TANJONG KATONG GIRLS’ SCHOOL

Secondary 3 Chemistry
Chemical Bonding Notes

Very few elements exist as individual atoms. Atoms bond together chemically.

A. Stable electronic configuration of noble gases

1. Noble gases are found in Group 18 of the Periodic Table. noble gases

2. Noble gases are typically unreactive and stable.

3. Noble gases are stable because their valence electron shells are completely filled with
electrons. They either have
• two valence electrons (duplet electronic configuration) or
• eight valence electrons (octet electronic configuration)

4. Hence, noble gases are inert (unreactive) and exist as monatomic elements.
5. All other atoms do not have completely filled valence electron shells and are not chemically
stable.
6. Due to the stability of this noble gas electronic configuration, all other atoms desire to
achieve this electronic configuration as well.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 7. They achieve a stable noble gas electronic configuration by
• losing electrons,
• gaining electrons, or
• sharing electrons.

B. Forming ions
1. When an atom gains or loses electrons, an ion is formed.
2. An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom loses or gains electrons.
3.

Atoms are electrically neutral. When an atoms loses or gains electrons,

the number of protons is no longer equal to the number of electrons,
hence it becomes a charged particle.

4. Two types of ions: positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions)
5. Positive ions (cations) are formed when atoms lose electrons.
Metal atoms usually have one to three valence electrons.

metal electronic configuration number of valence electrons

lithium 2, 1 1
calcium 2, 8, 8, 2 2
aluminium 2, 8, 3 3

It is easier for metal atoms to lose valence electrons to achieve stable noble gas electronic
configuration (than to gain electrons).

Example: Sodium atom becoming a sodium ion by losing one valence electron

electrons are lost

from the valence
shell only.

sodium atom sodium ion

2, 8, 1 2, 8
11 protons 11 protons number of protons
11 electrons 10 electrons and neutrons
12 neutrons 12 neutrons remain unchanged
(total charge = 0) (total charge = 1+) in ion formation.

Symbol: Na Na+

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 The sodium ion has the stable electronic configuration of neon.

Compare the sodium cation and the neon atom:

sodium ion neon atom

2, 8 2, 8
11 protons 10 protons
10 electrons 10 electrons
12 neutrons 10 neutrons
(total charge = 1+) (total charge = 0)

Although the sodium cation (Na+) and the neon atom (Ne) both have the same electronic
configuration, they are different!
This is because they still have different numbers of protons. Remember that the proton
number of any particle determines the identity of the particle.

6. Negative ions (anions) are formed when atoms gain electrons.

Non-metal atoms usually have more than four valence electrons.

non-metal electronic configuration number of valence electrons

nitrogen 2, 5 5
sulfur 2, 8, 6 6
chlorine 2, 8, 7 7

It is easier for non-metal atoms to gain valence electrons to achieve stable noble gas
electronic configuration (than to lose electrons).

Example: Fluorine atom becoming a fluorine ion by gaining one valence electron

fluorine atom fluoride ion For anions, the

2, 7 2, 8 name of the
9 protons 9 protons non-metal has
“ide” when they
9 electrons 10 electrons
become ions
10 neutrons 10 neutrons
(total charge = 0) (total charge = 1–)

Symbol: F F–

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 The fluoride ion has the stable electronic configuration of neon.

C. Ionic bonding
1. Metals tend to lose its valence electrons to form cations.
2. Non-metals tend to gain valence electrons to form anions.
3. What happens when cations and anions come together?

4. There are three steps in formation of an ionic bond

Example: Formation of sodium fluoride

Step 1: Sodium atom loses one valence electron to form a positively charged
Formation of sodium ion.
positive ion
Na → Na+ + e–
sodium atom sodium ion electron

Step 2: Fluorine atom gains one electron to form a negatively charged

Formation of fluoride ion.
negative ion
F + e– → F–
fluorine atom electron fluoride ion

Step 3: Positive sodium ions and negative fluoride ions are held together by
Formation of strong electrostatic forces of attraction to form sodium fluoride.
ionic bonds
between the Ionic bonds are the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
positive and between oppositely charged ions.
negative ions
Na+ + F– → NaF
sodium ion fluoride ion sodium fluoride
(ionic compound)

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

5. We can illustrate the formation of ionic compounds through dot-and-cross diagrams.

sodium atom fluorine atom Key:

Na F – electron of sodium
2, 8, 1 2, 7 X – electron of fluorine

sodium fluoride, NaF

6. Note that the number of electrons gained and lost must be conserved.
In the formation of magnesium chloride:
Key:
• one magnesium atom loses two valence electrons
– electron of magnesium
• two chlorine atoms gain one electron each X – electron of chlorine

Cl Mg Cl

transfer of transfer of
electron electron

Cl atom Mg atom Cl atom

2+ –

Mg Cl

magnesium chloride, MgCl2

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

7. In any ionic compound, the sum of positive charges is equal to the sum of negative charges.
The positive charges must balance the negative charges.

Scan to watch:
Ionic bonding dot-and-
cross diagram
8. How can the formula of ionic compounds be deduced?

Example: magnesium chloride

Step 1: Write down the formula of the ions Mg 2+ Cl –

Mg Cl
Step 2: Criss-cross the charges
1 × (2+ charge) = 2 × (1– charge)

Step 3: Formula MgCl2

Example: calcium oxide

Step 1: Write down the formula of the ions Ca 2+ O 2–

Ca O
Step 2: Criss-cross the charges
The charges cancel out exactly

Step 3: Formula CaO

9. There are some ions that consist of a group of atoms. These are called polyatomic ions
and are composed of two or more covalently bonded atoms.

Some common ones are shown below.

name formula of ion
ammonium ion NH4+
hydroxide ion OH–
nitrate ion NO3–
sulfate ion SO42–
carbonate ion CO32–
phosphate ion PO43–

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

D. Structure of ionic compounds
1. A dot-and-cross diagram can be used to represent the electronic configuration in ions
Example: sodium chloride

2. The dot-and-cross diagram only shows two ions of an ionic bond. In reality, sodium
chloride (NaCl) compound consists of millions of the Na+ and Cl– pairs, arranged into a
giant ionic lattice, with many ionic bonds between the oppositely-charged ions.

sodium ion chloride ion

3. How do all these ions position themselves in sodium chloride?

The diagram shows a 3-dimensional structure of the compound, sodium chloride.

Na+

ionic bonds

Cl–

Each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl– ions and each Cl– ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions.
All the bonds are ionic bonds.
Overall ratio of Na+ ion to Cl– ion is 1 : 1.
Hence, the empirical (simplest) formula or the formula unit of sodium chloride is NaCl.

4. Features of giant ionic lattice structure

• the ions are held together by strong ionic bonds, which are strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
• the ions are packed in a regular pattern known as ‘lattice’.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 E. Properties of ionic compounds
1. The giant ionic lattice structure gives rise to general properties in ionic compounds.

Physical property Explanation

High melting point and Ions in ionic compound are held together by strong electrostatic
boiling point forces of attraction / strong ionic bonds.
(tend to exist as solids at
room temperature)
A large amount of energy is needed to overcome these strong forces
of attraction during melting or boiling.

E.g. magnesium oxide has a melting point of 2852 °C.

Usually soluble in water Water molecules can separate the positive ions from the negative
but insoluble in organic ions, causing the ionic compound to dissolve in water.
solvents

water
sodium chloride
crystal

Ionic compounds are insoluble in organic solvents (such as oil and

benzene) because the ions remain in a giant ionic lattice structure.

Exceptions:
Some ionic compounds are insoluble in water, e.g. silver chloride.
The ions in these compounds remain in a giant ionic lattice structure
when placed in water.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

Conduct electricity In the solid state, ions are held in fixed positions in the giant
when molten or when ionic lattice structure and are not free to move.
dissolved in water
(aqueous state).

Do not conduct
electricity in solid state

Scan to watch:
Electrical
conductivity of ionic
compound when
solid and molten
In the molten or aqueous state, ions can move freely and can
Scan to watch:
Electrical behave as mobile charged carriers to conduct electricity.
conductivity of
aqueous ionic
compound

Key:

water molecule

To conduct electricity,
there must be the Representations of ions in the three states:
presence of mobile
charged carriers. molten (means aqueous (means
solid
liquefied by heat) dissolved in water)

+ sodium ion, Na+ + –

+ + +
– chloride ion, Cl –
+ – + – – –
–
– + – +
– +
+ – +

Hard and brittle Solid ionic compounds are hard due to the strong ionic bonds
between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic compounds are

brittle. Stress applied
on an ionic lattice
cause the sliding of
the layers of ions.
Thus, ions of similar
charges come together and the repulsion that occurs shatters
the ionic lattice.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

F. List of common ions
charge of ion name of ion formula of ion
sodium Na+
potassium K+
1+ silver Ag+
ammonium NH4+ Cations are usually ions
of metals. H+ and NH4+
hydrogen H+ are some exceptions.
magnesium Mg2+
zinc Zn2+
2+ lead(II) Pb2+
barium Ba2+
Some metals (usually transition
iron(II) Fe2+
metals) form more than 1 type of
iron(III) Fe3+ ion e.g. iron forms Fe2+ and Fe3+.
3+
aluminium Al3+

charge of ion name of ion formula of ion

fluoride F–
chloride Cl–
bromide Br–
1– iodide I–
hydroxide OH–
nitrate NO3–
hydrogencarbonate HCO3–
oxide O2–
sulfide S2–
2– sulfite SO32–
sulfate SO42–
carbonate CO32–
nitride N3–
3–
phosphate PO43–

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

G. Covalent Bonding
1. Non-metal atoms can share electrons in order to achieve stable noble gas configuration.
2. A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share valence electrons.
3. Covalent bonds can be formed between
• atoms of the same element
• atoms of different elements
4. A molecule is a group of 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
5. We can illustrate covalent bonding by dot-and-cross diagrams.

Hydrogen has one valence electron.

It needs 1 more electron to obtain a duplet electronic configuration.

One hydrogen atom shares

its valence electron with Sharing of two electrons
another hydrogen atom. form a single covalent bond

By sharing 1 electron each, both hydrogen atoms have 2 electrons in its valence electron
shell, hence both have duplet electronic configuration.

This is known as a hydrogen gas molecule, H2. The subscript of ‘2’ tells us that in each
molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded together.

Apart from using ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, covalent compounds may be represented

using structural formulae. A structural formula shows how atoms are arranged in a
molecule.

For instance, H2 is represented by:

H–H
The single line between the two atoms
represents a pair of shared electrons
(single covalent bond)

Scan to watch:
Covalent bonding dot-
and-cross diagram

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 Chlorine has seven valence electrons.
Each chlorine atom needs 1 more electron to obtain an octet electronic configuration.
Hence, each chlorine atom shares 1 electron so that both atoms have 8 electrons in its
valence shell.
The following shows the ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram of the covalent bonding in chlorine
molecule, with only the valence electrons shown.

Electrons not
involved in bonding Sharing of two electrons
are drawn in pairs form a single covalent bond

The molecule, Cl2, is represented by the structural formula:

Cl – Cl
Oxygen has six valence electrons. How is an oxygen molecule formed?
An oxygen atom needs 2 more electrons to obtain an octet electronic configuration.
Each oxygen atom shares 2 valence electrons with each other so that both atoms have 8
electrons in its valence shell.

O O O O

Bonding electrons Sharing of four electrons

are drawn in form a double covalent bond
alternate pattern

The molecule, O2, is represented by the structural formula:

O=O
The double line between the two atoms represents
two pairs of shared electrons (double covalent bond)
i.e. 4 shared electrons

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 How about nitrogen. Can you show the bonding in a nitrogen molecule using a
‘dot-and-cross’ diagram?

6. Molecules of compound
Water is a covalent compound.
How do oxygen and hydrogen atoms combine to form water molecule?

Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom

 6 valence electrons  1 valence electron
O  Needs 2 more electrons H  Needs 1 more electron
to obtain octet to obtain duplet
electronic configuration. electronic configuration.

1 oxygen atom shares two electrons with 2 hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom shares
one electron with oxygen atom.
Hence, oxygen has 8 valence electrons and each hydrogen has 2 valence electrons.
4 electrons are involved in bonding to form 2 single O – H bonds.

Key Notice that hydrogen

Electron atoms are drawn smaller
from oxygen than the oxygen atom.
Electron O H
from hydrogen The size of atoms need
to be depicted accurately
in your diagrams!!
A legend is required H
now because there Two single covalent
are electrons from O–H bonds formed.
two different types
of elements.

The molecule, H2O, is represented by the structural formula:

O
H H
The single line between the two atoms
represents one pair of shared electrons.
There are 2 single covalent bonds.
i.e., 4 shared electrons

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 The covalent bonding of some covalent compounds is shown:

covalent dot-and-cross diagram structural molecular

molecule (valence electrons only) formula formula

× Cl
H

hydrogen
: electron of Cl H – Cl HCl
chloride
× : electron of H

Hydrogen shares 1 electron with 1 chlorine

atom. Chlorine atom shares 1 electron with
hydrogen atom.

methane CH4
: electron of C
4 single
× : electron of H covalent
bonds
Carbon atom shares 4 electrons with 4
hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom
shares 1 electron with carbon atom.

O=C=O
carbon
2 double CO2
dioxide : electron of O
covalent
× : electron of C bonds

Carbon atom shares 4 electrons with 2

oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom shares 2
electrons with carbon atom

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

7. If two atoms share
(a) one pair of electrons, a single bond is formed.
(b) two pairs of electrons, a double bond is formed.
(c) three pairs of electrons, a triple bond is formed.

8. How do you deduce the covalent bonding in compounds?

Example: Draw the dot-and-cross diagram for the covalent compound formed between
phosphorus and fluorine.

Step 1: Phosphorus: Fluorine:

Determine the number of valence electrons 5 valence 7 valence
in the atoms of the elements. electrons electrons

Step 2:
Valency: 3 Fluorine: 1
Determine the number of valence electrons
[One phosphorus [One fluorine atom
an atom must gain or lose to achieve a
atom will share 3 will share 1
noble gas configuration.
electrons] electron]
This is the valency.

Step 3: One phosphorus atom will bond with 3

Swap valency fluorine atoms.
Phosphorus atom shares 3 electrons with
3 fluorine atoms.
Each fluorine atom shares 1 electron with
the phosphorus atom.
Dot-and-cross diagram:
Phosphorus is in Period 3 while fluorine is in Period 2. Hence, phosphorus atom is larger
than fluorine.

Key
: electron from phosphorus
F P F
: electron from fluorine

F
F

structural formula: F P F molecular formula: PF3

H. Simple molecular structure

1. Most covalent substances exist as simple, discrete molecules.
2. They have simple molecular structures.
3. These molecules do not form any giant lattice structure (as compared to ionic compounds).

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

I. Properties of covalent molecules with simple molecular structure

1. The simple molecular structure gives rise to general properties in covalent molecules.

Physical Property Explanation

Low melting point and Simple molecular substances exist as discrete molecules held by
boiling point weak intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules.
(tend to exist as gases
and liquids at room These intermolecular forces of attraction require little energy to
temperature) overcome, resulting in low melting and boiling points.

E.g. Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 °C. It is a volatile liquid at

room temperature, meaning that it evaporates easily.

**There are two types of bonds/forces of attraction in simple molecular structures.

1. Atoms in the molecules are held by strong covalent bonds.
2. Molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction. Only the weak
intermolecular forces of attraction are overcome during melting and boiling of
simple molecular substances.

Example: Bromine, Br2 within the molecule:

strong covalent bond

between molecules:
weak intermolecular
forces of attraction Br Br

Extension: Intermolecular forces of attraction are also known as van der Waals’ forces or
London-dispersion forces.

Usually insoluble in Water molecules cannot separate the structure of simple

water but soluble in molecular substances. For example, oil and water are immiscible
organic solvents and will form two distinct layers when mixed together.

Covalent substances are soluble in organic solvents (such as

oil and benzene).

Exceptions: Some covalent substances such as sugar and

ethanol are soluble in water. Some covalent substances, such as
hydrogen chloride, are soluble in water to form ions.
Do not conduct Simple molecular substances are neutral discrete molecules.
electricity in any states Hence, there is no mobile ions or delocalised electrons to act
(solid, liquid/molten or as mobile charged carriers to conduct electricity.
gaseous)

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

J. Giant molecular structure

Some substances exist as a giant network of atoms that are covalently bonded.

Diamond
One allotrope of carbon. Allotropes are different forms of the same element.
Each carbon atom forms numerous, strong covalent bonds with 4 other carbon atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement.

C
covalent bonds

C C C

Scan to watch:
Diamonds in
Physical properties of diamond our daily lives

Physical Property Explanation

High melting and Diamond has a giant molecular structure.
boiling point Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon
(m.p. = 3500 °C; atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. A large amount of energy
b.p. = 4800 °C) is required to overcome the numerous strong covalent bonds
between the carbon atoms.

Non-conductor of All 4 valence electrons of each carbon atom are used in

electricity covalent bonding with 4 other carbon atoms. Thus, there are
no mobile ions or delocalised electrons to act as the mobile
charge carriers.

Insoluble in water and Water or organic solvents are not able to overcome the
organic solvents numerous strong covalent bonds present in the giant molecular
structure of diamond.

Hard Diamond has a giant molecular structure.

(not easily scratched or Each carbon atoms forms covalent bonds with 4 carbon atoms
worn out) in a tetrahedral arrangement. The strong covalent bonds
between carbon atoms in an extensive network give rise to a
Scan to read:
Comparing the rigid and hard structure.
hardness of minerals

Application of diamond
Diamond is used as tips of drills and other cutting tools for drilling, grinding and polishing hard
surfaces because of its high melting point and hardness.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

Graphite
1. Allotrope of carbon
2. Giant molecular layered structure
3. Within each layer, 1 carbon atom forms strong covalent
bonds with 3 other carbon atoms. This forms hexagonal
rings of six carbon atoms that join together to form flat
layers. Hence, each layer is a giant molecule.

4. The layers of carbon atoms are held by weak intermolecular forces of attraction / van
der Waals’ forces of attraction.

numerous strong covalent

bonds between carbon atoms

flat layer of carbon atoms

weak intermolecular forces

of attraction between layers

Scan to watch:
Allotropes of carbon:
Physical properties of graphite diamond and graphite

Physical Property Explanation

High melting and Graphite has a giant molecular structure.
boiling point In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other
(m.p. = 3300 °C) carbon atoms in a hexagonal arrangement. A large amount of
energy is required to overcome the numerous strong covalent
bonds between the carbon atoms as well as the intermolecular
forces of attraction between the layers of carbon atoms.

Good conductor of In graphite, each carbon atom uses 3 out of 4 of its valence
electricity electrons to form strong covalent bonds with 3 other carbon
atoms. Hence each carbon atom has 1 valence electron not
used to form covalent bonds. These valence electrons are
delocalised and act as the mobile charge carriers to conduct
electricity along the layers of carbon atoms.

C
C C

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 Insoluble in water and Water or organic solvents are not able to overcome the
organic solvents numerous strong covalent bonds present in the giant molecular
structure of graphite.

Soft and slippery Graphite has a giant molecular structure with strong covalent
bonds within the hexagonal layers, and weak intermolecular
forces/ weak van der Waals’ forces of attraction between the
layers, hence layers are able to slide across each other easily.

Application of graphite
• Dry lubricant – lubricate machine parts that contain rubber
• Brushes for electric motors and inert electrodes for electrolysis – good conductor of
electricity
• Baked with clay and made into “pencil lead” – soft, so carbon layers can be rubbed off
easily and sticks to the paper when you write

Silicon dioxide, SiO2

1. Also known as sand/ silica/ silicon(IV) oxide
2. Silicon dioxide has a structure and properties similar to silicon
diamond
3. Each silicon atom forms covalent bonds to 4 oxygen atoms in
a tetrahedral arrangement.
4. Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds to 2 silicon atoms.
oxygen

Scan to read:
Graphene: The carbon-
based wonder material

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

K. Giant metallic lattice structure
1. In a giant metallic lattice structure, metal atoms lose their valence electrons and become
positively-charged ions.
2. These valence electrons are hence known as ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.
3. The lattice structure of metal is described as a regular lattice of positive ions surrounded
by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.

lattice of positive ions

Note: ‘delocalised’ electrons refer to

electrons that have been lost from
the valence shell of the atom and
are free to move within the metal.

‘sea’ of delocalised electrons

4. Metallic bond is the strong electrostatic force of attraction between positive metal ions
and the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.

Physical properties of metal

1. High melting and boiling points

A lot of heat energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attractions
between the metal ions and the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.

2. Electrical conductivity
Metals are good conductor of electricity because
of the presence of ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
within the metal lattice, which acts as the mobile
charge carriers.
When electricity is passed through a metal, the
‘sea’ of delocalised electrons move from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.

3. Malleable (able to be hammered into sheets) and ductile (able to be drawn into wires)
The valence electrons are free to move and do not belong to any particular metal atom.
When a force is applied to the metal, layers of closely packed metallic cations can slide
over one another without breaking the metallic bonds. As a result, metallic bonds are
strong and flexible.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

Summary of Chemical Bonding

ionic covalent (macromolecule) covalent metal

type of elements
between metal and non-metal non-metal non-metal metal
involved

particles present ions (cations and anions) atoms molecules metal ions and electrons

structure giant ionic lattice structure giant molecular structure simple molecular structure giant metallic lattice structure

Strong electrostatic forces of

forces of Strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the metal
attraction attraction between the Numerous strong covalent Weak intermolecular forces of
ions and the ‘sea’ of
between the oppositely charged ions / bonds between the atoms attraction
delocalised electrons / strong
particles strong ionic bonds
metallic bonds

Not applicable to metals.

Most are soluble in water but Insoluble in both water and Mostly insoluble in water but A chemical reaction occurs
solubility
insoluble in organic solvent organic solvent soluble in organic solvent when highly reactive metals
are added to water.

physical state at solid

room
solid solid liquid or gas (except mercury, which is a
temperature and
pressure liquid)

melting and
high high low high
boiling points

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 ionic covalent (macromolecule) covalent metal
(compound) has a giant ionic Diamond/ silicon dioxide has a (substance) has a simple (metal) has a giant metallic
lattice structure. A large giant molecular structure. In molecular structure. Little lattice structure. A large amount
amount of energy is required diamond each carbon atom is energy is required to of energy is required to
to overcome the strong covalently bonded to 4 other overcome the weak overcome the strong
electrostatic forces of carbon atoms in a tetrahedral intermolecular forces of electrostatic forces of attractions
attraction between the arrangement. (Each silicon atom is attraction. Thus (substance) between the metal ions and the
oppositely charged ions / covalently bonded to four oxygen has a low melting and boiling ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons /
strong ionic bonds. Hence atoms.) point. strong metallic bonds. Hence
(compound) has a high A large amount of energy is (metal) has a high melting and
melting and boiling point. required to overcome the boiling point.
numerous strong covalent bonds
between the carbon atoms (silicon
and oxygen atoms). Thus,
melting and diamond/ silicon dioxide has a
boiling points very high melting and boiling point.

Graphite has a giant molecular

structure. In graphite, each carbon
atom is covalently bonded to 3
other carbon atoms in a hexagonal
arrangement. A large amount of
energy is required to overcome the
numerous strong covalent bonds
between the carbon atoms as well
as the intermolecular forces of
attraction between the layers of
carbon atoms. Thus, graphite has
a high ‘melting’ point.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes

 ionic covalent (macromolecule) covalent metal
Ionic compounds do not Diamond/ silicon dioxide are Simple covalent molecules are Metals can conduct electricity
conduct electricity when solid unable to conduct electricity in any unable to conduct electricity in when molten or in the solid state.
and only conduct when molten state. Diamond/ silicon dioxide has any state.
(l) or in the aqueous state (aq) a giant molecular structure. All 4 (metal) has a giant metallic
valence electrons of each carbon (substance) has a simple lattice structure with strong
(compound) has a giant ionic atom (silicon atom) are used in molecular structure. There are electrostatic forces of attraction
lattice structure. In solid state, covalent bonding with 4 other no mobile ions or delocalised between the metal ions and the
ions are held in fixed positions carbon atoms (oxygen atoms). electrons to act as mobile ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons /
in a lattice structure hence There is an absence of mobile ions charge carriers to conduct strong metallic bonds. The ‘sea’
there are no mobile ions to or delocalised electrons to act as electricity. of delocalised electrons act as
conduct electricity. mobile charge carriers, hence it mobile charge carriers to
cannot conduct electricity. conduct electricity.
However, in molten/ aqueous
electrical
state, the strong electrostatic Graphite is able to conduct
conductivity
forces of attraction between electricity. Graphite has a giant
the oppositely charged ions molecular structure. In graphite,
have been overcome, ions are each carbon atom uses 3 out of 4
able to act as mobile charge of its valence electrons to form
carriers to conduct electricity. strong covalent bonds with 3 other
carbon atoms. Hence each carbon
atom has 1 valence electron not
used to form covalent bonds.
These valence electrons are
delocalised and are able to act as
the mobile charge carriers to
conduct electricity along the layers
of carbon atoms.

3E Pure Chemistry Notes