BIOLOGY

INVESTIGATOR
Y
PROJECT

CERTIFICATE
BY ,

B.S.SAHANA
 B.S.SAHANA

This project entitled ‘AIDS’ is the

investigatory project work in BIOLOGY,
successfully completed by B.S.SAHANA
student of class
XII , K.V.ANNA NAGAR under the supervision
of CHELLAPANDIAN sir .

TEACHER IN CHARGE
PRINCIPAL

EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to sincerely and profusely thank my Biology
teacher
MR.CHELLAPANDIAN sir for his guidance and
support in completing my project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to my principal

MR.NIRMAL Sir for providing me all the facility that was

required

What is AIDS?
AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome is a disease caused by the HIV virus. In
this condition, a person’s immune system becomes too weak to fight any kind of infection or
disease. AIDS is usually the last stage of HIV infection; a stage where the body can no longer
defend itself and thus spawns various diseases. AIDS, when untreated, leads to death.

 HIV remains a major global public health issue, having claimed 40.4
million [32.9–51.3 million] lives so far with ongoing transmission in all
countries globally; with some countries reporting increasing trends
in new infections when previously on the decline.
 There were an estimated 39.0 million [33.1–45.7 million] people living
with HIV at the end of 2022, two thirds of whom (25.6 million) are in
the WHO African Region.
 In 2022, 630 000 [480 000–880 000] people died from HIV-related
causes and 1.3 million [1.0–1.7 million] people acquired HIV.
 There is no cure for HIV infection. However, with access to effective
HIV prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care, including for
opportunistic infections, HIV infection has become a manageable
chronic health condition, enabling people living with HIV to lead long
and healthy lives.
 WHO, the Global Fund and UNAIDS all have global HIV strategies that
are aligned with the SDG target 3.3 of ending the HIV epidemic by
2030.
 By 2025, 95% of all people living with HIV (PLHIV) should have a
diagnosis, 95% of those should be taking lifesaving antiretroviral
treatment (ART) and 95% of PLHIV on treatment should achieve a
suppressed viral load for the benefit of the person’s health and for
reducing onward HIV transmission. In 2022, these percentages were
86(%) [73–>98%], 89(%) 75–>98%] and 93(%) [79–>98%], respectively.
 When considering all people living with HIV, 86% [73>–98%] knew
their status, 76% [65–89%] were receiving antiretroviral therapy and
71% [60–83%] had suppressed viral loads.
Where did HIV come from?

 HIV infection in humans came from a type of chimpanzee in Central

Africa. Studies show that HIV may have jumped from chimpanzees
to humans as far back as the late 1800s.
 The chimpanzee version of the virus is called simian
immunodeficiency virus. It was probably passed to humans when
humans hunted these chimpanzees for meat and came in contact
with their infected blood.
  Over decades, HIV slowly spread across Africa and later into other
parts of the world. The virus has existed in the United States since at
least the mid to late 1970s.

The HIV spreads mainly due to the following:

 Sexual intercourse
 Direct contact of a person with the blood of an infected individual
 Infants may inherit the disease directly from their mother in the womb
during pregnancy
 Infants might also get infected during childbirth
 Breast-feeding from an infected mother can also potentially transmit the
virus to the infant.

HIV and AIDS

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

The human immunodeficiency virus attacks the body’s cells that are responsible for fighting
infections and diseases. HIV infects a type of white blood cell in the body’s immune system
called T-helper cells (CD4 cells). CD4 or cluster of differentiation 4 is a type of glycoprotein found
on the surface of T helper cells. These are long lived and one of the most important immune cells
of the body. This HIV enters the macrophages and reproduces forming killer cells. The killer cells
start attacking all other types of immune cells of the human body. As a result, it makes the
immune system of the infected person weaker to the point that they cannot even fight a common
cough and cold.

When a person gets infected with HIV, it might take several years to properly diagnose the
symptoms of AIDS, by which time it may be too late to follow proper treatment procedures.

There is still no specific treatment for HIV and AIDS in modern science. However, it has been
observed that the longevity of a person’s life suffering from AIDS can be increased by providing
them with proper medication and suppressing the symptoms to a great extent.

Once a person gets infected with HIV, it is important to recognise the symptoms early on and get
proper treatment since long-term untreated HIV in the immune system can lead to AIDS, which is
often incurable.

How Does AIDS Affect the Eye?

AIDS causes a breakdown of the Immune system of the body, and therefore all parts
of the body can get an infection including the eye. People who are in good health,
when diagnosed with AIDS are less likely to have eye problems associated with a
suppressed Immune system. It is estimated that 70% of patients with advanced AIDS
undergo eye disorders.

The following are the AIDS-related eye problems because of a suppressed Immune
system,
 HIV retinopathy
 Detached retina
 CMV retinitis
 Kaposi sarcoma
 Squamous cell carcinoma of the conjunctiva

Causes of AIDS
HIV is held responsible for affecting the macrophages present in the blood of the
human body. HIV was instigated in non-human primates and eventually spread to
hominids over the eons. So, what accurately is the distinction between AIDS and
HIV? Principally, HIV is the virus that sources AIDS. It causes destruction on the
body’s immunity up until it is incompetent of fending off diseases on its own. It is a
retrovirus and has RNA as the genetic material.

 On infection, the RNA of the virus enters the host cell.

 Through reverse transcription, DNA production is carried out.
 This DNA is integrated into the genome of the host here it multiplies
exponentially to form RNA copies
 These RNA copies turn into virus copies and infect the bloodstream.
 HIV also does the same in T lymphocytes thereby decreasing the immunity of
the body
 Even minor infections do not get treated because of an immunocompromised
system.
 Apart from this, significant weight loss, fever bouts and diarrhea are also
observed.
AIDS is an advanced HIV infection or late-stage HIV. Someone with AIDS may develop a
wide range of health conditions like – pneumonia, thrush, fungal infections, TB,
toxoplasmosis.

There is also an increased risk of developing a medical illness like cancer and brain illnesses.
CD4 count refers to the number of T-lymphocytes in a cubic millimetre of blood. A person
may be referred to as “AIDS-affected” when the CD4 count drops below 200 cells per cubic
millimetre of blood

Symptoms of AIDS
As AIDS is a virus infection, the symptoms related to acute HIV infection can be similar to
flu or other viral illnesses, like –

 Fever
 Muscle & Joint Pain
 Chilis
  Headaches
 Sore throat
 Night Sweats
 Red rashes
 Mouth sores
 Tiredness
 Swollen lymph glands
 Weakness
 Weight Loss
 Diarrhoea

Symptoms of late-stage HIV infection may include –

 Blurred vision
 Persistent or Chronic Diarrhea
 Dry cough
 Fever of above 37 degrees Centigrade (100 degrees Fahrenheit)
 Night Sweats
 Permanent tiredness
 Shortness of breath
 Swollen glands lasting for weeks
 Weight loss
 White spots on the tongue or mouth
 These are some of the symptoms that surface during the first stage of
HIV infection. It is also common for people infected with HIV to feel
these symptoms and misdiagnose it as a common flu or cold. Also, in
most cases, the symptoms of HIV do not surface at all, which can lead
to AIDS further along the years, without the infected person being
aware of it.
 Proper diagnosis and medication for HIV can reduce the risk of sexual
transmission of the virus to a large extent. An individual infected with
HIV can survive in the second stage for almost 10-15 years, during
which period the symptoms are not as prominent since, at this stage,
the virus multiplies at a very slow rate. At the second stage of HIV
infection, the ART treatment certainly does help with restricting the
spreading of the virus rapidly in the immune system of the infected
individual, and it also restricts the spreading of HIV through sexual
intercourse. .
 The third stage of HIV infection is AIDS is the most progressive stage of
the virus. Treatment and proper medication during the second stage of
HIV can reduce the risk of attaining the third stage. The treatment
provided to the individuals infected with HIV is known as Antiretroviral
Therapy or ART.
It’s theoretically possible, but considered extremely rare, for HIV to be
transmitted through:

 oral sex (only if there are bleeding gums or open sores in the
person’s mouth)
 being bitten by a person with HIV (only if the saliva is bloody or there
are open sores in the person’s mouth)
 contact between broken skin, wounds, or mucous membranes and
the blood of someone living with HIV

HIV does NOT transfer through:

 skin-to-skin contact
 hugging, shaking hands, or kissing
 air or water
 sharing food or drinks, including drinking fountains
 saliva, tears, or sweat (unless mixed with the blood of a person with
HIV)
 sharing a toilet, towels, or bedding
 mosquitoes or other insects

It’s important to note that if a person living with HIV is being treated and
has a persistently undetectable viral load, it’s virtually impossible to
transmit the virus to another person.

How Do People Know if They Have AIDS?

AIDS generally is transmitted through contact with infected blood and also bodily
fluids. Such contact can occur through sharing of needles or other drug-injection
equipment, through unprotected sex, through receipt of infected blood transfusions,
through mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy or breastfeeding, and also
through plasma products during medical care in some cases. Currently, there is no
cure for AIDS. Once an individual gets AIDS, he or she has it for life.

When an individual gets infected with HIV, the body will try to fight the infection by
making antibodies (also called special Immune molecules the body makes to fight
HIV). Individuals who have HIV antibodies are called "HIV-Positive." However,
Being HIV-positive, or having HIV disease, is not the same as having AIDS. It has
been observed that many people who are HIV-positive do not get sick for many years.
HIV disease slows down the Immune system as it spreads in the body. On the other
hand, parasites, fungi, viruses and bacteria that usually don't cause any problems can
make an individual very sick if his/her Immune system is damaged. These are referred
to as opportunistic infections.

What are the stages of HIV?

When people with HIV don’t get treatment, they typically progress through
three stages. But HIV treatment can slow or prevent progression of the
disease. With advances in HIV treatment, progression to Stage 3 (AIDS) is
less common today than in the early years of HIV.

 People have a large amount of HIV in their blood and are very
contagious.
 Many people have flu-like symptoms.
 If you have flu-like symptoms and think you may have been exposed
to HIV, get tested.

 This stage is also called asymptomatic HIV infection or clinical

latency.
 HIV is still active and continues to reproduce in the body.
 People may not have any symptoms or get sick during this phase
but can transmit HIV.
 People who take HIV treatment as prescribed may never move into
Stage 3 (AIDS).
 Without HIV treatment, this stage may last a decade or longer, or
may progress faster. At the end of this stage, the amount of HIV in
the blood (viral load) goes up and the person may move into Stage 3
(AIDS).
  The most severe stage of HIV infection.
 People with AIDS can have a high viral load and may easily transmit
HIV to others.
 People with AIDS have badly damaged immune systems. They can
get an increasing number of opportunistic infections or other
serious illnesses.
 Without HIV treatment, people with AIDS typically survive about
three years.
 Stage 0: the time between a negative or indeterminate HIV test
followed less than 180 days by a positive test
 Stage 1: CD4 count ≥ 500 cells/µl and no AIDS-defining conditions
 Stage 2: CD4 count 200 to 500 cells/µl and no AIDS-defining
conditions
 Stage 3: CD4 count ≤ 200 cells/µl or AIDS-defining conditions

Side-Effects of AIDS
As discussed AIDS is an advanced HIV infection or late-stage HIV. Someone with
AIDS may acquire a wide range of health disorders like – pneumonia, thrush, fungal
infections, TB, toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus. There is also an amplified danger
of obtaining a medical illness like cancer and brain illnesses.

AIDS

AIDS is the third stage of HIV infection, by this time the body’s immune
system gets completely affected and damaged. Taking regular medication and
treatment for HIV infection can prevent the infected individual from
progressing to the stage of AIDS. However, an infected individual can be
considered to have attained the stage of AIDS in the following conditions:

 When the amount of the CD4 cells in their blood drops to 200 cells per
cubic meter
 When the infected individual starts developing frequent infections which
are not being healed naturally by the immune system of the body
Once an individual reaches the level of AIDS, the life expectancy of the
infected individual reduces to almost three years; in the case of severe
infection or disease contraption, the persons’ life expectancy might even get
reduced to approximately one year.

The medication for HIV certainly works in the condition of AIDS or the
progressed stage of infections. Still, since there is no optimum cure for AIDS,
the medications and treatment can only suppress the symptoms for a certain
period until the organs and glands stop functioning altogether.

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is defined as an HIV

infection with either a CD4+ T cell count below 200 cells per µL or the
occurrence of specific diseases associated with HIV infection.] In the
absence of specific treatment, around half of people infected with HIV
develop AIDS within ten years.] The most common initial conditions that
alert to the presence of AIDS are pneumocystis
pneumonia (40%), cachexia in the form of HIV wasting syndrome (20%),
and esophageal candidiasis.[33] Other common signs include
recurrent respiratory tract infections.]

Opportunistic infections may be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi,

and parasites that are normally controlled by the immune system.
[40]
Which infections occur depends partly on what organisms are
common in the person's environment. These infections may affect nearly
every organ system

People with AIDS have an increased risk of developing various viral-

induced cancers, including Kaposi's sarcoma, Burkitt's
lymphoma, primary central nervous system lymphoma, and cervical
cancer., Kaposi's sarcoma is the most common cancer, occurring in 10%
to 20% of people with HIV. The second-most common cancer is
lymphoma, which is the cause of death of nearly 16% of people with
AIDS and is the initial sign of AIDS in 3% to 4%.[] Both these cancers are
associated with human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). Cervical cancer occurs
more frequently in those with AIDS because of its association
with human papillomavirus (HPV).] Conjunctival cancer (of the layer that
lines the inner part of eyelids and the white part of the eye) is also more
common in those with HIV.[43]

Additionally, people with AIDS frequently have systemic symptoms such

as prolonged fevers, sweats (particularly at night), swollen lymph nodes,
chills, weakness, and unintended weight loss.] Diarrhea is another
common symptom, present in about 90% of people with AIDS. They can
also be affected by diverse psychiatric and neurological symptoms
independent of opportunistic infections and cancers.
Prevention
 AIDS clinic, McLeod Ganj, Himachal Pradesh,
India, 2010
Sexual contact

People wearing AIDS awareness signs. "Facing

AIDS a condom and a pill at a time"; on the right: "I am Facing AIDS because
people I ♥ are infected"
Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by
approximately 80% over the long term. When condoms are used
consistently by a couple in which one person is infected, the rate of HIV
infection is less than 1% per year. There is some evidence to suggest
that female condoms may provide an equivalent level of
protection Application of a vaginal gel containing tenofovir (a reverse
transcriptase inhibitor) immediately before sex seems to reduce infection
rates by approximately 40% among African women.[1 By contrast, use of
the spermicide nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of transmission due to
its tendency to cause vaginal and rectal irritation.[

Circumcision in sub-Saharan Africa "reduces the acquisition of HIV by

heterosexual men by between 38% and 66% over 24 months".] Owing to
these studies, both the World Health Organization
and UNAIDS recommended male circumcision in 2007 as a method of
preventing female-to-male HIV transmission in areas with high rates of
HIV. However, whether it protects against male-to-female transmission is
disputed, and whether it is of benefit in developed countries and
among men who have sex with men is undetermined.

Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect

subsequent HIV risk Evidence of any benefit from peer education is
equally poor. Comprehensive sexual education provided at school may
decrease high-risk behavior.\ A substantial minority of young people
continues to engage in high-risk practices despite knowing about
HIV/AIDS, underestimating their own risk of becoming infected with HIV.
[]
Voluntary counseling and testing people for HIV does not affect risky
behavior in those who test negative but does increase condom use in
those who test positive. Enhanced family planning services appear to
increase the likelihood of women with HIV using contraception,
compared to basic services.[1 It is not known whether treating other
sexually transmitted infections is effective in preventing HIV

Pre-exposure
Antiretroviral treatment among people with HIV whose CD4 count ≤ 550
cells/µL is a very effective way to prevent HIV infection of their partner (a
strategy known as treatment as prevention, or TASP).] TASP is
associated with a 10- to 20-fold reduction in transmission risk. Pre-
exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with a daily dose of the
medications tenofovir, with or without emtricitabine, is effective in people
at high risk including men who have sex with men, couples where one is
HIV-positive, and young heterosexuals in Africa It may also be effective
in intravenous drug users, with a study finding a decrease in risk of 0.7
to 0.4 per 100 person years. The USPSTF, in 2019, recommended PrEP
in those who are at high risk.]

Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to

be effective in decreasing the risk of HIV.[143] Intravenous drug use is an
important risk factor, and harm reduction strategies such as needle-
exchange programs and opioid substitution therapy appear effective in
decreasing this risk.

Post-exposure
A course of antiretrovirals administered within 48 to 72 hours after
exposure to HIV-positive blood or genital secretions is referred to
as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). The use of the single
agent zidovudine reduces the risk of an HIV infection five-fold following a
needle-stick injury. As of 2013, the prevention regimen recommended in
the United States consists of three medications—
tenofovir, emtricitabine and raltegravir—as this may reduce the risk
further.

PEP treatment is recommended after a sexual assault when the

perpetrator is known to be HIV-positive, but is controversial when their
HIV status is unknown.[ The duration of treatment is usually four
weeks[ and is frequently associated with adverse effects—where
zidovudine is used, about 70% of cases result in adverse effects such as
nausea (24%), fatigue (22%), emotional distress (13%) and headaches
(9%).

Mother-to-child
Programs to prevent the vertical transmission of HIV (from mothers to
children) can reduce rates of transmission by 92–99%. This primarily
involves the use of a combination of antiviral medications during
pregnancy and after birth in the infant, and potentially includes bottle
feeding rather than breastfeeding. If replacement feeding is acceptable,
feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, mothers should avoid
breastfeeding their infants; however, exclusive breastfeeding is
recommended during the first months of life if this is not the case.[ If
exclusive breastfeeding is carried out, the provision of extended
antiretroviral prophylaxis to the infant decreases the risk of transmission.
[]
In 2015, Cuba became the first country in the world to eradicate
mother-to-child transmission of HIV.

Vaccination
Main article: HIV vaccine development
Currently there is no licensed vaccine for HIV or AIDS.[ The most
effective vaccine trial to date, RV 144, was published in 2009; it found a
partial reduction in the risk of transmission of roughly 30%, stimulating
some hope in the research community of developing a truly effective
vaccine

Is rash a symptom of HIV?

Many people with HIV experience changes to their skin. Rash is often one
of the first symptoms of an HIV infection. Generally, an HIV rash appears
as multiple small red lesions that are flat and raised.
Rash related to HIV

HIV makes someone more susceptible to skin problems because the virus
destroys immune system cells that take measures against infection. Co-
infections that can cause rash include:

 molluscum contagiosum
 herpes simplex
 shingles

The cause of the rash determines:

 how it looks
 how long it lasts
 how it can be treated depends on the cause

Rash related to medication

While rash can be caused by HIV co-infections, it can also be caused by

medication. Some drugs used to treat HIV or other conditions can cause a
rash.

This type of rash usually appears within a week or 2 weeks of starting a

new medication. Sometimes the rash will clear up on its own. If it doesn’t, a
change in medications may be needed.

Rash due to an allergic reaction to medication can be serious.

Other symptoms of an allergic reaction include:

 trouble breathing or swallowing

 dizziness
 fever
Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) is a rare allergic reaction to HIV
medication. Symptoms include fever and swelling of the face and tongue. A
blistering rash, which can involve the skin and mucous membranes,
appears and spreads quickly.

When 30 percentTrusted Source of the skin is affected, it’s called toxic

epidermal necrolysis, which is a life threatening condition. If this develops,
emergency medical care is needed.

While rash can be linked with HIV or HIV medications, it’s important to keep
in mind that rashes are common and can have many other causes.

HIV symptoms in women: Is

there a difference?
For the most part, symptoms of HIV are similar in men and women.
However, symptoms they experience overall may differ based on the
different risks men and women face if they have HIV.

Both men and women with HIV are at increased risk for STIs. However,
women, and those with a vagina, may be less likely than men to notice
small spots or other changes to their genitals.

In addition, women with HIV are at increased risk for:

 recurrent vaginal yeast infections

 other vaginal infections, including bacterial vaginosis
 pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
 menstrual cycle changes
 human papillomavirus (HPV), which can cause genital warts and lead
to cervical cancer
While not related to HIV symptoms, another risk for women with HIV is that
the virus can be transmitted to a baby during pregnancy. However,
antiretroviral therapy is considered safe during pregnancy.

Women who are treated with antiretroviral therapy are at very low risk for
transmitting HIV to their baby during pregnancy and delivery. Breastfeeding
is also affected in women with HIV. The virus can be transferred to a baby
through breast milk.

In the United States and other settings where formula is accessible and
safe, it’s recommended that women with HIV not breastfeed their babies.
For these women, use of formula is encouraged.

Options besides formula include pasteurized banked human milk.

For women who may have been exposed to HIV, it’s important to know
what symptoms to look for.

Treatment
There is no cure for HIV infection. It is treated with antiretroviral drugs, which
stop the virus from replicating in the body.

Current antiretroviral therapy (ART) does not cure HIV infection but allows a
person’s immune system to get stronger. This helps them to fight other
infections.

Currently, ART must be taken every day for the rest of a person’s life.

ART lowers the amount of the virus in a person’s body. This stops symptoms
and allows people to live a full and healthy life. People living with HIV who are
taking ART and who have no evidence of virus in the blood will not spread the
virus to their sexual partners.

Pregnant women with HIV should have access to and take ART as soon as
possible. This protects the health of the mother and will help prevent HIV from
passing to the fetus before birth, or to the baby through breast milk.
Antiretroviral drugs given to people without HIV can prevent the disease.

When given before possible exposures to HIV it is called pre-exposure

prophylaxis (PrEP) and when given after an exposure it is called post-exposure
prophylaxis (PEP). People can use PrEP or PEP when the risk of contracting HIV
is high; people should seek advice from a clinician when thinking about using
PrEP or PEP.

Advanced HIV disease remains a persistent problem in the HIV response. WHO
is supporting countries to implement the advanced HIV disease package of care
to reduce illness and death. Newer HIV medicines and short course treatments
for opportunistic infections like cryptococcal meningitis are being developed
that may change the way people take ART and prevention medicines, including
access to injectable formulations, in the future.

WHO response
Global health sector strategies on, respectively, HIV, viral hepatitis, and sexually
transmitted infections for the period 2022–2030 (GHSSs) guide the health sector
in implementing strategically focused responses to achieve the goals of ending
AIDS, viral hepatitis B and C and sexually transmitted infections by 2030.

The GHSS recommend shared and disease-specific country actions supported

by actions by WHO and partners. They consider the epidemiological,
technological, and contextual shifts of previous years, foster learnings across
the disease areas, and create opportunities to leverage innovations and new
knowledge for effective responses to the diseases. They call for a precise focus
to reach the people most affected and at risk for each disease that addresses
inequities. They promote synergies under a universal health coverage and
primary health care framework and contribute to achieving the goals of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Conclusion

One of the main sources for the transmission of HIV is through

sexual intercourse or the usage of the same injections with an
infected individual. In the case of infants, HIV is transmitted during
the process of birth, in the womb of the infected mother, or during
breastfeeding.
HIV can progressively lead to AIDS after a certain period if it isn’t
diagnosed during the first two stages. There is no optimal cure for
HIV or AIDS in modern science yet, but the ART treatment certainly
does help with slowing down the spreading of the virus.
As a person reaches the stage of AIDS, the life expectancy of the
infected individual decreases up to a maximum of three years. If
that certain individual contracts a major life-threatening disease, the
patient’s life expectancy reduces up to a maximum of one year.

BIBLIOGRPHY
https://www.healthline.com/health/hiv-aids#causes-of-hiv
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https://medlineplus.gov/hiv.html