Day 1: Human Physiology

Animal Tissue

Tissue can be defined as a group of cells with similar shape and function are termed as tissues. They form a cellular
organizational level, intermediate between the cells and organ system. Organs are then created by combining the
functional groups of tissues.
Epithelial Tissue
• The covering or protective tissues in the animal body are epithelial tissues.
• Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body.
• It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
• The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney tubules are all made of epithelial tissue.
• Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.
• They have only a small amount of cementing material between them and almost no intercellular spaces.
• Obviously, anything entering or leaving the body must cross at least one layer of epithelium.
• As a result cells of various epithelia play an important role in regulating the exchange of materials between the body and the
external environment and also between different parts of the body.
• Regardless of the type, all epithelium is usually separated from the underlying tissue by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane.
• There are two types of epithelial tissues namely simple epithelium and compound epithelium.
Connective Tissue
• Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of complex animals. They are named connective tissues
because of their special function of linking and supporting other tissues/organs of the body.
• They range from soft connective tissues to specialized types, which include cartilage, bone, adipose, and blood.
• In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres of structural proteins called collagen or elastin.
• The fibres provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue. These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which
accumulate between cells and fibres and act as matrix (ground substance).
• Connective tissues are classified into three types: (i) Loose connective tissue, (ii) Dense connective tissue and (iii) Specialized
connective tissue.

Loose Connective Tissue

• Loose connective tissue has cells and fibres loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance, for example, areolar tissue
present beneath the skin.
• Often it serves as a support framework for epithelium. It contains fibroblasts (cells that produce and secrete fibres),
macrophages [a large phagocytic cell found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell, especially at sites of
infection] and mast cells [a cell found in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory
and allergic reactions].
• Adipose tissue is a type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath the skin. The cells of this tissue are specialized to
store fats. The excess of nutrients which are not used immediately are converted into fats and are stored in this tissue.

Dense Connective Tissue

• Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues. Orientation of fibres show a regular or irregular
pattern and are called dense regular and dense irregular tissues.
• In the dense regular connective tissues, the collagen fibres are present in rows between many parallel bundles of fibres. Tendons,
which attach skeletal muscles to bones and ligaments which attach one bone to another are examples of this tissue.
• Dense irregular connective tissue has fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) that are oriented differently. This tissue is
present in the skin.

Specialized Connective Tissue – Cartilage, Bones, Blood, Areolar

• Cartilage, bones and blood are various types of specialized connective tissues.
• The intercellular material of cartilage is solid and pliable and resists compression. Cells of this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed
in small cavities within the matrix secreted by them.
• Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are replaced by bones in adults. Cartilage is present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints,
trachea, larynx, between adjacent bones of the vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
• Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium and phosphorus compounds.
• Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground substance rich in calcium salts and collagen fibres which give bone its strength. It is
the main tissue that provides structural frame to the body. Bones support and protect softer tissues and organs.
• The bone cells (osteocytes) are present in the spaces called lacunae. The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production
of blood cells.
• Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective tissue called the ligament. This tissue is very elastic. It
has considerable strength. Ligaments contain very little matrix. Tendons connect bones to muscles and are another type of
connective tissue. Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. It is the
main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances.
• Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow.
• It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in repair of tissues.
Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Voluntary Muscles
• We can move some muscles by conscious will. Such muscles are called voluntary muscles.
• These muscles are also called skeletal muscles as they are mostly attached to bones and help in body movement.
• Under the microscope, these muscles show alternate light and dark bands or striations. As a result, they are also called striated
muscles. The cells of this tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having many nuclei).
• Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to skeletal bones. In a typical muscle such as the biceps, striated (striped) skeletal
muscle fibres are bundled together in a parallel fashion. A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles of such
muscle fibres.
Smooth Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles
• The movement of food in the alimentary canal or the contraction and relaxation of blood vessels are involuntary movements. We
cannot really start them or stop them simply by wanting to do so! Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles control such
movements.
• They are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi of the lungs.
• The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) and uninucleate (having a single nucleus). They are also called unstriated
muscles.
• The smooth muscle fibres taper at both ends (fusiform, spindle-shaped) and do not show striations. Cell junctions hold them
together and they are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath. The wall of internal organs such as the blood vessels,
stomach and intestine contains this type of muscle tissue.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue – Involuntary Muscles
• The muscles of the heart show rhythmic contraction and relaxation throughout life. These involuntary muscles are called cardiac
muscles. Heart muscle cells are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
• Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart. Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac
muscle cells and make them stick together. Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the cells to
contract as a unit, i.e., when one cell receives a signal to contract, its neighbors are also stimulated to contract.

Nervous Tissue
• Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions.
• Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells. The neuroglial cell which constitute the rest of the neural system protect
and support neurons.
• Neuroglia make up more than one-half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
• When a neuron is suitably stimulated, an electrical disturbance is generated which swiftly travels along its plasma membrane.
• Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s endings, or output zone, triggers events that may cause stimulation or inhibition of
adjacent neurons and other cells.
• All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli. However, cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialized for being stimulated
and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one place to another within the body.
• The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the nervous tissue. The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or
neurons.
• A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long thin hair-like parts arise. Usually each neuron has
a single long part, called the axon, and many short, branched parts called dendrites.
• An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue make up a nerve.
• Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles when we want to. The functional Combination of nerve and muscle tissue is
fundamental to most animals. This combination enables animals to move rapidly in response to stimuli.
 Digestive System

The digestive system is made up of the

gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or
digestive tract—and the liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow
organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the
mouth to the anus. The hollow organs that make
up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are the solid
organs of the digestive system.
The small intestine has three parts. The first part is
called the duodenum. The jejunum is in the middle
and the ileum is at the end. The large intestine
includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum.
The appendix is a finger-shaped pouch attached to
the cecum. The cecum is the first part of the large
intestine. The colon is next. The rectum is the end
of the large intestine.

Absorption of Digested Products

• Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
• Small amounts of monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids and some electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed by
simple diffusion. The passage of these substances into the blood depends upon the concentration gradients.
• However, sometimes substances like glucose and amino acids are absorbed with the help of carrier proteins. This mechanism is
called the facilitated transport.
• Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient. Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient and hence
requires energy. Various nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by
this mechanism.
• Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed into the blood. They are first incorporated into small droplets
called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa. They are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules called the
chylomicrons which are transported into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi. These lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed
substances into the blood stream.
• Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.
• The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for their activities. This process is called assimilation.
• The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum initiate a neural reflex causing an urge or desire for its
removal. The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening (defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a
mass peristaltic movement.
 Circulatory System
Circulatory System
• The English physician, William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of blood.
• The circulatory patterns are of two types – open or closed.
• Open circulatory system is present in arthropods and molluscs in which blood pumped by the heart passes through large
vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses.
• Annelids and chordates have a closed circulatory system in which the blood pumped by the heart is always circulated through a
closed network of blood vessels. This pattern is considered to be more advantageous as the flow of fluid can be more precisely
regulated.
• All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered heart. Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle.
Amphibians and the reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart with two atria and a single ventricle, whereas
crocodiles, birds and mammals possess a 4-chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles.
• In fishes the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood which is oxygenated by the gills and supplied to the body parts from where
deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart (single circulation).
• In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the gills/lungs/skin and the right atrium gets the
deoxygenated blood from other body parts. However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed blood
(incomplete double circulation).
• In birds and mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left and right atria respectively passes on to the
ventricles of the same sides. The ventricles pump it out without any mixing up, i.e., two separate circulatory pathways are
present in these organisms, hence, these animals have double circulation.
• Does sponges and hydra also have blood? Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory system. The
water in which they live brings food and oxygen as it enters their bodies. The water carries away waste materials and carbon
dioxide as it moves out. Thus, these animals do not need a circulatory fluid like the blood.

Heart
• The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium) and the two lower chambers are
called the ventricles.
• The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing up of blood rich in oxygen with the blood rich in carbon dioxide.
• The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles. These muscles contract and relax rhythmically. This rhythmic
contraction followed by its relaxation constitutes a heartbeat.
• Human circulatory system, also called the blood vascular system consists of a muscular chambered heart, a network of closed
branching blood vessels and blood, the fluid which is circulated.
• Heart, the mesodermally derived organ [the middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo, or the parts derived from this (e.g.
cartilage, muscles, and bone)], is situated in the thoracic cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left. It has the size
of a clenched fist.
• It is protected by a double walled membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the pericardial fluid.
• Our heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria and two larger lower chambers called ventricles.
• A thin, muscular wall called the interatrial septum separates the right and the left atria, whereas a thick-walled, the inter-
ventricular septum, separates the left and the right ventricles.
• The atrium and the ventricle of the same side are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue called the atrio-ventricular septum.
However, each of these septa are provided with an opening through which the two chambers of the same side are connected.
• The opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle is guarded by a valve formed of three muscular flaps or cusps, the
tricuspid valve, whereas a bicuspid or mitral valve guards the opening between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
• The openings of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the aorta respectively are provided with the
semilunar valves.
• The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood only in one direction, i.e., from the atria to the ventricles and from the ventricles to the
pulmonary artery or aorta. These valves prevent any backward flow.
• The entire heart is made of cardiac muscles. The walls of ventricles are much thicker than that of the atria.
• A specialized cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is also distributed in the heart. A patch of this tissue is present in the right
upper corner of the right atrium called the sino-atrial node (SAN).
• Another mass of this tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio-ventricular septum called the atrio-
ventricular node (AVN).
• A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) continues from the AVN which passes through the atrio-ventricular
septa to emerge on the top of the interventricular septum and immediately divides into a right and left bundle. These branches give
rise to minute fibres throughout the ventricular musculature of the respective sides and are called purkinje fibres. These fibres along
with right and left bundles are known as bundle of His.
• The nodal musculature has the ability to generate action potentials without any external stimuli, i.e., it is autoexcitable.
• However, the number of action potentials that could be generated in a minute vary at different parts of the nodal system.
• The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75/min, and is responsible for initiating and maintaining the
rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. Therefore, it is called the pacemaker. Our heart normally beats 70-75 times in a minute
(average 72 beats/min).

• We have a complete double circulation, i.e., two circulatory pathways, namely, pulmonary and systemic are present.
• The pulmonary circulation starts by the pumping of deoxygenated blood by the right ventricle which is carried to the lungs where
it is oxygenated and returned to the left atrium.
• The systemic circulation starts with the pumping of oxygenated blood by the left ventricle to the aorta which is carried to all the
body tissues and the deoxygenated blood from there is collected by the veins and returned to the right atrium.
• Though the heart is autoexcitable, its functions can be moderated by neural and hormonal mechanisms.

Regulation of Cardiac Activity

• Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by specialized muscles (nodal tissue), hence the heart
is called myogenic.
• A special neural center in the medulla oblangata can moderate the cardiac function through autonomic nervous system (ANs).
• Neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of heart beat, the strength of ventricular
contraction and thereby the cardiac output.
• On the other hand, parasympathetic neural signals (another component of ANS) decrease the rate of heart beat, speed of
conduction of action potential and thereby the cardiac output. Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac
output.
 Excretory System

Excretory Products and their Elimination

• Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, water and ions like Na+, K+, Cl–, phosphate, sulphate,, either by
metabolic activities or by other means like excess ingestion. These substances have to be removed totally or partially.
• Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous wastes excreted by the animals.
• The way in which waste chemicals are removed from the body of the animal depends on the availability of water.
• Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires large amount of water for its elimination, whereas uric acid, being the least toxic,
can be removed with a minimum loss of water.
• Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste in gaseous form (ammonia) which directly dissolves in water.
• Some land animals like birds, lizards, snakes excrete a semi-solid, white coloured compound (uric acid).
• The major excretory product in humans is urea which is excreted through urine.
• Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop working due to infection or injury. As a result of kidney failure, waste products start
accumulating in the blood. Such persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically through an artificial kidney. This
process is called dialysis.
• The process of excreting ammonia is Many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are ammonotelic in nature.
• Ammonia, as it is readily soluble, is generally excreted by diffusion across body surfaces or through gill surfaces (in fish) as
ammonium ions. Kidneys do not play any significant role in its removal.
• Terrestrial adaptation necessitated the production of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid for conservation of
water.
• Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes mainly excrete urea and are called ureotelic animals. Ammonia produced
by metabolism is converted into urea in the liver of these animals and released into the blood which is filtered and excreted out by
the kidneys.
• Some amount of urea may be retained in the kidney matrix of some of these animals to maintain a desired osmolarity [the
concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per litre].
• Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of pellet or paste with a minimum loss of
water and are called uricotelic animals.
• A survey of animal kingdom presents a variety of excretory structures. In most of the invertebrates, these structures are simple
tubular forms whereas vertebrates have complex tubular organs called kidneys.
• In humans, the excretory system consists of one pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
• Each kidney has over a million tubular structures called nephrons. Nephron is the functional unit of kidney and has two portions –
glomerulus and renal tubule.
• Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed from afferent arterioles, fine branches of renal artery.
• The renal tubule starts with a double walled Bowman’s capsule and is further differentiated into a proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT), Henle’s loop (HL) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
• The DCTs of many nephrons join to a common collecting duct many of which ultimately open into the renal pelvis through the
medullary pyramids. The Bowman’s capsule encloses the glomerulus to form Malpighian or renal corpuscle.
• Urine formation involves three main processes, i.e., filtration, reabsorption and secretion.
• Filtration is a non-selective process performed by the glomerulus using the glomerular capillary blood pressure. About 1200 ml of
blood is filtered by the glomerulus per minute to form 125 ml of filtrate in the Bowman’s capsule per minute (GFR).
• JGA, a specialised portion of the nephrons, plays a significant role in the regulation of GFR.
• Nearly 99 per cent reabsorption of the filtrate takes place through different parts of the nephrons.
• PCT is the major site of reabsorption and selective secretion. HL [Henle’s Loop] primarily helps to maintain osmolar gradient within
the kidney interstitium.
• DCT and collecting duct allow extensive reabsorption of water and certain electrolytes, which help in osmoregulation: H+, K+ and
NH3 could be secreted into the filtrate by the tubules to maintain the ionic balance and pH of body fluids.
• A counter current mechanism operates between the two limbs of the loop of Henle and those of vasa recta (capillary parallel to
Henle’s loop). The filtrate gets concentrated as it moves down the descending limb but is diluted by the ascending limb. Electrolytes
and urea are retained in the interstitium by this arrangement.
• DCT and collecting duct concentrate the filtrate about four times, an excellent mechanism of conservation of water.
• Urine is stored in the urinary bladder till a voluntary signal from CNS carries out its release through urethra, i.e., micturition. Skin,
lungs and liver also assist in excretion.
 Endocrine System

Endocrine Glands and Hormones

• Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence, called ductless glands. Their secretions are called hormones.
• Hormone is a chemical produced by endocrine glands and released into the blood and transported to a distantly located target
organ.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced in trace amounts.
• Invertebrates possess very simple endocrine systems with few hormones whereas a large number of chemicals act as hormones and
provide coordination in the vertebrates. The human endocrine system is described here.
• The endocrine glands and hormone producing diffused tissues/cells located in different parts of our body constitute the endocrine
system. Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis in males and ovary in females)
are the organized endocrine bodies in our body.
• In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hormones.
Summary
• There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical coordination, integration and regulation in the human body.
• These hormones regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands or certain cells.
• The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and
gonads (testis and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, kidney, heart etc., also produce
hormones.
• The pituitary gland is divided into three major parts, which are called as pars distalis, pars intermedia and pars nervosa.
• Pars distalis produces six trophic hormones. Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone, while pars nervosa (neurohypophysis)
secretes two hormones.
• The pituitary hormones regulate the growth and development of somatic tissues and activities of peripheral endocrine glands.
• Pineal gland secretes melatonin, which plays a very important role in the regulation of 24-hour (diurnal) rhythms of our body (e.g.,
rhythms of sleep and state of being awake, body temperature, etc.).
• The thyroid gland hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal metabolic rate, development and maturation of the
central neural system, erythropoiesis, metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, menstrual cycle.
• Another thyroid hormone, i.e., thyrocalcitonin regulates calcium levels in our blood by decreasing it.
• The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases the blood Ca2+ levels and plays a major role in calcium
homeostasis.
• Thyroid and adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive orders from the pituitary through its hormones.
• Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones. In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid.
Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. If the water in which the tadpoles are growing does not contain
sufficient iodine, the tadpoles cannot become adults.
• The thymus gland secretes thymosins which play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated
immunity. In addition, thymosins also increase the production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
• Adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt balance in the blood.
• The adrenal gland is composed of the centrally located adrenal medulla and the outer adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection, sweating, heart beat, strength of
heart contraction, rate of respiration, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, proteolysis.
• The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis,
proteolysis, erythropoiesis, cardio-vascular system, blood pressure, and glomerular filtration rate and inhibit inflammatory reactions
by suppressing the immune response.
• Mineralocorticoids regulate water and electrolyte contents of the body. The endocrine pancreas secretes glucagon and insulin.
• Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis resulting in hyperglycemia. Insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake and
utilisation, and glycogenesis resulting in hypoglycemia. Insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance result in a disease called diabetes
mellitus.
• The testis secretes androgens, which stimulate the development, maturation and functions of the male accessory sex organs,
appearance of the male secondary sex characters, spermatogenesis, male sexual behaviour, anabolic pathways and erythropoiesis.
• The ovary secretes estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen stimulates growth and development of female accessory sex organs and
secondary sex characters. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as well as in mammary gland
development and lactation.
• The atrial wall of the heart produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney produces erythropoietin
which stimulates erythropoiesis.
• The gastrointestinal tract secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These hormones regulate the
secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
 Respiratory System

Respiration – Breathing and Exchange of Gases

• Oxygen (O2) is utilized by the organisms to indirectly break down nutrient molecules like glucose and to derive energy for
performing various activities. Carbon dioxide (CO2) which is harmful is also released during the above catabolic reactions. It is,
therefore, evident that O2 has to be continuously provided to the cells and CO2 produced by the cells have to be released out. This
process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells is called breathing, commonly known as
respiration.

Metabolic Pathways
• Metabolic pathways that lead to a more complex structure from a simpler structure are called
biosynthetic pathways or anabolic pathways. Example: acetic acid becomes cholesterol.
• Metabolic pathways that lead to a simpler structure from a complex structure are called
catabolic pathways. Example: glucose becomes lactic acid in our skeletal muscle.
• Anabolic pathways consume energy. Assembly of a protein from amino acids requires energy
input.
• On the other hand, catabolic pathways lead to the release of energy. For example, when glucose
is degraded to lactic acid in our skeletal muscle, energy is liberated. This metabolic pathway
from glucose to lactic acid which occurs in 10 metabolic steps is called glycolysis.
• Living organisms have learnt to trap this energy liberated during degradation and store it in the
form of chemical bonds.
• As and when needed, this bond energy is utilized for biosynthetic, osmotic and mechanical work
that we perform.
• The most important form of energy currency in living systems is the bond energy in a chemical
called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

• Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals depending mainly on their habitats and levels of organization.
• Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange O2 with CO2 by simple diffusion over their entire body
surface.
• Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to transport atmospheric air within the
body.
• Special vascularized structures called gills are used by most of the aquatic arthropods and molluscs whereas vascularised bags
called lungs are used by the terrestrial forms for the exchange of gases.
• Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs. Amphibians like frogs can respire
through their moist skin Mammals usually have a well-developed respiratory system.

Respiration involves the following steps:

1 Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.
2 Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
3 Transport of gases by the blood.
4 Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
5 Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2.
Exchange of Gases
• Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases. Exchange of gases also occur between blood and tissues. O2 and CO2 are
exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion mainly based on pressure/concentration gradient.
• Partial pressure of gasses, Solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of the membranes involved in diffusion are some
important factors that can affect the rate of diffusion.
• Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases is called partial pressure.

Transport of Gases
• Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2.
• About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood. The remaining 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state
through the plasma.
• Nearly 20-25 per cent of CO2 is transported by RBCs whereas 70 per cent of it is carried as bicarbonate. About 7 per cent of
CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.

Transport of Oxygen
• Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs. O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a reversible manner to
form oxyhaemoglobin.
• Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O2. Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to
partial pressure of O2.
• Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the other factors which can interfere with this binding.
Transport of Carbon dioxide
• CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin (about 20-25 per cent). This binding is related to the partial pressure of
CO2. Partial pressure of O2 is a major factor which could affect this binding. RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme,
carbonic anhydrase and minute quantities of the same is present in the plasma too. Nearly 70 per cent of carbon dioxide is
transported as bicarbonate (HCO3) with the help of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
• At the tissue site where partial pressure of CO2 is high due to catabolism [the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to
form simpler ones, together with the release of energy], CO2 diffuses into blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms HCO3 and H+-.
• At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
• Thus, CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to the alveoli is released out as CO2. Every 100 ml of
deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
Regulation of Respiration
• Human beings have a significant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory rhythm to suit the demands of the body tissues. This
is done by the neural system.
• A specialised centre present in the medulla region of the brain called respiratory rhythm centre is primarily responsible for this
regulation.
• Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the respiratory
rhythm centre. Neural signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter the respiratory rate.
• A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is highly sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen ions. Increase in these
substances can activate this centre, which in turn can signal the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments in the respiratory
process by which these substances can be eliminated.
 Neural System
The human neural system is divided into two parts :
1 the central neural system (CNS)
2 the peripheral neural system (PNS)
• The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of information processing and control.
• The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS (brain and spinal cord).
Peripheral Neural System (PNS)
The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types:
1 afferent fibres → tissues/organs to brain.
2 efferent fibres → brain to tissues/organs.
• The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from
the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
• The PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system and autonomic neural system.
• The somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while the autonomic neural system transmits impulses
from the CNS to the involuntary organs and smooth muscles of the body.
1 Somatic Neural System → Brain to Voluntary muscles.
2 Autonomic Neural System → Brain to Involuntary muscles.
• The autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic neural system and parasympathetic neural system.
Central Neural System (CNS)
• The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the ‘command and control system’.
• It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.),
thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of several endocrine glands and human
behavior.
• It is also the site for processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts.
• The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer
called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer (which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia
mater.

Forebrain
• The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
• Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain. A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves, which are
termed as the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
• The hemispheres are connected by a tract of nerve fibres called corpus callosum.
• The layer of cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is called cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey
matter due to its greyish appearance. The neuron cell bodies are concentrated here giving the colour.
• The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas and large regions that are neither clearly sensory nor motor in function.
These regions called as the association areas are responsible for complex functions like intersensory associations, memory and
communication.
• Fibres of the tracts are covered with the myelin sheath, which constitute the inner part of cerebral hemisphere. They give an
opaque white appearance to the layer and, hence, is called the white matter.
• The cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is a major coordinating centre for sensory and motor signaling.
• Another very important part of the brain called hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus. The hypothalamus contains a number
of centres which control body temperature, urge for eating and drinking. It also contains several groups of neurosecretory cells,
which secrete hormones called hypothalamic hormones.
• The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a group of associated deep structures like amygdala, hippocampus, etc., form a
complex structure called the limbic lobe or limbic system. Along with the hypothalamus, it is involved in the regulation of sexual
behaviour, expression of emotional reactions (e.g., excitement, pleasure, rage and fear), and motivation.
Midbrain
• The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain. A canal called the cerebral
aqueduct passess through the midbrain.
• The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists mainly of four round swellings (lobes) called corpora quadrigemina. Midbrain and
hindbrain form the brain stem.
Hindbrain
• The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the medulla oblongata).
• Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
• Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in order to provide the additional space for many more neurons.
• The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord. The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular
reflexes and gastric secretions.

Happy Learning!