. This
process of breaking away curved layers of a rocks from the rock
beneath and leaving behind a some shaped monolith is called
exfoliation. Exfoliation usually occurs in arid areas and also called
onion weathering.
• Chemical weathering a number of weathering processess e.g.
solution formation, oxidation, reduction, carbonation and
hydration act on the rocks to disintegration, decompose and
dissolve them into a fine state. The presence of water , oxygen,
carbon dioxide and temperature speeds up the chemical reaction.
The different types of chemical weathering are –
a) Solution – solute minerals present in the rocks get dissolved in
water . Over a long period of time , soluble minerals get washed
away from the rocks and this can even lead to the formation of
caves.
b) Hydrolysis – It is the chemical breakdown of a rocks material
when it comes in contact with water and forms and insoluble
precipitate like clay minerals.
c) Carbonation – It is the formation of carbonic acids when water
reacts with carbon dioxide. This acid reacts with minerals in the
rocks. This reaction is important for the formation of caves.
d) Oxidation -when oxygen combines with water and iron , it
weakens the rocks and disintegration it .
e) Hydration – It expand volume and results in rocks deformation.

• Biological weathering It is the alternation of rocks the action of

plants , animals and humans. Burrowing and wedging by
organisms like termites , rodents, earthworm,etc.. help in
exposing the rocks of moisture and air . Human beings by
disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating solis , also help in
mixing and creating new contacts between water , air and
minerals in the earth’s matter helps in the production of humic
carbonic and other acids which increase decomposition and
solubility of some elements, plant roots exert enough pressure on
the earth Material and break them apart.
Factor responsible for weathering
• Structure and composition of rocks weathering involves
disintegration and decomposition of rocks and hence minerals
composition joint patterns layering system, faulting, folding etc ,
largely affects the nature and intensity of weathering. Ex-
carbonate rocks .
• Slope of terrian ground slope control mechanical disintegration of
rocks and mass movements of the weathered produces down of
the slope.
• Climate variation is considered to be very important factor of all
types of weathering. Climate geomorphologists are the view that
 each climatic types produces definise conditions for a particular
types of weathering. Ex- chemical weathering.
• Floral effect. The nature of weathering is largely determined by
the presence or absence of vegetation in a particular region.
Significance of weathering
• It is the first stage of the formation of soil .
• It produces many other natural resources. For ex- clay which used
to make bricks .
• Biodiversity, and biomes are the result of vegetation, and forests
rely upon the depth of weathering wraps.
• Root penetration can’t happen if the rocks are not weathered.
• It ards erosion, mass wasting, reduction of relief and modifications
in landforms .
• Weathering of rocks help in the augmentation and concentration
of some ores of manganese , aluminium, iron , copper etc. which
have a great demand in the economy of the country.
Erosion is the geological process in which earthen material are
warm away and transported by natural forces such as wind and water .
Erosion is the opposite deposition, the geological process in which
earthen materials are deposited, or built up , on a landforms. Most
erosion is performed by liquid water , wind or ice .
Physical erosion describe the process of rocks changing their physical
properties without changing their chemical composition. This erosion
often causes rocks to get smaller or smoother. Rocks eroded through
physical erosion often form clastic sediments. Clastic sediments are
composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported from
their place of origin.
Plant growth can also contribute to physical erosion in a process called
bioerosin . Plants break up earthen materials as they take roots , and
can create cracks and crevices in rocks they encounter. Ice and water
can also contribute to physical erosion as their movement forces rocks
to crash together or crack apart.
Erosion by water
Water erosion is the removal of the top layer of land by water from
irrigation, rainfall snowmelt, runoff and poor irrigation management.
Ultimately, rainwater is most frequently to blame when it comes to this
issue. The flowing water moves the soil organic and inorganic particles
alongside the land surface, depositing them in the lower landscape. The
result of would be be flooding in the long run. The eroded soil material
cam either from a new soil or move to water reservoirs nearby (Lakes,
streams, etc).
Erosion by wind
Wind Erosion is the natural process of transportation and deposition of
soil by the wind. It is a common phenomenon occurring mostly in dry,
sandy soils or anywhere the soil is loose, dry, and finely granulated.
Wind erosion damages land and natural vegetation by removing soil
from one place and depositing it in another. The main mechanism of
wind erosion is wind propelling sand and dirt causing erosion. Wind
erosion also impairs soil properties such as structure, moisture content,
and organic matter, and it is enhanced by the lack of vegetation on the
soil surface.
Erosion by Ice
Snow deposited at high elevations has potential energy that is
converted into energy of mo- tion when it is con- verted to ice and flows
as a glacier. A glacier that flows down slope is a powerful erosive agent.
The movement of glaciers predomi- nantly erodes by abrasion/scouring
and plucking.
Factors affecting erosion
*Water Flow: The velocity and volume of water are significant factors
in erosion. Faster-moving water has more erosive power and can carry
away larger particles. Rainfall, river flow, and ocean currents can all
contribute to water erosion.
*Wind Speed: Wind erosion occurs when strong winds lift and carry
away loose soil particles. The speed of the wind, as well as the size and
weight of the particles, influences the extent of wind erosion.
*Topography: The shape and slope of the land can affect erosion.
Steeper slopes generally experience more erosion than gentler slopes
because gravity plays a more significant role in moving soil and rocks
downhill.
Vegetation Cover: Plants, such as grasses and trees, help stabilize soil
by reducing the impact of raindrops, slowing down water flow, and
preventing wind from directly hitting the soil surface. The removal of
vegetation through deforestation or overgrazing can increase erosion.
Soil Type: The type of soil significantly influences its susceptibility to
erosion. Sandy soils are more prone to erosion than clayey soils because
they have larger particles and less cohesion. Soil with a high organic
matter content tends to be more resistant to erosion.
Human Activities: Construction activities, urbanization, and
infrastructure development can alter natural drainage patterns and
increase the likelihood of erosion. Poorly planned construction projects
may lead to increased runoff and sedimentation.
 Understanding these factors and implementing appropriate
conservation and land management practices are crucial for
controlling erosion and maintaining the health of ecosystems.
Significance of erosion
Landform Creation and Shaping: Erosion is a natural process that
contributes to the formation of various landforms, including valleys,
river channels, canyons, and coastal features. Over time, erosion can
carve out and shape the Earth’s landscape, creating diverse and unique
geological formations.
Soil Formation: Erosion is intricately linked to the process of soil
formation. As rocks are weathered and broken down into smaller
particles, they contribute to the formation of soil. The transported
sediment enriches the soil with minerals and nutrients, creating a fertile
environment for plant growth.
Nutrient Cycling: Erosion helps in the redistribution of nutrients within
ecosystems. As soil is eroded, it carries with it essential nutrients that
can be deposited in other areas, contributing to the overall nutrient
cycling in ecosystems.
Sediment Transport: Erosion is a key mechanism for transporting
sediments from one location to another. Rivers, wind, and glaciers carry
sediments downstream or downwind, influencing the deposition of
material in various environments.
Habitat Creation:Erosion contributes to the creation and modification
of habitats. For example, river erosion can lead to the formation of
riverbanks and wetlands, providing diverse ecological niches for plant
and animal species.
Carbon Sequestration: Erosion plays a role in the transport of organic
material, including plant debris, which can contribute to carbon
sequestration. The burial of organic material in sedimentary layers helps
in storing carbon over geological time. .
What Are Rocks?
Rocks are mineral aggregates with a combination of properties of all the
mineral traces. Any unique combination of chemical composition,
mineralogy, grain size, texture, or other distinguishing characteristics
can describe rock types. Additionally, different classification systems
exist for each major type of rock. There are different types of rocks
existing in nature.
Rocks which are found in nature rarely show such simple characteristics
and usually exhibit some variation in the set of properties as the
measurement scale changes.
Types of Rocks
Igneous rock is one of the three main rock types. Igneous rock is
formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous
rock may form with or without crystallisation, either below the surface
as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic)
rocks.
This magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either
a planet’s mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or
more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in
pressure, or a change in composition.
Types of Igneous Rock
The main two categories of igneous rocks are known as extrusive and
intrusive rocks.— granite , dorite, syenite
• Intrusive Igneous Rock
Intrusive igneous rocks are rocks that crystallize below the earth’s
surface resulting in large crystals as the cooling takes place slowly.
Diorite, granite, and pegmatite are examples of intrusive igneous rocks.
• Extrusive Igneous Rock
Extrusive igneous rocks are rocks that erupt onto the surface resulting
in small crystals as the cooling takes place quickly. The cooling rate for a
few rocks is so quick that they form an amorphous glass. Basalt, tuff,
pumice are examples of extrusive igneous rock.
Sedimentary Rock
The sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent
cementation of that material within bodies of water and at the surface
of the earth. The process that causes various organic materials and
minerals to settle in a place is termed sedimentation.
The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called
sediment. Before being deposited, the sediment was formed by
weathering and erosion from the source area and then transported to
the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers,
which are called agents of denudation. Sedimentation may also occur as
minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures
settle out of suspension. ( Limestone , saltstone , halite )
Types of sedimentary rocks
There are three main types of sedimentary rocks: clastic (detrital),
chemical, and organic.
• Clastic (Detrital) Sedimentary Rocks:
Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing
rocks and minerals. The size and composition of the clasts determine
the type of clastic rock.
examples :- Conglomerate: Sandstone: Siltstone: Shale:
• Chemical Sedimentary Rocks:
Chemical sedimentary rocks form from the precipitation of minerals
from solution.
examples :- Limestone , Dolostone , Evaporites, Chert
• Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Organic rocks form from the remains of once-living organisms.
examples :- Coal Chalk. Diatomite
These categories cover the main types of sedimentary rocks, each with
distinct characteristics based on their formation processes and the
materials involved.
Metamorphic Rocks
The metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are
classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage. They
may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth’s surface,
subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock
layers above it.
Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types,
in a process called metamorphism, which means “change in form”. The
original rock is subjected to heat with temperatures greater than 150 to
200°C and pressure around 1500 bars, causing profound physical and/or
chemical change. ( marble , slate , quartzite).
Types of metamorphic rocks
There are two main types of metamorphic rocks: foliated and non-
foliated.
 • Foliated Metamorphic Rocks:
Foliated rocks have a layered or banded appearance due to the
alignment of mineral grains, which is typically a result of directed
pressure during metamorphism.
Ex :-Slate, Schist, Gneiss. , Migmatite
• Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks:
Non-foliated rocks lack a layered or banded structure. This type of
metamorphic rock typically forms under conditions where directed
pressure is not prominent.
Ex:- Quartzite, marble , soapstone.
* Minerals naturally occurring, inorganic solid substances with a specific
chemical composition and a crystalline structure. They are the building
blocks of rocks and are the result of various geological processes. Here
are the key characteristics that define minerals:
¹.Naturally Occurring: Minerals are formed through natural geological
processes, such as cooling and solidification of molten rock,
precipitation from solution, or biological activity. They are not produced
through human-made processes.
².Inorganic: Minerals are not derived from living organisms. While some
substances produced by living organisms may resemble minerals, they
are excluded from the mineral definition.
³.Solid state: Minerals exist in a solid state at normal temperatures and
pressures. While some minerals may exhibit flexibility or break in a
certain way, they are not liquids or gases.
⁴.Definite Chemical Composition: Each mineral has a specific chemical
composition, meaning it is composed of specific elements in fixed
proportions. This composition is expressed by a chemical formula. For
example, the mineral quartz is composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2).
⁵.Crystalline Structure: Minerals have an ordered internal structure with
a repeating geometric pattern, known as a crystal lattice. This structure
is responsible for the characteristic shapes and properties of minerals.
# Earthquake
An earthquake is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint
tremors , to a wild motion capable of shaking apart buildings and
causing grapping cracks to open up in teg ground. It is a form of energy
of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the earth in
widening circles from a particular point.
• Focus:- the places of origin of earthquake is called focus which is
located beneath the earth’s surface.
The depth of focus varies with some earthquake having depth ls of
up to 700 km , while others like major Himalayan earthquake have
depth around 20-30 km.
• Epicentre:- the place on the ground surface which is
perpendicular to the buried focus recording the seismic waves for
the first’ time is called epicentre.
*The waves generated by an earthquake are called ‘’seismic
waves’’ which are recorded by seismograph and science of studing
seismograph c waves is seismolgy.
Causes of earthquake
• Earthquake are caused mainly due to instability in any part of the
crust of the earth .
• A number of causes have been assigned to cause instability in the
earth’s crust.
1.Vulcanicity :- when the water somehow enters into asthenosphere
and goes to magma chamber, so the goes which are released from them
, break the pressure of lithosphere and enters into the crust. So , the
breaking of pressure generates earthquake.
2. Faulting:- the underground rocks behave elastically stretching and
expanding under forces untill they reach their elastic limit and break .
The broken quickly try to occupy their previous position, causing
adjustments that disturb the equilibrium of the crystal surface and
results in earthquake.
3.Hydrostatic pressure and anthropogenic cause:- while earthquake
are naturally caused by endogenic forces within the earth, certain
human activities can also trigger significant seismic event activities such
as pumping ground water and oil , deep underground mining, blasting
rocks for construct on , nuclear explosion and the constructions of large
dams and reservoir ls can lead to serious earth tremors.
Classification of earthquake
*Based on Depth:
• Shallow Earthquakes: These earthquakes occur in the top 70
kilometers (43 miles) of the Earth’s surface. The majority of
earthquakes fall into this category.
• Intermediate Earthquakes: These earthquakes occur at depths
ranging from 70 to 300 kilometers (43 to 186 miles) below the
Earth’s surface.
• Deep Earthquakes: These earthquakes occur at depths exceeding
300 kilometers (186 miles) beneath the Earth’s surface.
*Based on Origin:
 • Tectonic Earthquakes: These earthquakes result from the Earth’s
tectonic plates interacting with each other. Subcategories include:
• Divergent Boundary Earthquakes: Caused by the plates moving
away from each other.
• Convergent Boundary Earthquakes: Result from the plates
colliding.
• Transform Fault Earthquakes: Occur at plate boundaries where
the plates slide past each other.
• Volcanic Earthquakes: These earthquakes are associated with
volcanic activity and occur in conjunction with the movement of
magma.
• Collapse Earthquakes: Occur in underground caverns due to the
collapse of rocks.
*Based on Magnitude:
• Minor Earthquakes (Magnitude less than 4.0): Generally not felt
but recorded.
• Light Earthquakes (Magnitude 4.0 – 4.9): Often felt, but damage is
rarely significant.
• Moderate Earthquakes (Magnitude 5.0 – 5.9): Can cause damage
to poorly constructed buildings and may be felt over a larger area.
• Strong Earthquakes (Magnitude 6.0 – 6.9): Can cause serious
damage in populated areas.
• Major Earthquakes (Magnitude 7.0 – 7.9): Can cause widespread
and severe damage.
• Great Earthquakes (Magnitude 8.0 and above): Can cause
devastating damage over a large area.
It’s important to note that these classifications provide a general
framework, and there may be variations or additional criteria
considered by seismologists and earthquake experts when analyzing
seismic events.
# Volcano
Volcano is a geological landform that results from the eruption of
magma from beneath the Earth’s crust. It is a vent or opening in the
Earth’s surface through which molten rock, ash, and gases can escape.
Volcanoes can be found on both land and underwater. The eruptions
can vary widely in intensity, ranging from gentle lava flows to explosive
eruptions that release a significant amount of ash and volcanic gases.
*Components of volcano
• Magma Chamber: This is a reservoir beneath the Earth’s surface
where molten rock (magma) accumulates. The magma chamber is
the source of volcanic eruptions.
• Vent: The opening in the Earth’s surface through which volcanic
material (magma, ash, gases) is expelled during an eruption. Vents
can vary in size, and there may be multiple vents on a single
volcano.
• Crater:The depression at the summit of a volcano,often formed
during explosive eruption.it is typically the result of the collapse of
material into the emptied magma chamber.
• Caldera: A large, basin-shaped depression at the summit of a
volcano, usually formed after a massive eruption that empties the
magma chamber and causes the collapse of the volcano’s
structure.
• Lava: Magma that reaches the Earth’s surface is called lava. It can
flow as lava flows or erupt explosively as lava fountains,
depending on its viscosity and gas content.
• Ash Cloud: Volcanic eruptions can release large amounts of ash
into the atmosphere, forming an ash cloud. This can impact air
 travel, weather patterns, and even lead to temporary cooling of
the Earth’s surface.
• Volcanic Gases: During an eruption, various gases are released,
including water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and others.
These gases can have environmental and climatic effects.
• Lava Plateau: In some cases, extensive lava flows can cover large
areas, creating a flat or gently undulating landscape known as a
lava plateau.
*Volcanoes are categorised into three main categories:
Active- An active volcano is one which has recently erupted and there is
a possibility that it may erupt soon.
Dormant- A dormant volcano is one that has not erupted in a long time
but there is a possibility it can erupt in the future.
Extinct- An extinct volcano is one which has erupted thousands of years
ago and there’s no possibility of an eruption.
* Types of volcano
• Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes):
Structure: These are tall, symmetrical volcanoes with steep slopes.
Eruption Style: Stratovolcanoes often have explosive eruptions due to
the high viscosity of their magma, which traps gas. These eruptions can
result in ash clouds and pyroclastic flows.
Composition: They are composed of alternating layers of solidified lava
flows, volcanic ash, and other volcanic debris.
Examples: Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount Vesuvius
(Italy).
• Shield Volcanoes:
Structure: Shield volcanoes have broad, gently sloping profiles
resembling a warrior’s shield.
Eruption Style: They are characterized by relatively non-explosive
eruptions, with fluid lava flows that travel long distances.
Composition: Shield volcanoes are primarily built up by the
accumulation of low-viscosity basaltic lava flows.
Examples: Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea (both in Hawaii), Galápagos
Islands volcanoes.
• Cinder Cone Volcanoes:
Structure: Cinder cones are small, steep-sided volcanoes with a conical
shape.
Eruption Style: They typically have short, explosive eruptions that eject
volcanic ash, cinders, and volcanic bombs.
Composition: Composed of pyroclastic material, including volcanic
fragments like ash and cinders.
Examples: Paricutin (Mexico), Sunset Crater (USA).