Techniques of Integration

To find antiderivatives (or indefinite integrals) is not as straightforward as finding derivatives. In this
we study a number of important techniques that apply to finding integrals for specialized classes of
functions such as trigonometric functions, products of certain functions, and rational functions.

Sometimes we have to rewrite an integral to match it to a standard form of the type displayed in
Table 1.

We start with an example of this procedure.

EXAMPLE.1: Complete the square to evaluate

∫√

Solution: We complete the square to simplify the denominator:

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

02
Then

∫√ ∫ ( )
√

Let ( )

∫√ ( ) ( )

The integrand is an improper fraction if the degree of the numerator is greater

than the degree of the denominator. To integrate it, we perform long division
to obtain a quotient plus a remainder that is a proper fraction.

EXAMPLE : Evaluate

∫ ,

Therefore,

∫ ∫( ) | |

Reducing an improper fraction by long division (Example) does not always lead
to an expression we can integrate directly.

EXAMPLE: Evaluate

∫√

Solution: We first separate the integrand to get

∫√ ∫√ ∫√

02
In the first of these new integrals, we substitute

Then we obtain
( )
∫√ ∫ ∫
√

The second of the new integrals is a standard form,

∫√

Combining these results and renaming C1 + C2 as C gives

∫√ √ +

Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form

∫ ( ) ( )

It is useful when can be differentiated repeatedly and can be integrated

repeatedly without difficulty. The integrals

∫ ∫

are such integrals because ( ) or ( ) can be differentiated

repeatedly to become zero, and ( ) or ( ) can be
integrated repeatedly without difficulty. Integration by parts also applies to

∫ ∫

00
In the first case, the integrand can be rewritten as ( )( ), and
( ) is easy to differentiate while ( ) easily integrates to . In
the second case, each part of the integrand appears again after repeated
differentiation or integration.

Product Rule in Integral Form

If and are differentiable functions of , the Product Rule says that

[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

In terms of indefinite integrals, this equation becomes

∫[ ( ) ( )] ∫ ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )

Rearranging the terms of this last equation, we get

∫ ( ) ( ) ∫ [ ( ) ( )] ∫ ( ) ( )

leading to the integration by parts formula

∫ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )

This formula allows us to exchange the problem of computing the integral

∫ ( ) ( ) with the problem of computing a different integral,
∫ ( ) ( ) . In many cases, we can choose the functions and so that
the second integral is easier to compute than the first. There can be many
choices for and , and it is not always clear which choice works best, so
sometimes we need to try several.

The formula is often given in differential form. With ( ) and

( ) , the integration by parts formula becomes

∫ ∫
The next examples illustrate the technique

EXAMPLE : Find ∫

02
Solution: There is no obvious antiderivative of x cos x, so we use the
integration by parts formula

∫ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )

to change this expression to one that is easier to integrate. We first decide

how to choose the functions ( ) and ( ). In this case we factor the
expression into

( ) ( )

Next we differentiate ( ) and find an antiderivative of ( ),

( ) ( )

We now apply the integration by parts formula:

∫ ∫ ( )

EXAMPLE : Find ∫ .

Solution: We use the integration by parts formula

Let ( ) ( )

We differentiate ( ) and find an antiderivative of ( ),

( ) ( )

Then

∫ ( ) ( ) ∫

( )

02
EXAMPLE: Evaluate

can be differentiated repeatedly to become zero, and or

can be integrated repeatedly without difficulty.

We differentiate and find an antiderivative of ,

Integration by parts formula

We then have

∫ ∫

To evaluate the integral on the right, we integrate by parts again with

. Then

∫ ∫

Using this last evaluation, we then obtain

Evaluating Definite Integrals by Parts

in order to evaluate definite integrals by parts. Assuming that both and

are continuous over the interval [ ]

Integration by Parts Formula for Definite Integrals

∫ ] ∫

EXAMPLE : Find the area of the region bounded by the curve and
the x-axis from to .

52
Solution The region is shaded in Figure 1. Its area is

Let then

∫ ] ∫

[ ] ∫ ]

Trigonometric Substitutions
Trigonometric substitutions occur when we replace the variable of integration
by a trigonometric function. The most common substitutions are ,
, and . These substitutions are effective in
transforming integrals involving √ , √ , and √
into integrals we can evaluate directly since they come from the reference
right triangles in Figure below.

52
With

With

With

EXAMPLE: Evaluate ∫
√

Solution:

52
Solution:

∫√ ∫ ∫ ∫ | |
√ | |

√
∫√ | | | |

52
EXAMPLE : Evaluate ∫
√

Solution: Let

( )

Then, ∫ ∫ | |
∫ ∫
√

( )

= ( )

√
( ) ( )

Products of Powers of Sines and Cosines

We begin with integrals of the form

92
where and are nonnegative integers (positive or zero). We can divide the
appropriate substitution into three cases according to and being odd or
even.

EXAMPLE : Evaluate ∫

Solution: This is an example of Case 1.

∫ ∫

∫ ∫( )( )( ( ))

∫( )( )( ) ∫( )( ) ∫( )

∫( )

03
EXAMPLE: Evaluate

Solution: This is an example of Case 2, where is even and is

odd.

∫ ∫( ) ( )

∫( ) ( ) ∫( ) ∫( )

∫( )

03
EXAMPLE : Evaluate

Solution This is an example of Case 3.

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Express a rational function (a quotient of polynomials) as a sum of simpler

fractions, called partial fractions, which are easily integrated.

The rational function ( ) ( ) can be rewritten as:

09
To integrate the rational function ( ) ( ) on the left side
of our previous expression, we simply sum the integrals of the fractions on the
right side:

The method for rewriting rational functions as a sum of simpler fractions is

called the method of partial fractions. In the case of the preceding example, it
consists of finding constants A and B such that

We call the fractions ( ) and ( ) partial fractions because

their denominators are only part of the original denominator ( ).
We call and undetermined coef ficients until suitable values for them
have been found.

To find and , we first clear Equation (1) of fractions and regroup in powers
of , obtaining

This will be an identity in x if and only if the coefficients of like powers of x on

the two sides are equal:

00
Solving these equations simultaneously gives and .

03
EXAMPLE: Use partial fractions to evaluate

Solution: First we express the integrand as a sum of partial fractions with

undetermined coefficients.

EXAMPLE: Use partial fractions to evaluate

Solution: The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor as well

as a repeated linear factor , so we write

(1)

Clearing the equation of fractions gives

73
We substitute these values into Equation (1), obtaining

73
Areas Between Curves
Integration with Respect to

Suppose we want to find the area of a region that is bounded above by the
curve , below by the curve , and on the left and right by
the lines and (Figure 6.1). The region might accidentally have a
shape whose area we could find with geometry, but if ƒ and g are arbitrary
continuous functions, we usually have to find the area by computing an
integral.

93
To see what the integral should be, we first approximate the region with
vertical rectangles based on a partition { } [ ] (Figure
6.2). The area of the kth rectangle (Figure 6.3) is

[ ]

We then approximate the area of the region by adding the areas of the
rectangles

∑ ∑ [ ]

As ‖ ‖ , the sums on the right approach the limit ∫ [ ]

because and are continuous. The area of the region is defined to be the
value of this integral. That is,

∑[ ] ∫ [ ]
‖ ‖

04
It also helps you find the limits of integration if they are not given. You may
need to find where the curves intersect to determine the limits of integration,
and this may involve solving the equation for values of . Then
you can integrate the function for the area between the intersections.

EXAMPLE : Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola

and the line .

Solution: First we sketch the two curves (see Figure 6.4). The limits of
integration are found by solving and simultaneously for
.

04
The region runs from = -1 to = 2. The limits of integration are = -1, = 2.
The area between the curves is

∫ [ ] ∫ [ ]

∫ * +

( ) ( )

EXAMPLE: Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded
above by √ and below by the x-axis and the line .

Solution: The sketch (Figure 6.5) shows that the region’s upper boundary is the
graph of = √ . The lower boundary changes from
to for (both formulas agree at ).
We subdivide the region at into subregions and , shown in Figure
6.5. The limits of integration for region are and . The left-hand
limit for region is . To find the right-hand limit, we solve the equations
√ and simultaneously for :

04
√

Only the value satisfies the equation √ = . The value is

an extrane ous root introduced by squaring. The right-hand limit is .

For √ √

For √ √

We add the areas of subregions and to find the total area:

Total area =∫
⏟√ ⏟ (√
∫ )

⁄ ⁄
* + * +

⁄ ⁄ ⁄
( ) ( )

Integration with Respect to y

If a region’s bounding curves are described by functions of , the
approximating rectan gles are horizontal instead of vertical and the basic
formula has in place of . For regions like these:

09
Use the formula ∫ [ ]

In this equation always denotes the right-hand curve and the left-hand
curve, so is nonnegative.

EXAMPLE: Find the area of the region in Figure 6.6 by integrating with respect
to y.

Solution: We first sketch the region and a typical horizontal rectangle based on
a partition of an interval of y-values (Figure 6.6). The region’s right-hand
boundary is the line , so . The left-hand boundary
is the curve , so . The lower limit of integration is .
We find the upper limit by solving and simultaneously
for :

00
The upper limit of integration is . (The value ) gives a point of
intersection below the x-axis.

The area of the region is

∫ [ ] ∫ [ ]

=* +

04
EXAMPLE: Find the area of the region bounded below by the line
and above by the curve √ .

Solution: A sketch of the region in Figure 2.6, and we see that the line and
curve intersect at the points (1, 1) and (2, 0). Using vertical rectangles, the area
of the region is given by

∫ (√ )

To use horizontal rectangles, we irst need to express each bounding curve as a

function of the variable y. The line on the left is easily found to be .
For the curve √ on the right-hand side in Figure 2.7, we have

( ) Complete the square

Solving for

( )

√ .

The area of the region is then given by

∫ [( √ ) ( )] ∫ (√ )

Let

Also ∫ (√ )

64
But

∫ ( )

∫ ( )

But ( )

∫ * ( ) +

( ) +

But √
√

( √ ) ]
√

* ( ( )) + * ( ( )) +

* ( ) +

* ( ) +

64
Volumes

8.1 - Volumes Using Cross-Sections

We define volumes of solids by using the areas of their cross-sections.
A cross-section of a solid S is the planar region formed by intersecting S with a
plane (Figure 8.1).

Suppose that we want to find the volume of a solid S like the one pictured in
Figure 8.1. At each point x in the interval [ ] we form a cross-section by
intersecting with a plane perpendicular to the x-axis through the point ,
which gives a planar region whose area is We will show that if is a
continuous function of , then the volume of the solid S is the definite integral
of . This method of computing volumes is known as the method of slicing.

84
 This definition applies whenever is integrable, and in particular
when is continuous.

To apply this definition to calculate the volume of a solid using cross-

sections perpendicular to the x-axis, take the following steps:

EXAMPLE 8.1 : A pyramid 3 m high has a square base that is 3 m on a side. The
cross section of the pyramid perpendicular to the altitude m down from the
vertex is a square m on a side. Find the volume of the pyramid.

Solution

1. A sketch. We draw the pyramid with its altitude along the x-axis and its
vertex at the origin and include a typical cross-section (Figure 8.2). Note
that by positioning the pyramid in this way, we have vertical cross-
sections that are squares, whose areas are easy to calculate.
2. A formula for The cross-section at x is a square x meters on a side,
so its area is .
3. The limits of integration. The squares lie on the planes from

4. Integrate to find the volume:

84
 ∫ ∫ ]

EXAMPLE 8.2 : A curved wedge is cut from a circular cylinder of radius 3 by

two planes. One plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The second
plane crosses the first plane at a 45° angle at the center of the cylinder. Find
the volume of the wedge.

05
Solution:

We draw the wedge and sketch a typical cross-section perpendicular

to the x-axis (Figure 8.3). The base of the wedge in the figure is the semicircle
with that is cut from the circle by the plane when it
intersects the y-axis. For any x in the interval [ ] , the in this
semicircular base vary from √ to √ . When we
slice through the wedge by a plane perpendicular to the x-axis, we obtain a
cross-section at which is a rectangle of height whose width extends across
the semicircular base. The area of this cross-section is

8.2 Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method

The solid generated by rotating (or revolving) a planar region about an
axis in its plane is called a solid of revolution. To find the volume of a solid like
we first observe that the cross-sectional area is the area of a disk of
radius where is the distance from the axis of revolution to the
planar region’s boundary.

The area is then

[ ]

05
Therefore, the definition of volume gives us the following formula

This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often called
the disk method because a cross-section is a circular disk of radius

EXAMPLE 8.3: The region between the curve √ , , and the

x-axis is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume.

Solution: We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the
generated solid (Figure 8.4). The volume is

Figure 8.3 the region (a) and solid revolution (b) in Example 8.3

05
9.1 volume of a solid generated by revolving a region about y-axis

To find the volume of a solid generated by revolving a region between

the -axis and a curve , , about the , we use
the same method with replaced by . In this case, the area of the circular
cross-section is

[ ] [ ]

And the definition of volume gives us the following formula.

Volume by Disks for Rotation About the -Axis

∫ ∫ [ ]

EXAMPLE 9.1: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
between the y-axis and the curve , , about the -axis.

45
Solution: We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the
generated solid (Figure 9.1). The volume is

∫ ∫ [ ] ∫ ( )

∫ ( ) * +

EXAMPLE 9.2: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
between the parabola and the line about the line
.

Solution: We draw figures showing the region, a typical radius, and the
generated solid (Figure 9.2). Note that the cross-sections are perpendicular to
the line x = 3 and have y-coordinates from √ to √ . The volume
is
√ √
∫ ∫ [ ]
√ √

√
∫ √

√ √ √
∫ √
* +
√

44
9.2 Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method (find the volumes using washer
methods)

9.2.1 Volume by Washers for Rotation About the x-Axis

If the region we revolve to generate a solid does not border on or cross the
axis of revolution, then the solid has a hole in it (Figure 9. 3). The cross-sections
perpendicular to the axis of revolution are washers.

FIGURE 9. 3 the cross-sections of the solid of revolution

generated here are washers, not disks, so the integral
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝐴 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 leads to a slightly different formula.

The washer’s area is the area of a circle of radius minus the area of a
circle of radius :

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Consequently, the definition of volume in this case gives us the following

formula.

∫ ∫ [ ] [ ]

EXAMPLE 9.3 The region bounded by the curve and the line
is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume
of the solid.

45
FIGURE 9.4 The region in Example 9.4

Solution: We use the same four steps for calculating the volume of a solid that
were dis cussed earlier in

1. Draw the region and sketch a line segment across it perpendicular to the
axis of revolution (the red segment in Figure 9. 4a).
2. Find the outer and inner radii of the washer that would be swept out by
the line segment if it were revolved about the x-axis along with the
region. These radii are the distances of the ends of the line segment
from the axis of revolution (see Figure 9. 4).

Outer radius:
Inner radius:

3. Find the limits of integration by finding the x-coordinates of the

intersection points of the curve and line in Figure 9. 4a.

46
4. Evaluate the volume integral.

∫ ∫ [ ] [ ]

∫ [ ] [ ] = ∫

= * +

47
 EXAMPLE 10.1: The region bounded by the parabola and the line
in the first quadrant is revolved about the y-axis to generate a
solid. Find the volume of the solid.

Solution: First we sketch the region and draw a line segment across it
perpendicular to the axis of revolution (the y-axis). See Figure 10. 1a. The
radii of the washer swept out by the line segment are √ ,
(Figure 10. 1 b). The line and parabola intersect at and
, so the limits of integration are and . We integrate to
find the volume:

FIGURE 10.1 (a) The region being rotated about the y-axis, (b) The washer swept out by the line segment in part (a).

Rotation around y-axis

∫ [ ] [ ]

Substitute for radii and limit of integration

∫ ([ ] * + ) ∫ ( )

* + *( ) +

95
Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells (Slicing with Cylinders)
Suppose we slice through the solid using circular cylinders of
increasing radii. We slice straight down through the solid so that the axis of
each cylinder is parallel to the y-axis. The vertical axis of each cylinder is
always the same line, but the radii of the cylinders increase with each slice.
In this way the solid is sliced up into thin cylindrical shells of constant
thickness that grow outward from their common axis, like circular tree
rings.

Unrolling a cylindrical shell shows that its volume is approximately that of a

rectangular slab with area and thickness .

EXAMPLE 10.2: The region enclosed by the x-axis and the parabola
is revolved about the vertical line to
generate a solid (see Figure 10.2). Find the volume of the solid.

Solution: Using the washer method from

FIGURE 10.2 (a) The graph of the region in Example 1, before revolution. (b) The solid
formed when the region in part (a) is revolved about the axis of 𝑥

06
 FIGURE 10.2 A cylindrical shell of height yk obtained by rotating a vertical strip of
thickness 𝑥𝑘 about the line 𝑥 The outer radius of the cylinder occurs at
𝑥𝑘 , where the height of the parabola is 𝑦𝑘 𝑥𝑘 𝑥𝑘 (Example 10.2)

Another cylindrical slice around the enlarged hole, then another, and so on,
obtaining cylinders. The radii of the cylinders gradually increase, and the
heights of the cylinders follow the contour of the parabola. The sum of the
volumes of the shells is sum that approximates the volume of the entire
solid. Each shell sits over a subinterval [ ] in the x-axis. The
thickness of the shell is . Because the parabola is
rotated around the line , the outer radius of the shell is .
The height of the shell is the height of the parabola at some point in the
interval[ ], or approximately . If we
unroll this cylinder and latten it out, it becomes (approximately) a
rectangular slab with thickness (see Figure 10.3). The height of the
rectangular slab is approximately , and its length is the
circumference of the shell, which is approximately
Hence the volume of the shell is approximately the volume
of the rectangular slab, which is

= circumference * height * thickness

06
 FIGURE 10.3 Cutting and unrolling a cylindrical shell gives a nearly rectangular solid.

Summing together the volumes of the individual cylindrical shells over

the interval [ ] gives

∑ ∑

Taking the limit as the thickness and gives the volume

integral

∫ = ∫

∫ [ ]

06
 EXAMPLE 10.3 The region bounded by the curve √ , the x-axis, and
the line is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the
volume of the solid.

Solution: Sketch the region and draw a line segment across it parallel to the
axis of revolution (Figure 10.4a). Label the segment’s height (shell height)
and distance from the axis of revolution (shell radius).

FIGURE 10.4 (a) The region, shell dimensions, and interval of integration in Example 10.3. (b)
The shell swept out by the vertical segment in part (a) with a width ∆x.

The shell thickness variable is x, so the limits of integration for the shell
formula are a = 0 and b = 4 (Figure 10.4). The volume is

∫ ( )( )

∫ (√ ) ∫ [ ]

EXAMPLE 10.5: The region bounded by the curve √ , the x-axis, and the
line is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of
the solid by the shell method.

06
Solution: This is the solid whose volume was found by the disk method in
Example 4 of Section 6.1. Now we find its volume by the shell method. First,
sketch the region and draw a line segment across it parallel to the axis of
revolution (Figure 10.5a). Label the segment’s length (shell height) and
distance from the axis of revolution (shell radius). (We drew the shell in Figure
10.5b, but you need not do that.) In this case, the shell thickness variable is y,
so the limits of integration for the shell formula method are and
(along the y-axis in Figure 10.5). The volume of the solid is

∫ ( )( )

∫ ∫ [ ]

FIGURE 10.5 (a) The region, shell dimensions, and interval of integration in Example 10.5. (b)
The shell swept out by the horizontal segment in part (a) with a width 𝑦.

06
Arc Length
Length of a Curve

Suppose the curve whose length we want to find is the graph of the function
from

We partition the interval [ ]into subintervals with

. If then the corresponding point lies
on the curve. Next we connect successive points Pk-1 and Pk with straight-line
segments that, taken together, form a polygonal path whose length
approximates the length of the curve (Figure 11.1). If we set
and , then a representative line segment in the path
has length (see Figure 11.2)

√ ,

So the length of the curve is approximated by the sum

∑ ∑ √ ………………. (11.1)

We expect the approximation to improve as the partition of [ ]becomes

finer. In order to evaluate this limit, we use the Mean Value Theorem, which
tells us that there is a point , with , such that

FIGURE 11.1 The length of the polygonal path 𝑃𝑜 𝑃 𝑃 … 𝑃𝑛 approximates the length of the
curve 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 from point 𝐴 to point 𝐵

56
 FIGURE 11.2 The arc 𝑝𝑘 𝑝𝑘 of the curve 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 is
approximated by the straight-line segment shown here,
which has length 𝐿𝑘 =√ 𝑥𝑘 𝑦𝑘 .

Substituting this for , the sums in Equation (11.1) take the form

∑ ∑ √

∑ √ ………………(11.2)

Because √ is continuous on [ ], the limit sum on the right-

hand side of Equation (11.2) exists and has the value

∑ ∑ √ ∫ √

We define the length of the curve to be this integral.

DEFINITION If is continuous on [ ], then the length (arc length) of the

curve from the point to the point is
the value of the integral

∫ √ ∫ √ ( ) ……………….. (11.3)

55
 EXAMPLE 11.1: Find the length of the curve shown in Figure 11.3, which is the
graph of the function

Solution: We use Equation (11.3) with , and

FIGURE 11.3 The length of the curve is slightly

larger than the length of the line segment joining
points A and B

56
EXAMPLE 11.2 Find the length of the graph of

FIGURE 11.4 The curve in Example 11.2,

where A = (1, 13/12) and B = (4, 67/12).

Solution: A graph of the function is shown in Figure 11.4. To use Equation

(11.3), we find

57
The Differential Formula for Arc Length
If and if is continuous on [ ], then by the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus we can define a new function

∫ √ [ ] ………………. (11.4)

From Equation (3) and Figure 11.2, we see that this function is continuous
and mea sures the length along the curve ) from the initial point
to the point for each [ ] . The function s is called
the arc length function for . From the Fundamental Theorem, the
function s is differentiable on and

√ [ ] √ ( ) …………………….. (11.5)

Then the differential of arc length is

√ ( ) ……………………………….. (11.6)

Equation (11.6) may be written as

√ ……………….. (11.7)

EXAMPLE 11.4 Find the arc length function for the curve in Example 11.2,
taking A = (1, 13/12) as the starting point (see Figure 11.4).

58
Solution In the solution to Example 11.2, we found that

√ [ ] ( )

Therefore the arc length function is given by

∫ √ [ ] ∫ ( )

* +

To compute the arc length along the curve from A = (1, 13/12) to B = (4,
67/12), for instance, we simply calculate

This is the same result we obtained in Example 11.2.

67
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution
Defining Surface Area

If you revolve a region in the plane that is bounded by the graph of a function
over an interval, it sweeps out a solid of revolution, finding the area of a
surface generated by revolving a curve about an axis.

Suppose the line segment AB has length and is slanted rather than
horizontal. Now when AB is rotated about the x-axis, it generates a frustum of
a cone (Figure 12.1a). From classical geometry, the surface area of this frustum
is , where is the average height of the slanted
segment AB above the x-axis. This surface area is the same as that of a
rectangle with side lengths and (Figure 12.1b). Let’s build on these
geometric principles to define the area of a surface swept out by revolving
more general curves about the x-axis. Suppose we want to find the area of the
surface swept out by revolving the graph of a nonnegative continuous function
about the x-axis. We partition the closed interval
in the usual way and use the points in the partition to subdivide the
graph into short arcs. Figure 12.2 shows a typical arc and the band it
sweeps out as part of the graph of

17
As the arc revolves about the x-axis, the line segment joining and
sweeps out a frustum of a cone whose axis lies along the x-axis (Figure 12.3).
The surface area of this frustum approximates the surface area of the band
swept out by the arc . The surface area of the frustum of the cone shown in
Figure 12.3 is , where y* is the average height of the line segment
joining and , and L is its length (just as before). Since ƒ Ú 0, from Figure 12.4
we see that the average height of the line segment is
, and the slant length is
√ . Therefore,

The area of the original surface, being the sum of the areas of the bands swept
out by arcs like arc , is approximated by the frustum area sum

17
 ∑ √ …….. (12.1)

We expect the approximation to improve as the partition of ] becomes

finer. To find the limit, we first need to find an appropriate substitution for
. If the function ƒ is differentiable, then by the Mean ValueTheorem, there is
a point on the curve between and where the tangent is
parallel to the segment PQ (Figure 12.5). At this point.

17
 or

With this substitution for , the sums in Equation (12.1) take the form

∑ √

∑ √ ………… (12.2)

The sums of any function because the points , , and are not the
same. However, the points , , and are very close to each other, and
so we expect (and it can be proved) that as the norm of the partition of ]
goes to zero, the sums in Equation (12.2) converge to the integral

∫ √ ……………… (12.3)

We therefore define this integral to be the area of the surface swept out by the
graph of from to

17
EXAMPLE 12.1 Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
√ , 1 x 2, about the x-axis (Figure 12.6).

Solution: We evaluate the formula

∫ √

With √ √

First, we perform some algebraic manipulation on the radical in the integrand

to transform it into an expression that is easier to integrate.

17
Revolution About the y-Axis
For revolution about the y-axis, we interchange x and y in Equation (12.3).

17
 System of Linear Equations

The present section deals with simultaneous equations which can be represented
generally as:

} …………………. (14.1)

Eq. (1.14) can be written matrix form as:

………………………………. (14.2)

[ ], [ ], { }

Where:
A is the coefficients.
X is the unknown variable.
b is the absolutes values.

1. Determinants and Cramer’s Rule method

Cramer’s rule is another solution technique that is best suited to small numbers of
equations. Before describing this method, we will briefly introduce the concept
of the determinant, which is used to implement Cramer’s rule.

Determinants. The determinant can be illustrated for a set of three equations:

, -* + * +

Where [A] is the coefficient matrix:

77
, - [ ]

The determinant D of this system is formed from the coefficients of the equation,
as in

| |

Cramer’s Rule. This rule states that each unknown in a system of linear
algebraic equations may be expressed as a fraction of two determinants with
denominator D and with the numerator obtained from D by replacing the column
of coefficients of the unknown in question by the constants b1, b2, . . . , bn. For
example, x1 would be computed as

| | | | | |
, and

For the third-order the determinant can be computed as:

| | | | | |

Or

( ) ( ) ( )

Example: Use Cramer’s rule to solve.

0.3x1 + 0.52x2 + x3 = −0.01

0.5 x1 + x2 + 1.9 x3 = 0.67
0.1 x1 + 0.3 x2 + 0.5 x3 = −0.44

Solution

The equations can be written in matrix form

78
, -* + * +

where

The coefficients are , - [ ]

* + { } and * + { } { }

The determinant D can be written as

| |

,( )( ) ( )( )- ,( )( ) ( )( )-
,( )( ) ( )( )-

Or

( ) ( ) ( )

To find values of x’s

| | | |

| | | |

And

79
 | | | |
19.8

The values of x’s may be written in vector notations

* + { } { }

2. Inverse of a Matrix method

The formal solution can be expressed as:

* + , - * +

Or the definition of matrix multiplication from of above equation can be

expressed as:

Definition (Inverse of a Matrix) Let A is a square matrix of order n.

1. A square matrix B is said to be a left inverse of A if BA = In.

2. A square matrix C is called a right inverse of A, if AC = In.
3. A matrix A is said to be invertible (or is said to have an inverse) if there exists
a matrix B such that AB = BA = In.

The inverse of a matrix A is unique; That is, AA −1 = A −1 A = I. we denote it by

A −1 .
Where ( )
( ).

80
2.1 Adjoint of a Matrix

We can compute the cofactors of a matrix by computing the corresponding minor

M for each element of the original matrix, negating every other element.

( )

The classical adjoint is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors.

[ ]

Example. We want to compute the inverse of the 3×3 matrix A

[ ]

First we compute the cofactors of matrix A.

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

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 ( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

[ ] [ ] [ ]

We can compute the inverse by dividing adjoint of A by the determinant of A

| |
[ ] [ ]

Where | | ( )

Example:

Let [ ] Find Adj(A).

Example: Solve the equation using inverse matrix method.

Solution:

[ ], * + { }

The formal solution can be expressed as:

82
* + , - * +

Find ( )
( )

The adjoint is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors.

[ ]

Where

( )

First we compute the cofactors of matrix A.

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

83
 ( ) | | ,( )( ) ( )( )-

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Calculate the determinant

Where | | ( )

| | | | | | | | | |

| | ,( )( ) ( )( )- ,( )( ) ( )( )- ,( )( ) ( )( )-

| |

We can compute the inverse by dividing adjoint of A by the determinant of A

| |
[ ] [ ]

Calculate the unknown x’s by the equation

* + , - * +⇒{ * + { }

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )

84