EDITORS IJSRM

EDITORS

Professor Mirko Palić, Ph.D. – Editor in Chief

Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Business,
University of Zagreb, Croatia
[email protected]

Professor Claudio Vignali, Ph.D. – Editor for the UK

Professor of Retail Marketing Management
Leeds Metropolitan University, UK
[email protected]

Professor Bernd Hallier, Ph.D. – Editor for Western Europe

Managing Director of EHI Retail Institute
President of The European Retail Academy
[email protected]

Professor John L. Stanton, Ph.D. – Editor for the USA

Professor and Chairman of the Food Marketing Department,
St. Joseph’s University, Philadelphia
[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Laetitia Radder, D.Comm – Editor for Africa & Asia
Professor of Marketing, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University,
South Africa, [email protected]

www.ijsrm.com International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing is

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Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
 EDITORIAL BOARD IJSRM

EDITORIAL BOARD

Darko Tipuric Zagreb University Croatia Management [email protected]

G.Orange Circle UK Information systems [email protected]
Gianpaolo Vignali Manchester University UK Fashion Marketing [email protected]
Daniela Ryding Manchester University UK Fashion [email protected]
Bernd Britzelmaier Pforzheim University, D Finance [email protected]
Tomasz Wisniewski Szczecin University Poland Accounting and Finance [email protected]
Enrico Bonetti the University 2 Naples Italy Services management [email protected]
George Lodorfos Leeds Met University UK Strategic management [email protected]
Alberto Mattiacci La Sapienza Rome Italy Marketing and Business [email protected]
Leo Dana The University of Montpelier France Entrepreneurship [email protected]
Hans Rudiger Kaufmann University of Nicosia SME [email protected]
Carmen.R. Santos University Leon Spain European consumerism Carmen [email protected]
Dolores Sanchez Bengoa Uni Vilnius Cross Culture management [email protected]
Michael Fass Uni of Glos. Uk Action Research [email protected]
Tomasz Bernat Uni of Szczecin Poland Microeconomics [email protected]
Mitsunori Hirogaki Kushimo University Japan Japanese management [email protected]
Madalena Pereira Uni Beira Interior Portugal European fashion [email protected]
Iga Rrudawska University of Szczecin Poland Health marketing [email protected]
Carsten Barsch HDBW Germany European Business [email protected]
Edyta Rudawska Szczecin University Poland Marketing development [email protected]
Kreiso Znidar Prizma Zagreb Croatia Marketing Research [email protected]
Martin Samy Leeds Met University UK CSR [email protected]
Katarzyna Byrka-Kita Szczecin University, Pl Finance in marketing [email protected]
S.Henderson Leeds Met University UK Events marketing [email protected]
Aftab Dean Leeds Met UK Statistics [email protected]
Dominique Gerber Chur University Switzerland Leisure and tourism [email protected]
Gianpaolo Basile University of Salerno Italy Literature development [email protected]
Antonio Feraco Nan yang University Singapore Development [email protected]
Barry Davies University of Gloucestershire UK Research methods [email protected]
Vitor Ambrosio ESHTE Portugal Religious Tourism [email protected]
Razaq Raj Leeds Met University UK Events and tourism man. [email protected]
Tahir Rashid Salford University UK Islamic marketing [email protected]
Juergen Polke Gloucestershire University Project development [email protected]
Marija Tomašević Lišanin, Univ. of Zagreb Sales [email protected]
Charbel M. El Khoury, Holy Spirit Univ of Kaslik Retailing [email protected]
Ravi Kandhadai Marketing [email protected]

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 Contents 1

Contents

Editorial ...................................................................................................................................................2
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................5
Carolin Graue
CASE STUDY METHOD .......................................................................................................................... 15
Paula Aczel
EMBEDDING CASE STUDY RESEARCH INTO THE RESEARCH CONTEXT ................................................. 23
Elisabeth Göttfert
CASE STUDY RESEACH........................................................................................................................... 33
Martina Gog
FOCUS GROUPS .................................................................................................................................... 42
Brigit Kellmereit
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH WITH A FOCUS ON QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS ....................................... 53
Isabella Mayer
CASE STUDY RESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 68
Simone Tumele
CASE STUDY: AMBITIOUS GROWTH TARGET OF BNP PARIBAS IN GERMANY...................................... 79
Muhammed Güler

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 Editorial 2

Editorial
The current issue of students. We are proud to present a Guest
the International Editor for this special Issue Dr. Stephen
Journal of Sales, Retail Henderson. .
and Marketing is Thank you for taking interest in
dedicated to the publishing and reading The International Journal
research methods of Sales, Retailing and Marketing. We hope it will
from an investigative be a valuable help in your professional and
viewpoint of doctoral academic advancement.

Editor,

Professor Mirko Palić, Ph.D.

Guest Editor Dr. Stephen Henderson

As the internet has issue, there are a number of good pointers for
made researchers seeking the truth in what surround
communication both us.
quick and easy, we It is noticeable that the majority of contributors
find ourselves have chosen to provide papers looking at the
surrounded by vast case study method of research. Taking a
amounts of moment to consider why this might be, it’s clear
information which that the International Journal of Sales, Retail and
purport to be ‘true’. Marketing mainly concerns itself with
Whilst even a casual glance around reveals commercial organisations. In this way, using
information that is clearly untrue, establishing case studies, we seek to find out why we
accurate and useful information is often difficult. observe spectacular success or, indeed,
For academics, part of the role is to establish spectacular failure in these organisations.
working research practices that help us get to As organisations differ widely in a number of
that elusive truth. This special issue has come attributes such as size, complexity, culture; it’s
together to highlight some of the key techniques not surprising that academics in this area turn
that help researchers to achieve this. Though their attention to the case study method looking
not all the answers can be found in this special into situations that appear fascinating to us.

Copyright ©2015 by International Journal of Sales, Retailing and Marketing  Vol. 4  No. 9  2015
 Editorial 3

However, I hear you asking ‘why should this paper from Elisabeth Göttfert whose writing
dominate this special issue?’. In response and starts to compare how qualitative and
support of the selection, I would point you to quantitative research methods fit into the case
one of the foremost writers on case study study approach and vica-versa. Given how case
approach when he says “do not underestimate studies lend themselves to immersion of the
the depth of your challenge” (Yin, 2009, p.3). researcher in the phenomenon being
This special issue aims to shed some light on the researched, it’s not surprising that our
depth of the challenge. contributors leaned towards qualitative
Turning to the papers in this special issue, we research. Isabella Mayer and Carolin Graue both
see Valentina Paula Aczel start with Yin’s explore this area in their papers. Graue chooses
definition of what makes a case study and the to compare qualitative up against quantitative
explanation of its roots in particular observed approaches in exploring both their advantages
phenomenon. Aczel continues by explaining and disadvantages. On the other hand, Mayer
epistemological and philosophical standpoints chooses to look at qualitative data analysis and
that support the case study approach before concentrates on methods of gathering the data
exploring the qualitative nature of this and its analysis. Whilst, superficially, these
approach. In the paper from Simone Tumele, papers are covering similar areas, their main
the case study approach is revealed as offering a common ground is the choice of method. In
number of choices. This may surprise the less particular, they emphasise the fundamental
familiar researcher whose initial thoughts might choice of qualitative or quantitative and the
suggest the case study approach is a singular choices within each area. Specifically, these
type of approach without much flexibility. writers point to the choices to strengthen our
Simone Tumele’s paper points to a typology of research outcomes via techniques such as
case study approaches which have an inevitable triangulation and the interpretation of
consequence that there are a variety of research qualitative data via content analysis.
methods that might be chosen. This theme is As noted earlier, case studies are of interest to
picked up in the paper by Martina Gog who those looking into social issues as much as those
points to the different typologies and reminds us aiming to interpret the commercial world of
that the case study might be applied across business. Both of these sectors have seen the
“psychology, sociology, political science, use of focus groups become ubiquitous whether
anthropology, social work, business, education it is political parties seeking out the voters’
nursing and community planning.” Some of opinions or market researchers’ attempting to
these areas might not immediately come to interpret what would make successful product
mind for readers of this journal with its focus of or service offerings. Hence, including the paper
on the commercial world. In doing so, it is from Birgit Kellmereit allows us to consider what
offering a timely reminder of the versatility and has become an increasingly popular research
usefulness of case study research in both social method within the case study approach. This
and commercial situations. Gog continues by look at focus groups takes the reader from the
returning to Yin (2009) and highlighting the philosophical background to choosing the
generalised process to be followed in order to method through the process to its advantages
allow the case study research of some quite and disadvantages. In doing so, it not only
differing circumstances. reveals why this research method has become
Having covered case study research from the so popular but also why we should be careful
different angles of definition, typology and about where and when it is used within a case
overall process; we have chosen to include the study.

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 Editorial 4

To observe some of the key points from the This special issue is revealing in its look at the
preceding papers, it is useful to include the depth and complexity that the quote from Yin
paper from Muhammed Güler as an example of pointed out at the outset of this editorial. We
a case study approach in action. Looking at the trust that the individual papers in this special
ambitious growth target of BNP Paribas in issue of the International Journal of Sales, Retail
Germany, the paper is revealing in its need to and Marketing help you in your quest for ‘truth’
take on board a range of research methods in your research.
under the umbrella of a case study. Of course,
Güler‘s paper uses just one of what can be References
understood to be a range of approaches to case Yin, R. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and
study that could be chosen. However, it does Methods, 4th Edition. London, SAGE
reflect in its approach much of what has been Publications.
revealed by the other authors in this special
issue.

Dr Stephen Henderson MBA

Senior Lecturer in Events Management at Leeds Schools at the Universities of Warwick, Surrey,
Beckett University. He has spent over ten years Liverpool, Durham, Bradford and The Open
working within industry moving from a University. His consulting clients have included
technical/production role across to such as Heinz, Tatung, Britvic Soft Drinks, John
sales/marketing. Following a PhD at the West, KPMG, Yorkshire Chemical and many
University of Leeds and during his period in others. Publications from his academic career
industry, he gained an MBA from The University have appeared in a number of international
of Warwick. He has worked for the Business journals.

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 5

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Carolin Graue

INTRODUCTION
Armstrong said: “Research is creating new researcher who is conducting a study. After that,
knowledge.” Therefore conducting research is qualitative research is being introduced and a
the logical consequence to the emergence of a comparison between qualitative and
question that has not yet been answered. quantitative research is being drawn. Chapter 4
Research can either analyse an already about qualitative data analysis gives an
examined phenomenon further or approach a introduction about the general aspects of
completely new one. qualitative data analysis and states types of
qualitative data. After that, four approaches to
If quantitative research is unrewarding to qualitative data analysis (theoretical
answer the question, the choice will be propositions, triangulations, grounded theory,
qualitative research which, according to Flick content analysis) will be presented. This paper
(2009: 14) has the following features: “The finishes with a conclusion on qualitative data
correct choice of appropriate methods and analysis that states the necessities for authentic
theories; the recognition and analysis of research and analysis. Via the following link, you
different perspectives; the researchers' have access to a Prezi-presentation about this
reflections on their research as part of the paper:
process of knowledge production; and the http://prezi.com/4n9kttjb9zco/?utm_campaign=
variety of approaches and methods”. Since share&utm_medium=copy
qualitative research has increased greatly in
importance in recent years and is a widely RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
accepted research method (cf. Flick 2013: 3) this The research design is influenced by methods,
paper is about the analysis of qualitative data, methodology and philosophy, which are the
which is a very important part of the research design’s components (cf. Birks & Mills 2010: 4).
process. First, we take a look at the research The philosophy consists of ontology and
philosophy that has an impact on the role of the epistemology.
Figure 1: Components of Research Design

Metho-
Methods Philosophy
dology

Research Design

Source: Birks & Mills 2010: 4.

Ontology, epistemology, methodology and because I believe that reality exists but I am also
methods affect the research concerning the role sure that I only perceive some parts of it (cf.
of the researcher himself within the study. My Appendix I).
philosophical background is post-positivist

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 6

The ontology influences the selection of the whereas the deductive approach (mainly
research objective, the research questions and quantitative) uses theory or hypotheses to test it
also how the research is conducted. against data (cf. Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2011: 5).
Epistemology and ontology of the researcher are To provide an overview of the difference
the philosophical foundation and therefore have between qualitative and quantitative research,
a big impact on all aspects of the study (cf. table 1 is provided.
Hesse-Biber & Leavy 2011: 4-5). As a post-
positivist, I accept the fact that my observations QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
are influenced by my background, theories,
values and knowledge. Nevertheless, I strive to QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
be as neutral as possible and try not to influence Whether a researcher decides to follow a
the collection and interpretation of data (cf. quantitative or qualitative research approach
Appendix I, Guest et al. 2013: 6). depends on the researcher’s epistemologically
The researchers methodology is accountable for grounded beliefs (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 163).
the approach to using theory. This one can In my case, I tend to follow the qualitative
either be inductive or deductive. Following the research approach. Table 1 shows the main
inductive approach (mainly qualitative) means contrasts between qualitative and quantitative
that new theory is generated out of the data research.

Table 1: Contrast between quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative Qualitative
Numbers Words
Point of view of researcher Points of view of participants
Researcher distant Researcher close
Theory testing Theory emergent
Static Process
Structured Unstructured
Generalisation Contextual understanding
Hard, reliable data Rich, deep data
Macro Micro
Behaviour Meaning
Artificial settings Natural settings
Source: Bryman & Bell 2011: 410.

Some of the differences that emerge from the better the point of view of the subject of study.
role of the researcher himself are the point of When doing quantitative research, the
view and how distant the researcher is. researcher might have no direct contact with the
Quantitative research is structured by the research subject at all. Often he will use hired
concerns of the researcher while qualitative interviewers or send questionnaires by mail. This
research is structured by the concerns of those lack of involvement can assure that the
who are the subject of the research. Since the researcher does not loose his objectivity (cf.
involvement of the researcher is larger when Bryman & Bell 2011: 410).
doing qualitative research, he can understand

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 7

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH writing-up the data. Additionally it helps the

Bryman & Bell (2011: 392) state: “Two researcher to stay close to the object of study
particularly distinctive aspects of the sequence and therefore prevents him from unnecessary
of steps in qualitative research are the highly circuits (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 79).
related issues of the link between theory and Since there might be more questions of interests
concepts with research data”. than can be answered, a selection of the most
An open-ended research can be complicated important needs to be done. A good research
because it might lead to an overload of question is clear and researchable, it links up
information and fosters an unfocused approach. with theory and the other research questions.
Therefore it is advisable to formulate some Furthermore it should participate to knowledge
research questions at the beginning (cf. Bryman and not be either too narrow or too broad (cf.
& Bell 2011: 79). Formulating an appropriate Bryman & Bell 2011: 81-83). Selecting the right
research question or questions will have the research question(s) is just one step of
following impact: It gives guidance for literature qualitative research. The whole process is show
search, research design, which data needs to be in figure 2.
collected and from where, for the analysis and

Figure 2: Main steps of qualitative research

1. General research questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects

3. Collection of relevant data

5b. Collection of further data
4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical

work 5a. Tighter specification of the research question(s)
6. Writing up findings/conclusions

Source: Bryman & Bell 2011: 390.

After formulating one or more target-aimed researcher can write up findings and derive
research questions, the relevant site(s) and conclusions.
subjects need to be selected. Now the collection The next chapter takes a look at qualitative data
of relevant data can start. After collecting data, analysis. First it clarifies what qualitative data
the researcher will interpret these data. This are, then what types of qualitative data there
interpretation of data will lead to conceptual are, after that in introduces four approaches for
and theoretical work. This on the other hand will analysing them and finally concludes in the four
lead to a tighter specification of the research key steps of qualitative data analysis.
question(s) and therefore to a collection of
further data which needs to be interpreted. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
After all relevant data is collected, the
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS?

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 8

Qualitative data analysis is a process of the some phenomena by describing the way other
description, classification and interconnection of things correspond to this phenomena. Put
phenomena with the researcher’s concepts. another way, a theory is a formal, testable
First, the phenomena under study needs to be explanation of some events that includes
described precisely. The researcher needs to be explanations of how things relate to one
able to interpret and explain the data; therefore another.” Furthermore, Zikmund et al. (2009: 42)
a conceptual framework needs to be developed define propositions as follows: “Propositions are
and data classified. After that, concepts can be statements concerned with the relationships
built and connected to each others (cf. Dey among concepts. A proposition explains the
1993: 31, 41, 48). logical linkage among certain concepts by
Qualitative data analysis has the following asserting a universal connection between
general aims (Flick 2013: 4): concepts.”
Describe a phenomenon in some or greater detail Usage
Comparing several cases on what they have in If the researcher assumes e.g. a specified
common or on the differences between them reaction as a result of an action, he can approach
Develop a theory of the phenomenon under the study with a theoretical proposition. The
study from the analysis of empirical material counterparts of this proposition are hypotheses
that shall be answered. It is the proposition that
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA can be tested during the research. Since there is
When analysing qualitative data, the researcher usually more than just one theory available, the
deals with meanings and not with plain researcher can confirm the theory that fits best
numbers. Qualitative research can be conducted by collecting empirical data or making
by using different sorts of sources like observations (cf. Zikmund et al. 2009: 42-43).
observation, unstructured interviews, group Zikmund et al. (2009: 43-44) state: “One task of
interviews, collection of documentary materials science is to determine if a given theoretical
and so on. Conducting interviews or collecting proposition is false or if there are inconsistencies
materials causes the production of field notes, between competing theories. Just as records are
transcripts from interviews, documents, videos made to be broken, theories are made to be
and the like (cf. Dey 1993: 11, 15). tested”.
Whereas there are rules how to analyse
quantitative data, there are no such explicit rules
for qualitative ones (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011:
571). Following, some general approaches to
qualitative data analysis will be introduced.
These approaches help the researcher to apply a
more systematic strategy to the study. The first
one being introduced in this paper is theoretical
propositions.

APPROACHES TO QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

THEORETICAL PROPOSITIONS
Definition
Zikmund et al. (2009: 39) define theory as
follows: “A theory consists of a coherent set of
general propositions that offer an explanation of

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 9

TRIANGULATIONS There are four different types of Triangulation as

Definition defined by Denzin (1970 cited in Bryman 2003:
Triangulation means that the researcher uses 1142):
data from a variety of sources applying a variety Data triangulation (collecting data by using
of methods (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 397). Doing different sampling strategies)
so, the researcher gains knowledge that is more Investigator triangulation (data collection and
reliable due to the variety of approaches (cf. analysis is done by at least two researchers)
Bryman 2003: 1142). Theoretical triangulation (data is interpreted by
Usage using at least two theoretical positions)
Triangulations look as follows: the researcher Methodological triangulation (collecting data by
uses one measurement process and compares using at least two methods).
the findings with the ones using another Methodological triangulation is the most
method. If the second method confirms the commonly used type.
findings of the first one, triangulations Figure 3 clarifies the triangulation of different
strengthen the reliability of the finding. If it does qualitative methods. Qualitative method I could
not hold, it can be seen as proof that using just be for example interviews and qualitative
one method or measure is not always reliable method II focus groups.
(cf. Bryman 2003: 1142).

Figure 3: Triangulation of different qualitative methods

Qualitative Qualitative
method I method II

Object of
research

Source: Flick 2011: 41.

Advantages always be compared with each other. Bryman

Originally Denzin suggested that the usage of (2003: 1143) states: “Such a view fails to take
more than on method and different sources to account of the different social circumstances
derive data drives a higher confidence in the associated with the administration of different
results. Nowadays Flick (2011: 111) states: “The research methods (…)”. Another disadvantage
gain of the triangulation is not as strong in the might be that it is more expensive due to the
mutual checking of results, but in expanding the high effort of the researcher. Therefore costs
learning opportunity by extension of and benefits for the study must be carefully
perspectives on the studied subject”. weighed (cf. Flick 2011: 111).
Disadvantages/Limitations
Critics find fault with triangulations since data, GROUNDED THEORY
that is collected using different methods, cannot

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 10

Besides Theoretical Proposition and analysis to ensure a consistent application of

Triangulations there are more qualitative grounded theory. Since the collection of data
research designs available. Following grounded and their analysis are an interrelated processes,
theory shall be introduced. as soon as the first data is collected, it is time to
analyse it because it will influence future
Definition interviews or observations. Concepts are the
Strauss and Corbin (1998 cited in Bryman & Bell Basic Units of Analysis, because during the
2011: 576) define grounded theory as “theory process of analysis the researcher needs to
that was derived from data, systematically conceptualise the data to work with it.
gathered and analysed through the research Furthermore, categories must be developed and
process. In this method, data collection, analysis, related to each other. For that reason, clustering
and eventual theory stand in close relationship related concepts forms categories. Corbin and
to one another”. Bryman and Bell (2011: 576) Strauss (1990: 8) also state that “sampling in
conclude, that “two central features of grounded grounded theory proceeds on theoretical
theory are that it is concerned with the grounds and analysis makes use of constant
development of theory out of data and the comparisons”. By comparing incidents with
approach is iterative, or recursive (…) meaning other incidents, differences and also similarities
that data collection and analysis proceed in can be worked out. To ensure a consistent data
tandem, repeatedly referring back to each set, “patterns and variations must be accounted
other.” for”. The “process must be build into the theory”
Usage to bring it into the analysis. It is impossible for
Grounded theory is one of the most common the researcher to keep in mind all categories,
research designs worldwide. Birks and Mills hypotheses, generative questions and
(2010: 1, 9) list the following methods for data properties, therefore “writing theoretical memos
collection and analysis: “initial coding and is an integral part of doing grounded theory” to
categorization of data; concurrent data keep track of all study aspects. “Hypotheses
generation or collection and analysis; writing about relationships among categories should be
memos; theoretical sampling; constant developed and verified as much as possible
comparative analysis using inductive and during the research process” to study it
abductive logic; theoretical sensitivity; repetitively until it holds true for all aspects of
intermediate coding; selecting a core category; the study object. Since the collaboration of
theoretical saturation; and theoretical researchers will foster ideas and productive
integration.” discussions, “a grounded theorist need not work
The data used can be derived from a number of alone”. The last point Corbin and Strauss make
sources like interviews, observations, (1990: 11) is that “broader structural conditions
documents, videos, newspapers, letters or must be analysed, however microscopic the
books. All this data can be coded to ensure a research”.
valid analysis (cf. Corbin & Strauss 1990: 5). Advantages
By applying grounded theory and its methods in Corbin and Strauss (cf. 1990: 6-7) point out some
a study, the researcher will be able to “explain a advantages of grounded theory. They consider
process or scheme associated with a the systematically and sequentially collection
phenomenon” (Birks & Mills 2010: 12). and analysis of data as one big advantage of
Corbin and Strauss (1990: 6-11) specify the grounded theory. This “enables the research
following eleven canons and procedures that process to capture all potentially relevant
need to be followed during data collection and aspects of the topic as soon as they are

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 11

perceived. This process is a major source of the inductive, the researcher does not need to work
effectiveness of the grounded theory approach.” with hypotheses but can also follow open-ended
Moreover, it hinders the researcher to interfere questions. Therefore he can adjust his research
with the study. Since every concept in use needs questions and the categories while reading
to be proved as relevant for the object of study through the text, if he notices concepts and
during the inspection, the researcher needs to patterns which he did not think of before (cf.
abandon it no matter of his preferences. White & Marsh 2006: 34). Krippendorff (2004
Disadvantages/Limitations cited in White & Marsh 2006: 34) calls “the
Although grounded theory is very often applied, process off recontextualizing, reinterpreting, and
there are some limitations as well. Following, redefining the research until some kind of
some of the limitations and criticism are satisfactory interpretation is reached” a
described which Bryman and Bell gathered: hermeneutic loop.
Applying grounded theory is a relatively time Advantages
consuming process. Furthermore, it does not Stemler (2001) says: “Content analysis is a
always result in theory because in the end, the powerful data reduction technique. Its major
research looks only at a specific social benefit comes from the fact that it is a
phenomenon and not at a wide scope. Some systematic, replicable technique for compressing
also criticise that coding the data causes a loss of many words of text into fewer content
the context (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 583-584). categories based on explicit rules of coding. It
has the attractive features of being unobtrusive,
CONTENT ANALYSIS and being useful in dealing with large volumes of
Definition data”. Additionally, the research method is
Although content analysis was originally a transparent since coding scheme and the applied
quantitative technique, it can also be applied to sampling can be exposed. It is also flexible
qualitative data analysis (cf. Franzosi 2007: 1). because it can be used for different unstructured
Bryman and Bell (2011: 717) define it as “an information (cf. Bryman & Bell 2011: 305).
approach to documents that emphasizes the role Disadvantages/Limitations
of the investigator in the construction of the Usually it is impossible to prevent the coding
meaning of and in texts. There is an emphasis on manual to be influenced by interpretations of
allowing categories to emerge out of data and the researcher. Furthermore, if the researcher
on recognizing the significance for aims to impute latent content, there is always
understanding the meaning of the context in the risk to make invalid conclusions.
which an item being analysed (and the Additionally, content analysis might be
categories derived from it) appeared”. A more atheoretical in some cases. Researchers might
general definition by Krippendorff (cited in tend to analyse what is measurable instead of
White & Marsh 2006, 23-27) defines content what is theoretically important (cf. Bryman &
analysis as “a research technique for making Bell 2011: 308).
replicable and valid inferences from texts (or
other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their KEY STEPS OF QUALITATIVE D ATA ANALYSIS
use”. There are four key steps most qualitative data
Usage analysis approaches have in common: Data
Data to be analysed can be any material, either collection, data reduction, data displays and
written down or recorded (cf. Treadwell 2014: conclusion drawing/verification. Data is collected
215). First, a research question needs to be by conduction interviews or observation. The
formulated. Since qualitative content analysis is amount can be overwhelming and therefore

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 12

needs to be documented. After that the data can CONCLUSION

be reduced to manageable amounts that still This paper introduced four approaches of how to
need to be meaningful. Categorizing or coding analyse qualitative data - theoretical
the data are ways to organise and prepare the proposition, triangulation, grounded theory and
data and make it usable for the analysis (cf. content analysis.
Schutt 2012: 326, 328). Doing the coding, it is When analysing the data for a phenomena, the
crucial to assure that observation and resulting researcher needs to ensure credibility of the
conclusion are reliable (cf. White & Marsh 2006: study results and the study process in general.
36-39). The coded data allows the researcher to Therefore, the researcher should ask himself, as
draw conclusions and he is able to present his recommended by Denzin (2002 cited in Adams
findings (cf. Zhang & Wildemuth 2009: 5). The et al. 2007: 355), following questions:
core of the analysis is examining relationships. At Do they illuminate the phenomenon as lived
this point, the researcher stops describing and experience?
starts explaining why things are as they are. Are they based on thickly contextualized
When displaying the data, it needs to be clear to materials?
the reader. The research process finishes with a Are they historically and relationally grounded?
conclusion. The conclusion should include Are they processual and interactional?
information about the creditability of the Do they engulf what is known about the
informant, whether statements where made phenomenon?
spontaneous and if the informant influenced the If the researcher can answer all questions
group members (cf. Schutt 2012: 330-331). positively, he reached his aim of authenticity.

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APPENDIX I

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