iv.

Injection of epoxy: In its simplest form, the injection equipment consists of a small
reservoir or funnel attached to a length of flexible tubing, so as to provide a gravity head.
For small quantities of repair material small hand-held guns are usually the most
economical. They can maintain a steady pressure which reduces chances of damage to the
surface seal. For big jobs power-driven pumps are often used for injection. The pressure
used for injection must be carefully selected, as the use excessive pressure can propagate
the existing cracks, causing additional damage. The injection pressures are governed by
the width and depth of cracks and the viscosity of resin and seldom exceed 0.10Mpa. It is
preferable to inject fine cracks under low pressure in order to allow the material to be
drawn into the concrete by capillary action and it is a common practice to increase the
injection pressure during the course of work to overcome the increase in resistance
against flow as crack is filled with material. For relatively wide cracks gravity head of
few hundred millimeters may be enough.
v. Removal of surface seal: After the injected epoxy has occurred; the surface seal may be
removed by grinding or other means as appropriate. Fittings and holes at the entry ports
should be painted with an epoxy patching compound.
4.8. Corrosion Mechanism
Corrosion of steel reinforcement occurs by a electrochemical process which involves
exchanges of electrons similar to that which occurs in a battery. The important part of the
mechanism is the separation of negatively charged areas of metal or „anodes‟ where corrosion
occurs and positively charged areas or „cathodes‟ where a harmless charge balancing reaction
occurs.
At the anode the iron dissolves and then reacts to form the solid corrosion product, rust.
The rust is formed at the metal/oxide interface, forcing previously formed oxide away from the
steel and compressing the concrete, causing it to spall.
So in other words for corrosion to occur four basic elements are required:
Anode – Site where corrosion occurs and current flows from
Cathode – Site where no corrosion occurs and current flows to.
Electrolyte – A medium capable of conducting electric current by ionic current flow(i.e
Soil, Water or Concrete)
 Metallic path – connection between the anode and cathode, which allows current return
and completes the circuit.
Reinforcing steel in concrete normally does not corrode because of the formation of a passive
oxide film on the surface of the steel due to the initial corrosion reaction.
The process of hydration of cement in freshly placed concrete develops a high alkalinity,
which in the presence of oxygen stabilizes the film on the surface of embedded steel, ensuring
continued protection while the alkalinity is retained.

Normally, concrete exhibits a pH above 12 because of the presence of calcium hydroxide,

potassium hydroxide – the term pH is a measure of the alkalinity or acidity, ranging from highly
alkaline at 14 to highly acidic at zero, with neutrality at 7. Although the precise nature of this
passive film is unknown, it isolates the steel from the environment and slows further corrosion as
long as the film is intact. However, there are two major situations in which corrosion of
reinforcing steel can occur.
These include:
1. Carbonation,
2. Chloride contamination
4.8.1. Deterioration through Carbonation
Carbonation is a process In which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses through
the porous concrete and neutralizes the alkalinity of concrete.
Ca(OH)2+CO2CaCo3+H2O
Carbon dioxide, which is present in air in proportions of around 0.3 percent by volume,
dissolves In water to form a mildly acidic solution. Unlike other acids that may chemically attack
and etch the surface of the concrete, this acid forms within the pores of the concrete itself where
the carbon dioxide dissolves in any moisture present. Here it reacts with the alkaline calcium
hydroxide forming insoluble calcium carbonate.
The pH value then drops from 12.5 to about 8.5. The carbonation process moves as a
front through the concrete, with a pH drop across the front. When it reaches the reinforcing steel,
the passive layer decays when the pH value drops below 10.5. The steel is then exposed to
moisture and oxygen and is susceptible to corrosion.
 Concrete inside the building frequently carbonates totally without any sign of
deterioration as the concrete dries out, leaving the steel exposed to air but not moisture. Problems
are seen externally where concrete is exposed to the elements and in certain situations internally,
such as kitchens and bathrooms, where the concrete is susceptible to condensation or water-
leakage.
4.8.2 Deterioration due to Chloride
Salt causes corrosion by a different mechanism. When salt is dissolved in water sodium
chloride forms a versatile, highly corrosive solution of sodium ions(Na+) and chloride ions(Cl-).
Salt is used for de-icing roads and its presence in sea water is a major problem for
reinforced concrete structures. The very mobile chloride ions disperse through concrete pores in
solution and where they come into contact with the reinforcing steel they attack the passive layer.
Steel oxidizes in the presence of air and water to form rust which has a volume of up to 10 times
that of the steel consumed.
As concrete has a low tensile strength it will crack when as little as a tenth of a millimeter
of steel has been consumed. Horizontal cracks from, causing corners to „SPALL‟ and surfaces to
„delaminate‟ as the reinforcement‟s concrete cover becomes detached and falls away in sheets.
The consequence can be seen on the underside of road bridges and many buildings and
structures beside the sea.
ACI recommends the following chloride limits in concrete for new construction,
expressed as a percent by weight of cement:
Pre-stressed concrete 0.08%
Reinforced concrete in wet conditions 0.10%
Reinforced concrete in dry conditions 0.20%
But in existing structures 0.026% is enough to breakdown the Passive Layer.
4.8.3 Factors Influencing corrosion of Reinforcement
Various factors initiate and sustain the process of corrosion in R.C. structures. They are
broadly divided into two groups:
General Influencing factors
General accelerating factors
4.8.3.1 General Influencing factors
 The following are the factors that generally influence corrosion of reinforcement in R.C.
structures.
pH Value
Moisture
Oxygen
Carbonation
Chlorides
Ambient temperature
Severity of exposure
Quality of concrete
Cover to the reinforcement
Initial curing condition
Formation of cracks
4.8.4 General Accelerating factors
The following are the factors which accelerates the process of corrosion in R.C.
structures
Chlorides
Sulphates
Chlorine
Electrical Charges
Methane Acids
4.8.4.1 Methods of Corrosion Protection
The following are some of the methods for protecting steel from corrosion
Protective coatings for reinforcement
Cathodic protection
Corrosion Resistant steel
Corrosion inhibitors
4.8.5. Protective coatings for reinforcement
 This is an effective means to combat corrosion in such environment where ordinary
concrete with surface coating is not able to protect reinforcement against corrosion. The surface
coating for the reinforcement will increase the protection against corrosion.
There are several methods of providing protective coating to the reinforcement. The
important ones are:
i. Cement Slurry Coating
Cement Slurry Coating provides short-term protection until placement in
concrete.
Several methods have been developed for an effective corrosion protection
using cement slurry.
One such coating is a mixture of cement, condensed silica and polymer
dispersion.
This mixer found to be impermeable to water, chlorides and carbon-di-
oxide.
ii. Epoxy Coating
Epoxy coating is formed by application of an epoxy resin with appropriate
curing agents catalysts, pigments and flow control agents.
Fusion bonding using the electrostatic process is the recent development.
Fusion bonded epoxy coating provides long-term protection against
corrosion.
Though the cost is relatively high, it is the one which is the most effective
in high alkaline and chloride contaminated environment.
iii. Plastic Coating
Similar to epoxy coating, the plastic coatings are very effective in
preventing corrosion of reinforcement even in high alkaline or chloride
contaminated environment.
However, the reduction in bond between plastic coated bar and the
concrete is quite substantial and hence plastic coating cannot be
considered as a solution for prevention of corrosion which cannot be
solved by conventional methods.
iv. Galvanizing
 Galvanizing gives protection to the reinforcement against corrosion, by
means of metallic coating such as zinc.

However, in case of corrosion due to excessive chlorides, the effect of

galvanizing protection is reduce and hence is not advisable in highly
chloride contaminated environments.
Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection interferes with the natural action of the
electrochemical cells that are responsible for corrosion.
Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to control corrosion of
surfaces that are immersed in water or exposed to soil.
Cathodic protection in its classical form cannot be used to protect surfaces
exposed to the atmosphere.
The use of anodic metallic coatings such as zinc on steel(galvanizing) is,
however, a form of cathodic protection, which is effective in the
atmosphere.
There are two basic methods of supplying the electrical currents required
to interfere with the electrochemical cell action. They are
1. Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes.
2. Impressed current cathodic protection
4.8.5.1 Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes
Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal
surface by making it work as a cathode of an electrochemical cell. This is achieved
by placing in contact with the metal to be protected another more easily corroded
metal to act as the anode of the electrochemical cell.
This method is also called sacrificial anode cathodic protection system, where the
active metal is consumed in the process of protecting the surfaces, so that
corrosion is controlled.

In sacrificial anode systems the high energy electrons required for cathodic
protection are supplied by the corrosion of an active metal.
 Sacrificial anode systems depend on the differences in corrosion potential that are
established by the corrosion reactions that occur on different metals or alloys.

For example, the natural corrosion potential of iron is about -0.550 volts in seawater.
The natural corrosion potential of zinc in seawater is about -1.2 volts. Thus if the two metals are
electrically connected, the corrosion of the zinc becomes a source of negative charge which
prevents corrosion of the iron.

In application where the anodes are buried, a special backfill material surrounds the
anode in order to insure that the anode will produce the despired output. Sacrificial anodes are
normally supplied with either lead wires or cast-m straps to facilitate their connection to the
structure being protected.

The lead wires may be attached to the structures by welding or mechanical connections.
These should have a low resistance and should be insulated to prevent increased resistance or
damage due to corrosion. When anodes with cast-in straps are used, the straps can either be
welded directly to the structure or the straps can be used as locations for attachment.

A low resistance mechanically adequate attachment is required for good protection and
resistance to mechanical damage. In the process of providing electrons for the cathodic
protection of a less active metal the more active metal corrodes. The more active metal (anode) is
sacrificed to protect the less active metal(cathode). The amount of corrosion depends on the
metal being used as an anode but it is directly proportional to the amount of current supplied.

The anodes in sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems must be periodically inspected
and replaced when consumed.

4.8.6. Impressed current Cathodic protection

In impressed current cathodic protection, an alternative source of direct electrical current,

usually a rectifier that converts alternating current to direct current is used to provide the
required electrical current. In this system, the electrical circuit is completed through an inert
anode material that is not consumed in the process.
 As shown in Figure low energy electrons that are picked up at a non-reactive anode bed are
given additional energy by the action of a rectifier to be more energetic than the electrons that
would be produced in the corrosion reaction.

The energy for the “electron energy pump” action of the rectifier is provided by ordinary
alternating current. The effect of these electrons at the structure being protected is the same as
that derived from the sacrificial anode type of cathodic protection system. However, the anode
materials (such as magnetic, platinum, and newly developed ceramic materials) have been
successfully used.

For buried anodes, a backfill of carbonaceous material is used to surround the anode to
decrease the electrical resistance of the anode, to provide a uniform, low resistivity environment
surrounding the anode and to allow gasses produced at the anode surface to vent. In practice,
materials such as graphite are used for impressed current cathodic protection system anodes that
are slowly consumed. Anodes in impressed current systems must be inspected and replaced if
consumed or otherwise damaged.

4.9 General
4.9.1 Preliminary investigation
Demolition is a highly skilled and dangerous activity in terms of damage to life and
property and there are certain basic factors to consider before a contract is placed:
The demolition contractor should have ample experience of the type of work to be
offered;
Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at all times;
An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the work;
The contract price should include all safety precautions included in the relevant building
regulations;
The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to take risks to achieve the
date.
4.9.2 Preliminary Considerations
Demolition operations are the subject of strict legal control – there is a substantial body
of legislation and a great deal of case law relating to such operations. There may also be some